Vectors 1

Chapter

0
Vectors
Introduction of Vector (6) Unit vector : A vector divided by its magnitude is a unit vector.
Unit vector for A is Aˆ (read as A cap or A hat).
Physical quantities having magnitude, direction and obeying
laws of vector algebra are called vectors.
ˆ  A  A AA
Since, A ˆ .
Example : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, A
force, impulse, weight, thrust, torque, angular momentum, angular
Thus, we can say that unit vector gives us the direction.
velocity etc.
If a physical quantity has magnitude and direction both, then it (7) Orthogonal unit vectors ˆi , ˆj
y
does not always imply that it is a vector. For it to be a vector the third and kˆ are called orthogonal unit vectors.
condition of obeying laws of vector algebra has to be satisfied. These vectors must form a Right Handed ˆj
Example : The physical quantity current has both magnitude Triad (It is a coordinate system such that
and direction but is still a scalar as it disobeys the laws of vector when we Curl the fingers of right hand k̂
x
algebra. from x to y then we must get the direction î
of z along thumb). The z
Types of Vector Fig. 0.1

(1) Equal vectors : Two vectors A and B are said to be equal when ˆi  x , ˆj  y , kˆ  z
they have equal magnitudes and same direction. x y z

(2) Parallel vector : Two vectors A and B are said to be  x  xˆi , y  yˆj , z  zkˆ
parallel when (8) Polar vectors : These have starting point or point of
(i) Both have same direction. application . Example displacement and force etc.
(ii) One vector is scalar (positive) non-zero multiple of another (9) Axial Vectors : These represent rotational effects and are
vector. always along the axis of rotation in accordance with right hand screw
rule. Angular velocity, torque and angular momentum, etc., are
(3) Anti-parallel vectors : Two vectors A and B are said to example of physical quantities of this type.
be anti-parallel when Axial vector Axis of rotation
(i) Both have opposite direction.
(ii) One vector is scalar non-zero negative multiple of another
vector.
(4) Collinear vectors : When the vectors under consideration Anticlock wise rotation Clock wise rotation
can share the same support or have a common support then the
Axis of rotation Axial vector
considered vectors are collinear.
Fig. 0.2
(5) Zero vector (0 ) : A vector having zero magnitude and (10) Coplanar vector : Three (or more) vectors are called
arbitrary direction (not known to us) is a zero vector. coplanar vector if they lie in the same plane. Two (free) vectors are
always coplanar.
 2 Vectors
Triangle Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors B C

If two non zero vectors are represented by the two sides of a

R  AB
triangle taken in same order B B B sin
then the resultant is given by
B
the closing side of triangle in R  AB 
 
opposite order. i.e. R  A  B B O A N
A
 OB  OA  AB O A B cos
A Fig. 0.5
Fig. 0.3
Special cases : R  A  B when  = 0o
(1) Magnitude of resultant vector
R  A  B when  = 180o
AN
In  ABN , cos    AN  B cos 
B R  A 2  B 2 when  = 90o
BN (2) Direction
sin    BN  B sin
B CN B sin 
tan   
In OBN , we have OB  ON  BN 2 2 2 ON A  B cos 
B
Polygon Law of Vector Addition
R
B sin
If a number of non zero vectors are represented by the (n –
B
1) sides of an n-sided polygon then the resultant is given by the closing
 
side or the nth side of the polygon taken in opposite order. So,
O A A N
B cos R  A BC  D E
Fig. 0.4
 R 2  ( A  B cos  )2  (B sin  )2 OA  AB  BC  CD  DE  OE

D C
 R 2  A 2  B 2 cos 2   2 AB cos   B 2 sin 2  D

 R 2  A 2  B 2 (cos 2   sin 2  )  2 AB cos  C

E
 R  A  B  2 AB cos 
2 2 2

E B
 R A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 

(2) Direction of resultant vectors : If  is angle between A R B

and B, then O A
A
| A  B|  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
Note Fig. 0.6
:  Resultant of two unequal vectors can not be
If R makes an angle  with A , then in OBN , zero.

