Ravipresentation 1 1

Random graph, Scale-free graph and
Small-world graph
Ravi Kumar(19MA4505)
Under the Supervision of
Dr.Pinaki Pal
Department of Mathematics
National Institute of Technology Durgapur,
West Bengal-713209,India
Ravi Kumar (NIT-Durgapur) Random,Scale-free and Small-world graphs May 24, 2021 1 / 15
Introduction to graph
Definition
A graph is an abstract representation of a set of objects
connected through links. The objects are denoted by the set V
of vertices (also called nodes) and their connections denoted by
the set E of edges (also called links).
Average path length: It is defined as the average number of

steps along the shortest paths for all possible pairs of
network nodes.
Clustering coefficient: :In graph theory, a clustering
coefficient is a measure of the degree to which nodes in a
graph tend to cluster together.
Degree distribution: The degree distribution P(k) of a
network is then defined to be the fraction of nodes in the
network with degree
Random Graph
Given a positive integer n and a probability value p ∈ [0, 1], the

G(n, p ) random graph!is an undirected graph on n vertices such
n
that each of the edges is present in the graph indepen-
2
dently with probability p. When p = 0, G(n, 0) is an empty graph
on n vertices, and when p = 1, G(n, 1) is the fully connected
graph on n vertices ( denoted Kn ) . Often, we think of p = p (n)
as depending on n, and we are usually interested in the behav-
ior of the random graph model as n → ∞. A bit more formally,
G(n, p ) defines a distribution over the set of undirected graphs
on n vertices. If G ∼ G(n, p ), meaning that G is a random graph
with the G(n, p ) distribution, then for every fixed graph 
G0 on n
 n 
 −m
2 
 
m
vertices with m. edges, P (G = G0 ) := p (1 − p ) .
properties
Theorem:(Erdös-Rényi, 1961). Let

ln n
p (n) := λ
n
for a constant λ > 0. If λ < 1, then P{G(n, p (n)) is connected
} → 0. If λ > 1, then P{G(n, p (n)) is connected } → 1.
Small-World Graph
A small-world network is a type of mathematical graph in which

most nodes are not neighbors of one another, but the neighbors
of any given node are likely to be neighbors of each other and
most nodes can be reached from every other node by a small
number of hops or steps. Specifically, a small-world network is
defined to be a network where the typical distance L between two
randomly chosen nodes (the number of steps required) grows
proportionally to the logarithm of the number of nodes N in the
network, that is:
L ∝ log N
while the clustering coefficient is not small.
Algorithm
The small-world model has been actively applied to the commu-

nications networks research due to resulting network topology
with features such as smaller average transmission delay and
more robust network connectivity. The small-world network is
constructed by randomly rewiring the edges of a ring lattice with
N nodes. The foll lowing procedure describes the basic steps
of the small-world network construction. By varying the rewiring
probability p. one can analyze the transition of the network from
a lattice structure to a random structure with 0 ≤ p ≤ 1.
Step 1. Start with a ring of N nodes.
Step 2. Connect K nearest nodes for all the nodes i = 1 · · · N.
Step 3. Reconnect the edges to a randomly chosen node with
probability p.
Step 4. Repeat Step 3 for all NK /2 edges in the ring network.
Small-World Graph System model
Figure: Small-world network system model.
Scale-free graph
A scale-free network is a network whose degree distribution fol-

lows a power law, at least asymptotically. That is, the fraction
P(k) of nodes in the network having k connections to other nodes
goes for large values of k as P (k ) ∼ k −γ where γ is a param-
eter whose value is typically in the range 2 < γ < 3 (wherein
the second moment i(scale parameter) k −γ is infinite but the first
moment is finite), although occasionally it may lie outside these
bounds.
Algorithm
The algorithm shows the steps towards construction of a scale-

free network.
Step 1. Start with a small number m0 nodes with degree K .
Step 2. Introduce a new node into the network.
Step 3. Connect the new node to m existing nodes based on
maximum degree probability shown as follows:
ki
Π (ki ) = P
j kj
where Π (ki ) is the probability of selecting node i , ki is the degree

