FACULTY OFBI

OMEDI
CAL & ALLI
EDHEALTHSCI
ENCES(
FBAHS)

DEPARTMENTOFBI
OMEDI
CALENGI
NEERI
NG

MEDI
CALFI
BEROPTI
CS(
BME323)
FOR
SEMESTERVI
II(
REG)&XI
I(WKND)
OFFI
CIALEMAI
L:
s
tas
suma
ng@a
nuc
.edu.
gh

NOTETOSTUDENT:Makeev eryeff
orttoreadbeyondthesenotesasan
under
graduat
e.Oneoft herecentadv ancesinBi
omedicalEngineeri
ngi
s
Medicalf
iberopt
ics.I
nf uture,
youcanspeciali
seinthiscourse.

ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
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om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-1-
I
NTRODUCTI
ON
Opt i
cshavea f
fect
edhumanlivesbyc hangingtheprac
ticeofme dic
ine
andof fe
ringne wa ppr
oache
st oma jorhe alt
hpr obl
ems ,sucha sthe
treat
mentofhe artdi
sea
se,ca
nc e
r,ki
dne ys t
ones,kneeinjur
ies,ande ye
diseas
es.Theus eofopt i
csandf i
beropt i
csha veledt olessinva s
ive
wa ysoft re
atingdisea
sebyr e
plac
ingope ns ur
gerywi thmi nima l
ly
invasi
vetherapie
s.
Opti
cshavee na
ble
dl as
ersurgery,opt
ica
ldi
agnos
ti
cte
chni
que
s,a
nd
vi
sual
iza
tionoft
hebody'
sint
erior
.
Lightpos s
ess
e sener
gyandi scapableofinte
rac
tingwit
hbiol
ogicalcel
ls
,
tis
sues,andor gans
.Suchi nte
racti
onc anbeus edtoprobethes t
ateof
suchlivingma tt
erfordi
agnosti
csa ndanalyt
ica
lpurpose
sor,itcoul
dbe
usedtoi nducechangesonthes amel i
vingsyst
emsa ndbeexploit
edfor
ther
ape ut
icpurposes
.
The sc i
ence ofli
ghtgene
rati
on,ma ni
pul
ati
on,trans
missi
on,and
me asur
e mentisknown asphot
oni
cs .Theappli
cat
ion ofphot
oni
cs
technol
o gi
esandpri
nci
ple
stome di
cineandli
fesci
encesisknownas
biophotonic
s.
Fiberopt ica ndphot onicdevicesa r
ebe ingexploit
edasse nsingdevices
forpa t
ientmoni tor ingdur i
ngme dicalima gi
nga ndt r
e atmentus ing
radia
tionde vicess uc hasMRI ,CT,a ndPETt ypescans yst
emst hat
involvet heus eofhi gh-i
ntensi
tye l
ectromagneti
cfiel
ds,ra
di ofre
quencies
,
ormi crowa ves igna ls.Becauset hepa t
ient’
sriskofa ne lectr
icshoc k
conve ntionale le
c t
roni cmo nit
oringde vicesandinstr
ume ntati
onc annot
beus e di nthes ea ppl i
cat
ions.Instead,pati
entmonitori
ngi spe rf
orme d
usingopt i
calfibers ensors.

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res
ponde
nce:sta
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-2-
Hi
st
oryofOpt
icsi
nMe
dic
ine
Ma nkindhasal
wa ysbeenf as
cina
tedwi t
hlightandthemi ra
cleofvisi
on,
datingbacktothefir
stcenturywhent heRoma nswe reinvest
igat
ingthe
useofgl a
ssandhowvi ewingobjectst
hroughi t
,ma detheobject
sappear
la
rge r
.Howe ver,mos toft hesignif
icantdevelopmentsofopt icsfor
me dicaldia
gnosisa nd thera
py star
ted occurri
ng int heni net
eenth
century.
Be forethat,t heva stma jorit
yoft heknownpubl ishe dwor ksono ptics
andme dicinede al
tmos tlywitht hea natomya ndphys i
ologyo ft he
huma ne ye.Fori nsta
nc e,theGreeka natomist,Cl a udi usGa len(130–201)
provide dea rlya na t
omi caldescr
ipt
ionso fthes truc tur eofthehuma ne ye,
desc r
ibingt her e t
ina,iris,cor
nea,tearduc t
s,a ndot he rstruct
uresa swe l
l
asde finingf ort hef i
rsttimethetwoe yef l
uids:thevi tr
eousa nda queous
humor s .Subs e quently,Ar abs cholars Ya qub i bn I shaqa l
-Kindi
(801–873)a ndAbuZa ydHuna yni bnIs haqa lI
ba di( 808–873)pr ovide d
amor ec ompr ehe ns
ives tudyofthee yei ntheni nthc enturyinthe i
rTe n
Trea t
isesont heEyea ndt heBookoft heQue stionsoft heEye.I nt he
eleventhc ent uryAbuAl ia l
-Ha s
ani bna l-
Ha ytha m( 965–1040) .Hea lso
provide dde sc r
iptionsoft hee ye
’sana t
omyi nhi sBookofOpt i
cs.