BN BN  Resultant of three co-planar vectors may or may not

tan    be zero
ON OA  AN
B sin  Resultant of three non co- planar vectors can not be
tan   zero.
A  B cos 

Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition Subtraction of vectors

If two non zero vectors are represented by the two adjacent
sides of a parallelogram then the resultant is given by the diagonal of Since, A  B  A  ( B) and
the parallelogram passing through the point of intersection of the two
vectors. | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 

(1) Magnitude
 | A  B|  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos (180 o   )
Since, R  ON  CN
2 2 2

Since, cos (180   )   cos 

 R 2  (OA  AN )2  CN 2

 R 2  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos   | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 

 R | R | | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos  R su m  A  B

 1
2 A
180 – 
B
 Vectors 3

If R makes an angle  with x axis,  with y axis and  with z

B sin  axis, then
tan  1 
A  B cos 
Rx Rx
 cos    l
B sin (180   ) R R x2  R y2  R z2
and tan  2 
A  B cos (180   )
Ry Ry
But sin(180   )  sin  and cos(180   )   cos   cos    m
R R x2  R y2  R z2
B sin 
 tan  2 
A  B cos  Rz Rz
 cos    n
R R x2  Ry2  R z2
Resolution of Vector Into Components
Consider a vector R in X-Y plane Where l, m, n are called Direction Cosines of the vector R and
Y
as shown in fig. If we draw orthogonal
R x2  R y2  R z2
vectors R x and R y along x and y axes l 2  m 2  n 2  cos 2   cos 2   cos 2   1
R x2  R y2  R z2
respectively, by law of vector addition, Ry R

R  Rx  R y 
X
Note : When a point P have coordinate (x, y, z)

then its position vector OP  xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ

Rx
Now as for any vector A  A nˆ so, Fig. 0.8

R x  ˆi R x and R y  ˆjR y  When a particle moves from point (x1, y1, z1) to (x2,
y2, z2) then its displacement vector
so R  ˆi R x  ˆjR y …(i) 
r  (x 2  x 1 )ˆi  (y 2  y1 )ˆj  (z 2  z1 )kˆ
But from figure R x  R cos  …(ii)
Scalar Product of Two Vectors
and R y  R sin …(iii) (1) Definition : The scalar product (or dot product) of two
vectors is defined as the product of the magnitude of two vectors with
Since R and  are usually known, Equation (ii) and (iii) give the
cosine of angle between them.
magnitude of the components of R along x and y-axes respectively.
Thus if there are two vectors A and B having angle 
Here it is worthy to note once a vector is resolved into its
components, the components themselves can be used to specify the between them, then their scalar product written as A . B is defined as
vector as
A . B  AB cos 
(1) The magnitude of the vector R is obtained by squaring and
(2) Properties : (i) It is always a scalar B
adding equation (ii) and (iii), i.e.
which is positive if angle between the vectors
is acute (i.e., < 90°) and negative if angle 
R  R x2  Ry2
between them is obtuse (i.e. 90°< < 180°).
(2) The direction of the vector R is obtained by dividing (ii) It is commutative, i.e. A . B  B . A A
equation (iii) by (ii), i.e.
Fig. 0.10
(iii) It is distributive, i.e.
tan   (R y / R x ) or   tan 1 (Ry / R x )
A . (B  C)  A . B  A . C
Rectangular Components of 3-D Vector
(iv) As by definition A . B  AB cos 
R  R x  R y  R z q or R  R x ˆi  R y ˆj  R z kˆ
Y