P
of node i, and j kj is the total number of edges in the current
network.
Step 4. Repeat Steps 2 and 3, until a network with N = t + m0
nodes and mt edges has been constructed.
Scale-free graph System model
Figure: Scale-free network system model.
Applications...
Application to earth science

Many networks studied in geology and geophysics have been
shown to have characteristics of small-world networks.
Networks defined in fracture systems and porous substances
have demonstrated these characteristics. The seismic network
in the Southern California region may be a small-world network.
The examples above occur on very different spatial scales,
demonstrating the scale invariance of the phenomenon in the
earth sciences. Climate networks may be regarded as small
world networks where the links are of different length scales.
Applications...
Small-world neural networks in the brain

In neural networks, short path length between nodes and high
clustering at network hubs supports efficient communication
between brain regions at the lowest energetic cost. The brain is
constantly processing and adapting to new information and
small-world network model supports the intense communication
demands of neural networks.
In addition to characterizing whole-brain functional and
structural connectivity, specific neural systems, such as the
visual system, exhibit small-world network properties.
A small-world network of neurons can exhibit short-term
memory.
Conclusion
From a mathematical perspective random graphs are used to an-

swer questions about the properties of typical graphs. Its prac-
tical applications are found in all areas in which complex net-
works need to be modeled- many random graph models are thus
known, mirroring the diverse types of complex networks encoun-
tered in different areas. The proposed system models were eval-
uated based on various complex network metrics. The simulation
results show that one can confirm the small-world characteristics
showing highly clustered behavior and small average path length
based on the proposed system architecture. Furthermore, the
degree distribution generated by the proposed system model fol-
lowed the power-law distribution for all different values of m0 and
m proving that the generated network evolves into a scale-free
network
Future Scopes
Based on the study carried out there are a lot of critical areas,
such as the fractal geometry, optimization problem, spectral graph
theory where use of network theory has led to a reincarnation of
the concepts and understanding, which demand to be reviewed
individually. In the longer run, network theory is expected to be-
come essential to all branches of science as we struggle to in-
terpret the data pouring in from neurobiology, genomics, ecology,
finance and the World- Wide Web, to name a few.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Daron Acemoglu and Asu Ozdaglar. Erdös-Rényi graphs and branching
processes. url: http://economics.mit.edu/files/4621.
Béla Bollobás. Random graphs. Second. Vol. 73. Cambridge Studies in
Advanced Mathematics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001,
A. Meddeb, “Internet of things standards: who stands out from the crowd?” IEEE
Communications Magazine, vol. 54, no. 7, pp. 40–47, 2016.
V. P. Kafle, Y. Fukushima, and H. Harai, “Internet of things standardization in ITU
and prospective networking technologies,” IEEE Communications Magazine, vol.
54, no. 9, pp. 43–49, 2016.
M. E. Newman, Networks: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK,
2010
Watts DJ, Strogatz SH (June 1998). ”Collective dynamics of ’small-world’
networks”. Nature. 393 (6684): 440–2. Bibcode:1998Natur.393..440W .
doi:10.1038/30918 . PMID 9623998 . S2CID 4429113 .
Kundu S, Chattopadhyay S (2014). Network on-chip: the Next Generation of
System-on Chip Integration (1st ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN
9781466565272. OCLC 895661009 .
Barthelemy M, Amaral LA (1999). ”Small world networks: Evidence for a
crossover picture”. Physical Review Letters. 82 (15): 3180–3183.
arXiv:cond-mat/9903108 . Bibcode:1999PhRvL..82.3180B .
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.82.3180 . S2CID 119398712 .

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Random graph, Scale-free graph and

Average path length: It is defined as the average number of

Given a positive integer n and a probability value p ∈ [0, 1], the

Theorem:(Erd¨os-R´enyi, 1961). Let

A small-world network is a type of mathematical graph in which

while the clustering coefficient is not small.

The small-world model has been actively applied to the commu-

Figure: Small-world network system model.

A scale-free network is a network whose degree distribution fol-

The algorithm shows the steps towards construction of a scale-

where Π (ki ) is the probability of selecting node i , ki is the degree

Figure: Scale-free network system model.

Application to earth science

Small-world neural networks in the brain

From a mathematical perspective random graphs are used to an-

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