TheEngl i
shphilos
opherRobe r
tBa c
on(1214–1294)desc
ribe
di n1268
inhisOpusMa justhemechanic
sofaglassinst
rumentpl
acedinfrontof
hise ye
s .Then,inthethir
tee
nthcentur
y,SalvinoD’Armatefr
om I t
aly
ma det hef i
rsteyegl a
ss,provi
dingthewe a
r e
rwithane lementof
ma gnif
icati
ontoonee ye.
Wit
ht headventoft
heopti
calt
ele
scopeopt
ic
st ookas i
gnif
ica
ntste
p
f
orwardtowardsthedeve
lopme
ntofoneoft hef i
rstear
lyme di
cal
i
nst
ruments
;themicr
osc
ope.
ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
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om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-3-
 Thec ompoundmi cr
os c
opewa sdevel
ope
da roundthelat
e1590sby
Ha nsandZa char
iasJ
a nss
en,afat
herandsonteam ofDutchspec
tacl
e
ma ker
s,whoe xper
imentedwit
hlense
sbyplac
ingtheminseri
esins
idea
tubean ddis
coveredthattheobj
ectneart
heendoft hetubeappear
ed
great
lyenla
rged.

Opt
ica
lIns
trume
nts
Thedeve
lopmentofmoder
nopti
calmethodsi
nme
dic
inei
sint
hea
rea
ofDia
gnosti
c,the
rape
uti
candSur
gery.

 Fordi
agnos
ti
csus
e

 Opt
icsa
reus
edi
nmon
itor
ingbl
oodoxyge
nat
ion

 Us
edt
omoni
tort
is
suemobi
li
sat
ion

 Us
edi
nthede
tec
tiono
fst
oma
chma
ligna
nci
es

 Us
edi
nima
ging
 Fort
herape
uti
cusage,theappl
icat
ionoflas
erisi
ntwoa
rea
s,
name
ly:Lase
rsur
geryandphot
odynamics
urge
ry

LASERSURGERY
Thi
sisat ypeofs
urge
ryt
hatus
esal
ase
r(i
ncont
ras
ttous
ings
cal
pel)
t
ocutti
ssues.

ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
.c
om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-4-
Type
sofs
urge
rie
stha
tus
ela
ser
s
The
rea
rema
nyi
ndi
cat
orf
ort
heus
eofl
ase
rsi
nsur
ger
ies:
 Tor
emovet
umour
s
 Tohe
lppr
eve
ntbl
oodl
ossbys
eal
ings
mal
lbl
oodve
sse
ls
 Toseallymphvess
elst
ohe
lpde
cre
ases
wel
li
nga
ndpr
eve
ntt
he
l
ossoftumourc
ell
s
 Totr
eatsomeski
nc ondi
ti
ons
.Thati
s,t
or e
moveorimpr
ovewa
rts
,
t
att
oos,bir
thmar
ks,s
cars
,wri
nkl
es,s
tre
tchmar
ks,e
tc
Va
rioust
ype
sofl
ase
rus
edi
nsur
ger
iesi
ncl
udebuta
renotl
imi
tedt
o:
 Ca
rbondi
oxi
del
ase
rs
 Ar
gonl
ase
rs
 Ne
odymi
umyt
tr
ium-
alumi
numga
rne
t(Ne
:YAG)
 Pot
ass
iumt
it
anylphos
pha
te
 Rubyl
ase
rs,e
tc
Adva
ncesinlas
ersa
ndfib
eropt
ics
-makethemsui
tedt
otr
ave
lint
he
humanbodywher
enoha
ndorsca
lpelha
sgonebe
for
e.
Theya r
e usedi
nte
chn
ique
sli
ke e
ndos
copy,l
apa
ros
copy a
nd
hys
ter
osc
opy.
Among the
se opti
calins
tr
umentsar
e ot os
cope,opht
hal
mosc
ope,
r
eti
nosc
ope,la
ryngosc
ope,andevenbas
icdevi
cessuchasthehea
d
mir
ror
.

ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
.c
om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-5-
OPTI
CALPROPERTI
ESOFTI
SSUES
Thee ff
e ctsoflightons kinareduetovariousdegr
eesofAbsorpti
onand
excita
tionofphot onsofe l
ectr
omagneti
cr adi
ati
on.
Thes t
ruct
ureo ft
he
ti
ssuet hata bs
or bthephot o nareknowna sChromophotos.Theya r
e
Light-absor bingt issuesint heskin.Exampl eofthesetissuesare
hemogl obinandi tsder i
vati
ves;mel anin,water,et
c.andf ori
egn
pigment ssuchast attooingink.Butt hemai nchromophor esare
mel aninandbl oodv essel
s.

LI
GHT -TI
SSUE I
NTERACTI
ONS
I
nte
rac
tionbe
twe
enl
ighta
ndt
is
sue
sar
easf
oll
ows
:

 Abs
orpt
ion

 Sc
att
eri
ng

 Re
fle
cti
on

 Re
fra
cti
on
Theinte
rac
tionsbe
twe
enl
ighta
ndt
is
sue
sde
pendont
hef
oll
owi
ng
fa
ctor
s:
 Thec
ompos
it
ionoft
het
is
sue
 Theopt
ical
proper
ti
esoft
issues

 Li
ghtpr
opagat
iont
hrought
het
issues

ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
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om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-6-
ABSORPTI
ON
Abs or
pti
onisthee xt
rac
tionofener gyfrom lightbyamol ecular
species.Itoccurs when t he photon frequency matches t he
fr
equency associated withthe mol ecul
es' ener gy t
ransit
ion.
Electr
onsabsorbst heenergyoft hel i
ghtandt ransf
ormsi tinto
vi
br at
ional
motion.

Ele
ctronsthusi
nte
ractwithne
ighbour
inga
tomsa
ndc
onve
rtvi
bra
ti
ona
l
ener
gyi nt
other
malenergy.
Iti
sbas
edonBe er-Lambert
'sl
awwhi c
hgive
st hel
ine
arrel
ati
ons
hip
bet
wee
na bs
orba
nceandconc
entr
ati
onofana
bsorbeds
peci
es.
Di
agnos
ti
cAppl
ica
tionsofAbs
orpt
ion
 Absorpt
ionbetweentwoener
gylevel
sofamolecul
ethatare
well
-def
inedatspeci
fi
cwavel
engthscoul
dser
v easspectr
al
fi
ngerpr
intoft
hemolecul
e.

I
tis ut
ili
zedi nt umour de
tec
tion a
nd ot
her phys
iol
ogi
cal
a
sse
ssme
nts.Eg.Pul
seOXIMETRY
The
rape
uti
cAppl
ica
tionsofAbs
orpt
ion
Abs or
pti
onofener
gyisthepr
imarymecha
nis
mtha tal
lowsli
ghtfr
oma
source(las
er)to pr
oducephys
icalef
fec
tson tiss
uesfort r
eat
ment
purposes
.Forins
tance
,usedineyesur
ger
ies
,ta
ttooands c
arremoval
,
etc

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res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
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om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-7-
SCATTERI
NG
Sc
att
eri
ngi
sthechangeofdi
rec
tionofpr
opa
gat
ionofl
ighte
ner
gyby
mole
cul
ars
peci
es.
Pr
inc
ipa
lpa
rame
ter
stha
taf
fec
tinc
lude
:
 Wa
vel
engt
hs
 Re
lat
iver
efr
act
ivei
nde
x
 Pa
rti
cler
adi
us
 Sha
pea
ndor
ient
at
iono
fti
ssue
s
Di
agnos
ti
cAppl
ica
tionsofSc
att
eri
ngofLi
ght
Scat
ter
ingdependsont hesi ze,morphol ogyandstruct
ureofthe
componentsofthet i
ssues.Exampl elipidmembr ane,col
lagen
fi
ber
s,nuclei
,et
c.Variat
ionsint hesecomponent sduetodisease
woul
daf f
ectScatter
ingpr opert
ies,t hus,provi
dingameansf or
di
agnosti
cpurposes.