Ry R
Rx

Rz
X
 4 Vectors
 A.B  (iv) Potential energy of a dipole U : If an electric dipole of
The angle between the vectors   cos 1  
 AB  moment p is situated in an electric field E or a magnetic dipole of
moment M in a field of induction B, the potential energy of the
(v) Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when
dipole is given by :
cos   max  1, i.e.   0 o , i.e., vectors are parallel
U E   p . E and UB  M . B
( A . B)max  AB
Vector Product of Two Vectors
(vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be minimum when
(1) Definition : The vector product or cross product of two
| cos  |  min  0, i.e.   90 o
vectors is defined as a vector having a magnitude equal to the product
of the magnitudes of two vectors with the sine of angle between them,
( A . B)min  0
and direction perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors in
i.e. if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors vanishes the accordance with right hand screw rule.
vectors are orthogonal.
C  AB
(vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is termed as self
dot product and is given by ( A)2  A . A  AA cos   A 2 Thus, if A and B are two vectors, then their vector product
written as A  B is a vector C defined by
i.e. A  A . A
C  A  B  AB sin  nˆ
(viii) In case of unit vector n̂

nˆ . nˆ  1  1  cos 0  1 so nˆ . nˆ  ˆi .ˆi  ˆj . ˆj  kˆ . kˆ  1

(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors ˆi , ˆj and kˆ ,

ˆi . ˆj  ˆj . kˆ  kˆ . ˆi  1  1 cos 90   0

(x) In terms of components

Fig. 0.12
A . B  (iAx  jAy  k Az ). (iBx  jBy  k Bz )  [ Ax Bx  Ay By  AZ Bz ]

(3) Example : (i) Work W : In physics for constant force work The direction of A  B, i.e. C is perpendicular to the plane
is defined as, W  Fs cos  …(i)
containing vectors A and B and in the sense of advance of a right
But by definition of scalar product of two vectors,
handed screw rotated from A (first vector) to B (second vector)
F. s  Fs cos  …(ii) through the smaller angle between them. Thus, if a right handed screw

So from eqn (i) and (ii) W  F.s i.e. work is the scalar product whose axis is perpendicular to the plane framed by A and B is
of force with displacement. rotated from A to B through the smaller angle between them, then
(ii) Power P : the direction of advancement of the screw gives the direction of
A  B i.e. C
dW ds
As W  F . s or  F. [As F is constant] (2) Properties
dt dt
(i) Vector product of any two vectors is always a vector
or P  F . v i.e., power is the scalar product of force with
perpendicular to the plane containing these two vectors, i.e.,
 dW ds 
velocity.  As  P and  v orthogonal to both the vectors A and B, though the vectors A and

 dt dt  ds 
B
B may or may not be orthogonal.
(iii) Magnetic Flux  : (ii) Vector product of two vectors is not commutative, i.e.,
Magnetic flux through an area  A  B  B  A [but   B  A]
is given by d  B ds cos  …(i)
Here it is worthy to note that
O
But by definition of scalar
| A  B | | B  A |  AB sin 
product B . d s  Bds cos  ...(ii)
Fig. 0.11
So from eqn (i) and (ii) we have i.e. in case of vector A  B and B  A magnitudes are equal
but directions are opposite.
d  B . d s or    B.ds (iii) The vector product is distributive when the order of the
vectors is strictly maintained, i.e.
 Vectors 5

A  (B  C )  A  B  A  C (iv) Force on a charged particle q moving with velocity v in a

(iv) The vector product of two vectors will be maximum when magnetic field B is given by F  q(v  B)
sin   max  1, i.e.,   90 o
(v) Torque on a dipole in a field  E  p  E and  B  M  B
[ A  B]max  AB nˆ Lami's Theorem
i.e. vector product is maximum if the vectors are orthogonal.
In any  A B C with sides a, b, c
(v) The vector product of two non- zero vectors will be minimum
sin  sin  sin 
when | sin |  minimum = 0, i.e.,   0 o or 180 o  
a b c
[ A  B]min  0 180 – 

i.e. if the vector product of two non-zero vectors vanishes, the 

vectors are collinear.
c b
(vi) The self cross product, i.e., product of a vector by itself
vanishes, i.e., is null vector A  A  AA sin 0 o nˆ  0   180 – 

(vii) In case of unit vector nˆ  nˆ  0 so that 180 –  a

ˆi  ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0
Fig. 0.14
i.e. for any triangle the ratio of the sine of the angle containing
(viii) In case of orthogonal unit vectors, ˆi, ˆj, kˆ in accordance the side to the length of the side is a constant.
with right hand screw rule : For a triangle whose three sides are in the same order we
establish the Lami's theorem in the following manner. For the triangle
ˆj ˆj
shown

a  b  c  0 [All three sides are taken in order] …(i)

k̂
î î  a  b  c …(ii)

Pre-multiplying both sides by a

k̂
Fig. 0.13 a  (a  b)  a  c  0  a  b  a  c
ˆi  ˆj  kˆ , ˆj  kˆ  ˆi and kˆ  ˆi  ˆj
 ab  ca …(iii)
And as cross product is not commutative,
Pre-multiplying both sides of (ii) by b
ˆj  ˆi  kˆ , kˆ  ˆj  ˆi and ˆi  kˆ  ˆj
b  (a  b)   b  c  b  a  b  b  b  c
(x) In terms of components

ˆi ˆj kˆ   a  b  b  c  a  b  b  c …(iv)
A  B  Ax Ay Az
From (iii) and (iv), we get a  b  b  c  c  a
Bx By Bz
Taking magnitude, we get | a  b | | b  c | | c  a|
 ˆi ( Ay Bz  Az By )  ˆj( A z B x  A x B z )  kˆ ( A x B y  A y B x )
 ab sin(180   )  bc sin(180  )  ca sin(180   )
(3) Example : Since vector product of two vectors is a vector,
vector physical quantities (particularly representing rotational effects)  ab sin   bc sin   ca sin 
like torque, angular momentum, velocity and force on a moving charge
Dividing through out by abc, we have
in a magnetic field and can be expressed as the vector product of two
vectors. It is well – established in physics that : sin  sin  sin 
  
a b c
(i) Torque   r  F
Relative Velocity
(ii) Angular momentum L  r  p
(1) Introduction : When we consider the motion of a particle,
(iii) Velocity v    r we assume a fixed point relative to which the given particle is in
motion. For example, if we say that water is flowing or wind is
 6 Vectors
blowing or a person is running with a speed v, we mean that these all 
with v e relative to the centre of earth, the velocity of satellite relative
are relative to the earth (which we have assumed to be fixed).
to the surface of earth
Y
Y P   
vse  v s  v e
r
r
PS ' So if the satellite moves form west to east (in the direction of
PS
rotation of earth on its axis) its velocity relative to earth's surface will
X
S be v se  v s  ve
rS ' S
S X
And if the satellite moves from east to west, i.e., opposite to the
Fig. 0.15
motion of earth, vse  vs  (ve )  vs  ve
Now to find the velocity of a moving object relative to another
moving object, consider a particle P whose position relative to frame S (4) Relative velocity of rain : If rain is falling vertically with a
  

is rPS while relative to S  is rPS  . velocity v R and an observer is moving horizontally with speed v M
   
If the position of frames S  relative to S at any time is r S S the velocity of rain relative to observer will be v RM  v R  v M
  
then from figure, rPS  rPS   rS S which by law of vector addition has magnitude
Differentiating this equation with respect to time
v RM  v R2  v M
2
  
drPS drPS  drS S
  direction   tan 1 (v M / v R ) with the vertical as shown in fig.
dt dt dt
    
or v PS  v PS   v S S [as v  d r /dt ]
  