The
rape
uti
cAppl
ica
tionsofSc
att
eri
ng
Sca
tter
edsi
gnal
sc anbeus
edtodet
ermineopt
ima
lli
ghtge
ome
trya
nd
pr
ovideus
efulf
eedbac
kdur
ingt
her
apy.

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res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
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om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-8-
LI
GHT -TI
SSUEEFFECTS
Ti
ssuee
ffe
ctsc
anbegr
oupe
dint
o:
1.Phot
othe
rmalef
fec
ts:Thi
svi
srepr
ese
nte
dma i
nlybyCoa
gul
ati
on
orva
poriz
ati
onoft
iss
uesbas
edonAbsor
pti
on.
2.Phot
omecheni
calef
fec
ts:Thi
sduet
oti
ssuedi
srupt
ione
nco
unt
er
bypul
sed-
las
erbea
m.
3.Photoche
micalef
fec
ts:Thi
sinvolvesdi
rec
tbrea
kageofche
mic
al
ti
ssuebondsorc
hemicali
nte
ract
ionswit
hanappl
ieddr
ug.
4.Phot
obi
osti
mulat
ione
ffe
cts
:Thi
sisa
sar
esul
toft
is
sues
ti
mul
ati
on
forl
owlevell
ase
rbeamorli
ght
.

ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
.c
om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-9-
READI
NGASSI
GNMENTS:
Youwi
llbea
ske
dtos
ubmi
tyourf
indi
ngsf
ora
sse
ssme
nta
tal
ate
rda
te.
Opticalfiberf undame nta
ls:(Areasf oryourr es
e a
rch).A we ll
-labeled
schema t
icdia gram ofopt i
calfi
ber,Type soff i
beroptics,Adva nta
ge s
andDi sadvant agesoff i
beropti
cs,Pr opagationofl ightalongthef iber
opti
c ,Conf i
tion f orl i
ghtguiding wi thin af iberOpt ics.Coneof
Ac c
e pt
anc eandNume ri
calApert
ure,Pr opaga t
ionLos esandDi spersion
infiberOpt i
cs ,Adva nta
gesofselec
tingf iberopticca bl
eove rElectr
ic a
l
coaxialcablesf orBioMe di
calAppli
cat ions.

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res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
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om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-10-
ENDOSCOPY
Endos c
opyi st
heint
roduc
tionofafl
exi
blefi
beropt
icscopeint
oabody
cavit
ye quippedwithat i
nyvideomonitor
ingdevic
et ha
ta l
lows
-to
di
a gnoseortre
atacondi
ti
on.
Thus,Endos
copyinvolvesvi
ewingthei
nte
riorofor
gansa
nds
yst
ems
.
Endosco
picdevi
ceisshownbelow;

Sc
hema
ticdi
agr
amo
fEndos
cope

ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
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om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-11-
Endos
copi
cExa
mina
tion

ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
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om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-12-
Type
sofEndos
copy
 Ar
thr
osc
opy-e
xami
nat
ionofj
oint
sfordi
agnos
isa
ndt
rea
tme
nt
 Bronchosc
opy-e xaminat
ionoft
het r
ache
aandlung'
sbronchi
al
tre
est or eveal bronchi
ti
s,car
cinoma,tumor
s,t ube
rcul
osi
s,
infec
tion,i
nfla
mma t
ion
 Colonos
copy-examina
tionoftheinsi
deofthecolonandla
rge
int
est
inetodet
ecttumors,ul
cer
ati
on,i
nfl
ammati
on,andre
moval
offorei
gnbodi
es.
 Cyst
oscopy-exa
minat
ionofthebla
dde r
,urethr
a,ur
ina
rytra
ctand
pr
ost
ate(men)wit
hin
sert
ionoftheendoscopethr
oughtheur
ethr
a.
 La
ryngos
copy:
-
 Ot
osc
opy:
-
 Pr
oct
osc
ope
:-
 Br
onc
hos
cope
:-
Hys
ter
osc
opy
Itisaprocedur
et hatall
owst olookins
ideyouruter
usinor derto
dia
gnoseandtr
eatdis
order
s4.Iti
sdoneusi
ngahyst
eros
cope,whichisa
thi
nli
ghte
dtube.Hyster
oscopycanbeei
the
rdia
gnost
icoroper
ati
ve.