 – vM 
or v PS   v PS  v S S vR
vR
  vR 
(2) General Formula : The relative velocity of a particle P1 vM
vM

moving with velocity v1 with respect to another particle P2 moving
   
with velocity v 2 is given by, v r12 = v1 – v 2 Fig. 0.17

(5) Relative velocity of swimmer : If a man can swim relative

v1

v2 to water with velocity v and water is flowing relative to ground with
 
P2 velocity v R velocity of man relative to ground v M will be given by:

Fig. 0.16 P1      
v  v M  v R , i.e., v M  v  v R
(i) If both the particles are moving in the same direction then :
r12  1 –  2 So if the swimming is in the direction of flow of water,
vM  v  vR
(ii) If the two particles are moving in the opposite direction,
then : And if the swimming is opposite to the flow of water,
r12  1   2 vM  v  vR
(iii) If the two particles are moving in the mutually (6) Crossing the river : Suppose, the river is flowing with
perpendicular directions, then:  
velocity  r . A man can swim in still water with velocity  m . He is
r12  12  22 standing on one bank of the river and wants to cross the river, two
cases arise.
 
(iv) If the angle between 1 and 2 be , then (i) To cross the river over shortest distance : That is to cross the
 r12  
12   22 – 21 2 cos   1/2
.
river straight, the man should swim making angle  with the upstream
as shown.

(3) Relative velocity of satellite : If a satellite is moving in A vr B

equatorial plane with velocity vs and a point on the surface of earth 

 
vr
w  v
vm


Upstream O Downstream
Fig. 0.18
 Vectors 7

 A vector can have any number, even infinite components.

(minimum 2 components)
 Following quantities are neither vectors nor scalars : Relative
density, density, viscosity, frequency, pressure, stress, strain,
modulus of elasticity, poisson’s ratio, moment of inertia, specific
heat, latent heat, spring constant loudness, resistance, conductance,
Here OAB is the triangle of vectors, in which reactance, impedance, permittivity, dielectric constant,
      permeability, susceptibility, refractive index, focal length, power of
OA  vm , AB  r . Their resultant is given by OB   . The direction lens, Boltzman constant, Stefan’s constant, Gas constant,
of swimming makes angle  with upstream. From the triangle OBA, Gravitational constant, Rydberg constant, Planck’s constant etc.
we find,  Distance covered is a scalar quantity.
r   The displacement is a vector quantity.
cos   Also sin   r
m m
 Scalars are added, subtracted or divided algebraically.
Where  is the angle made by the direction of swimming with  Vectors are added and subtracted geometrically.
the shortest distance (OB) across the river.
 Division of vectors is not allowed as directions cannot be
Time taken to cross the river : If w be the width of the river, divided.
then time taken to cross the river will be given by
 Unit vector gives the direction of vector.
t1 
w

w  Magnitude of unit vector is 1.
  m2 –  r2
 Unit vector has no unit. For example, velocity of an object is 5
ms–1 due East.
(ii) To cross the river in shortest possible time : The man should

swim perpendicular to the bank. i.e. v  5 ms 1 due east.

The time taken to cross the river will be: v 5ms 1 (East)
vˆ     East
w | v| 5ms 1
t2 
m So unit vector v̂ has no unit as East is not a physical quantity.

A vr B  Unit vector has no dimensions.
 ˆi .ˆi  ˆj . ˆj  kˆ . kˆ  1
  
w vm
vr  ˆi  ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0
 ˆi  ˆj  kˆ , ˆj  kˆ  ˆi, kˆ  ˆi  ˆj
Upstream O Downstream  ˆi . ˆj  ˆj . kˆ  kˆ . ˆi  0
Fig. 0.19          
In this case, the man will touch the opposite bank at a distance  A  A  0 . Also A  A  0 But A  A  A  A
AB down stream. This distance will be given by:      
Because A  A  A and A  A is collinear with A
w r
AB  r t 2 r or AB  w  Multiplication of a vector with –1 reverses its direction.
m m  
If A  B , then A = B and Aˆ B ˆ .
  