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res
ponde
nce:sta
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om |Mob:+233(
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-13-
LAPAROSCOPY
Lapar
oscopyisaproce
dur
ethata
llowstolookdir
ect
lyatt
hecont
ent
sof
a pat
ient'
sabdomenorpelvi
s.Thus,Laparos
copyall
owstoviewthe
out
si
deofi nt
erna
lorga
ns.
La
par
osc
opi
cSur
ger
y.
I
ti sminimalinvasi
ve -modernsurgicaltechnique.Operat
ionsaredone
wi t
hsmallinc
isions(0.5-1.
5c m).La paroscopeisat e
les
c opi
crodwi t
h
l
e nssys
tem,conne c
tedtoavi deoc ame r
aa tt
achedtoaf i
be ropt
iccabl
e
system conne
c t
e dto a' col
d'l ights ource( halogen orxe non)to
i
lluminat
etheope rat
ivefie
ldinser
tedt hrougha5mmor10mmc anol
a
t
ovi ewtheoperati
vef i
eld.
Thea bdome nisusua
ll
yinsuff
lat
edwit
hc ar
bondioxidegastocr
eat
ea
workinga ndviewi
ngspace.TheCO2i snon-
fl
amma ble.I
tisi
mport
ant
duet ot hef a
c tt
hatele
ctros
urgi
caldevi
cesarec ommonlyusedi n
la
paroscopicproce
dure
s.

COMPONENTSOFOPTI
CALI
NSTRUMENTS
Inge ne
ral,manyo ft heb a
sicopti
calme di
c a
li nstr
umentshavein
commont hegoaltoprovi
debothamor edirec
till
umi nat
ionandopt
ica
l
magnifi
cat
ionofthear
e aunderexami
nat
ion.Conceptuall
y,the
seopt
ica
l
ins
trument
sa r
es i
mila
rt oat el
esc
opeormi crosc
ope,butt hei
ropt
ica
l
desi
gnisdiff
ere
nt.
Typi
call
y,ame di
cali
nst
rumentc onsi
stsofatubul
arst
ruct
uref
itt
edwith
anobje
cti
velensonthedis
tal(pati
ent)end,a
nda nobj
e c
ti
velensonthe
vi
ewing (doc
tor)end,repres
e nte
da s(1)a nd (
2)i n Fi
g below :
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nce:sta
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-14-
Thislensa r
range mentpr oducesama gni
ficat
ionoft heobj ec
tunde r
ins
pect
ionont heobj ect
ives i
de(di s
talend),whi chhasasizeY,a ndis
posi
ti
onedadi st
a ncePfromt hee ntra
nc epupiloftheobjec
tivelens.The
vis
ualma gnif
icationfactorM c a nbec al
culat
e d.From t
hes chema t
ic
dia
gram,θ ′ist hea ngl
eoft helightrayf rom theeyepie
ce ,YPi sthe
vie
wing dista
nc ef r
om t he obs er
ve rt ot he eyepie
ce.He nc e
,t he
magnif
icat
ionfac torM i
si nvers
elypr oport
ionaltotheworkingdistance
,
P.

HEADMI
RROR
Themos tba
sicopt
ica
lmedica
lins
trume
ntistheheadmir
ror
.Itwa
s
di
scove
redbyFrenc
hobst
etr
ici
annamedLeve
rt,i
n1743.

De
signa
ndCons
truc
tionf
eat
ure
s
Itconsi
stsofsi
mpleci
rcul
arconc
avemirr
or,ma deofglas
s,pla
sti
c,or
metal
;wi th asmallopeni
ng inthe middl
e,a nd mounted on an
ar
ti
culat
ingjoi
ntt
oaheadstr
apmadeoflea
therorfabr
ic.
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res
ponde
nce:sta
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-15-
Aheadmirr
orhashi
stor
ica
ll
ybeenusedbydoct
orssi
ncet
hee
ight
eent
h
c
ent
uryforexa
minat
ionofthee
ar,nos
e,a
ndthr
oat.