ˆ  B
If A  B  0 , then A = B but A ˆ .

 Minimum number of collinear vectors whose resultant can be

zero is two.
 Minimum number of coplaner vectors whose resultant is zero
 All physical quantities having direction are not vectors. For is three.
example, the electric current possesses direction but it is a scalar  Minimum number of non coplaner vectors whose resultant is
quantity because it can not be added or multiplied according to the zero is four.
rules of vector algebra.  
 A vector can have only two rectangular components in plane  Two vectors are perpendicular to each other if A.B  0 .
 
and only three rectangular components in space.  Two vectors are parallel to each other if A  B  0.
 8 Vectors

 Displacement, velocity, linear momentum and force are polar minimum number of vectors of unequal magnitude whose resultant
vectors. can be zero is three. On the other hand, the minimum number of
vectors of equal magnitude whose resultant can be zero is two.
 Angular velocity, angular acceleration, torque and angular  
 Angle between two vectors A and B is given by
momentum are axial vectors.  
A.B
 Division with a vector is not defined because it is not possible cos    
| A| | B|
to divide with a direction.  
 Distance covered is always positive quantity.  Projection of a vector A in the direction of vector B
 
A.B
 The components of a vectors can have magnitude than that of  
| B|
the vector itself. 

 The rectangular components cannot have magnitude greater  Projection of a vector B in the direction of vector A
 
than that of the vector itself. A.B
 
 When we multiply a vector with 0 the product becomes a null | A|
  
vector.  If vectors A, B and C are represented by three sides ab, bc
 The resultant of two vectors of unequal magnitude can never and ca respectively taken in a order, then
  
be a null vector. | A| | B| | C|
 
 Three vectors not lying in a plane can never add up to give a ab bc ca
null vector.
 The vectors ˆi  ˆj  kˆ is equally inclined to the coordinate axes
 A quantity having magnitude and direction is not necessarily a at an angle of 54.74 degrees.
vector. For example, time and electric current. These quantities      
 If A  B  C , then A . B  C  0 .
have magnitude and direction but they are scalar. This is because      
they do not obey the laws of vector addition.  If A . B  C  0 , then A . B and C are coplanar.
 
 A physical quantity which has different values in different  If angle between A and B is 45°,
directions is called a tensor. For example : Moment of inertia has    
then A . B | A  B |
different values in different directions. Hence moment of inertia is a     
tensor. Other examples of tensor are refractive index, stress, strain,  If A1  A2  A3  ......  An  0 and A1  A2  A3  ......  An
density etc. then the adjacent vector are inclined to each other at angle 2 / n .
   
 The magnitude of rectangular components of a vector is  If A  B  C and A 2  B 2  C 2 , then the angle between A
always less than the magnitude of the vector 
and B is 90°. Also A, B and C can have the following values.
 
 If A  B , then Ax  Bx , Ay  By and Az  Bz . (i) A = 3, B = 4, C = 5
(ii) A = 5, B = 12, C = 13
         
 If A  B  C . Or if A  B  C  0 , then A, B and C lie in (iii) A = 8, B = 15, C = 17.
one plane.
     
 If A  B  C , then C is perpendicular to A as well as B .
     
 If | A  B | | A  B | , then angle between A and B is 90°.
 Resultant of two vectors will be maximum when  = 0° i.e.
vectors are parallel.
Rmax  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos 0  | P  Q |
 Resultant of two vectors will be minimum when  = 180° i.e.
vectors are anti-parallel.
Rmin  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos 180  | P  Q |
Thus, minimum value of the resultant of two vectors is equal to the
difference of their magnitude.
 Thus, maximum value of the resultant of two vectors is equal
to the sum of their magnitude.
When the magnitudes of two vectors are unequal, then
 
Rmin  P  Q  0 [| P | | Q |]
 
Thus, two vectors P and Q having different magnitudes can never
be combined to give zero resultant. From here, we conclude that the