Pr
inc
ipl
eofOpe
rat
ion
Themirrorisposi
ti
onedoverthephys
ici
an’
se yeofchoi
ce,wit
hthe
conc
avemi r
rorsur
facefa
cingoutwa
rdsandtheholedi
rec
tlyove
rthe
phys
ici
an’seye
.
Inus e,t hepa t
ientsit
sa ndf a
ce sthephys ici
an.A br i
ghtl ampi s
posit
ione da djace
ntt ot he pa tient
’s head,poi nti
ng towards the
physicia n’sf aceandhe ncetowa rdsthehe admi r
ror.Thela mp’sli
ght
getsc onc entr
atedbyt hec urvat
ur eoft hemi r
rora ndrefl
ectedoffit
towardst hea re
aofe xaminati
on,anda longtheli
neofs i
ghtofthed oc
tor
,
thuspr ovi dingshadow-freeill
umi nati
on.Whe nusedpr ope
rly,thehead
mi r
rort huspr ovidesexcel
lentshadow- f
reeill
uminat
ion.

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res
ponde
nce:sta
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-16-
2.OTOSCOPE
Otoscopei saha nd-hel
do pti
cali nstr
ume ntwi t
has malllightanda
f
unnel-shapeda tt
achmentc a
ll
eda ne arspeculum,whi chi sus edto
examinet hee arcanalande ar
drum ( t
ympa nicme mbrane).Itisa l
so
cal
leda uri
scope.In1363GuydeMont pell
ierinFrancede scri
bedthe
f
irstauralandna salspe
cul
a.La teri n1885,VonTr ol
tschwa sc r
edit
ed
withpopulari
zingtheuseofami rrorinot os
copy.Theot osc
opei soneof
t
heme d
icalinst
rume nt
smostfreque ntl
yus e
dbypr imarycarephys i
cia
ns.

De
signa
ndCons
truc
tionf
eat
ure
s
Thede si
gnofamode r
noto
s copeisverysi
mpl e.Itconsis
tsofah andle
andahe a
d.Theha ndlei
sl ongandt e
xturef ore asygrippinga nd
contai
nsba tt
eri
estopowera ni nt
egr
atedl i
ght.Thehe adhous esa
ma gni
fyinglensont heeyepi ec
ewi t
hat ypi
c alma gni
fic
a t
ionof8
diopte
rs;ac one-
sha
peddispos a
blepla
sti
cs peculum atthedis t
alend;
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res
ponde
nce:sta
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-17-
a
nda
nint
egr
ate
dli
ghts
our
ce(
eit
herl
ampbul
b,LED,orf
ibe
ropt
ic)
.

Pr
inc
ipl
e
Thedoc t
orinsert
sadi sposabl
es peculum i nt
otheotoscope,st
rai
g ht
ens
thepa t
ient
’se a
rc analbyp ull
ingont hee ar,andinser
tstheotoscopeto
peeri nsi
det hee arc anal
.Someot os copemode l
s(calledpneu mati
c
otos
c opes)areprovidedwi t
hama nualbl adderforpumpi ngai
rthrough
thespe c
ulumt otes
tt hemobili
tyofthet ympa nicmembra ne.

Us
es
 Heal
thc
areprovi
der
sus
eot
osc
ope
stos
cre
enf
ori
ll
nes
sdur
ing
r
egul
arc
heck-
ups.
It
'
sa l
sousedtoinves
ti
gat
ee arsympt
oms.Earspe
cia
lis
tss
uchas
ot
ola
ryngol
ogi
st
sa nd ot
ologis
ts us
e otos
copesto diagnos
e
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res
ponde
nce:sta
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-18-
 i
nfe
cti
onsoft
hemi
ddl
eandout
ere
ar(
oti
ti
sme
diaa
ndot
it
is
e
xter
na).
I
tc anals
obeusedf
ortr
ans
il
lumi
nati
on,der
matol
ogi
cinspe
ction,
e
x aminat
ionoft
hee
ye,nos
e,andthr
oatandasanovera
llhandy
l
ightsour
c e
.

3.OPHTHALMOSCOPE
Ophthalmoscopeisanopti
cali
nstr
umentforexaminingtheint
eri
orof
theeyeballa
ndi tsba
ckst
ruct
ure
s(cal
ledthefundus
)t hr
oughthepupi
l
byinje
c t
ingalightbe
amint
otheeyeandlooki
nga ti
tsback-
ref
lec
tio
n.

Anoph t
hal
mos copeisa l
sorefer
redtoasaf unduscope.Thefundus
consi
stsofbloodvessel
s,theopti
cner
ve,a
ndal ini
ngofne r
vec
ells(
the
r
e t
ina
)whi chdetect
simage st
rans
mit
tedt
hroughthecornea
,acl
earle
ns-
l
ikelayercoveri
ngofthee ye.

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res
ponde
nce:sta
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-19-
Ge rma n physicia
n He r
mann von He lmholtzisc r
edite
d wi tht he
inve nti
onoft heopht hal
mos c
opeba ckin1851,whi chheba s e
do na n
earlierve rs
ion developed by Cha r
lesBa bbagein 1847.He l
mhol t
z
originalophthalmos c
opewa sver
yba sic(ma deorc
ardboard,glue,and
mi croscopegl a
sspl ate
s)buti tal
lowe dhimt opl
acet hee yeoft he
obs erverinthepathoftheraysoflightente
ringandl
eavingthepa t
ient’
s
eye ,thusall
owingt hepati
ent’
sret
inatobes een.
I
n1915,Fra
nc i
sA.We l
cha ndWi l
li
amNoa hAl l
yninve
nte
dt heworld’s
f
ir
sthand-
helddir
ectil
luminat
ingophthal
mos c
ope,andresult
edint he
f
ormat
ionoftheWelchAllynme di
calc
o mpany;st
il
linbus
inesstoda
y.

De
signa
ndCons
truc
tionf
eat
ure
s
Amoder
nophtha
lmoscopec onsi
stsess
ent
ia
llyoft
wos
yst
ems
:onef
or
i
ll
umi
nat
iona
nda no
the
rf orviewing.
Theill
uminati
ngsys t
emi scompris
edoflightsour
ce( ahal
ogenor
t
ungste
nbulb),acondenserl
enssyst
em,are
flec
tor(apri
sm,mir
ror,or
metal
li
cplat
e)toillumina
tetheint
eri
oroft
hee yewithacent
ralhole
t
hroughwhichtheeyeisexamine
d.
Thevi ewi
ngs ys
temi smadeofas i
ghtholea ndaf ocusingsyst
em,
usual
lyar ot
at
ingwheelwit
hlensesofdif
fer
entpowe r
s.Thel ens
esare
se
lectedtoall
owc l
earvis
uali
zat
ionofthestruct
ure
soft hee yeatany
depthandc ompensa
teforthecombinederrorsofrefra
c t
ionbetween
pati
entandexamine
r.

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res
ponde
nce:sta
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-20-
De
scr
ipt
ionofOpe
rat
ion
[
1]Al
ightbe
ami
spr
oje
cte
dint
othee
ye.
[
2]Theme
dic
ale
xami
nerha
sadi
rec
tli
neofs
ighti
ntot
heba
ckoft
he
e
ye(
fundus
)
[
3]Pa
thofl
ightr
efl
ect
edoft
hec
orne
aandi
ri
s.
[
4]I
mageobs
erve
datt
hepu
pil
[
5]I
mageobs
erve
datt
heba
ckoft
hee
ye

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res
ponde
nce:sta
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-21-
USES
Ophtha
lmoscopesareuse
dbydoc t
orst
oexamtheinter
iorofe
yesand
hel
pdiagnos
ea nyposs
ibl
econdi
ti
onsorde
tec
tanyprobl
emsordis
eas
es
oft
hereti
naandvitr
eoushumor.

TYPESOFOPHTHALMOSCOPE
 Di
rec
tOpht
hal
mos
cop
e
I
ndi
rec
tOpht
hal
mos
cope

Di
rec
tOpht
hal
mos
cope
Adi re
ctophthal
mos c
opepr
oducesanupri
ght(unre
vers
ed)i
ma gewi
th
15×ma gni
fi
cati
on.Thedir
ectopht
hal
moscopei suse
dt oins
pectt
he
fundusoftheeye,whic
hist
hebackpor
ti
onoftheint
eri
oreye
ball.
Examinat
ion is bestcarr
ied outi n a darke
nedr oom.Ma cul
ar
dege
nerati
ona ndo pa
cit
iesoft helensc a
nbes eenthr
oughdire
ct
opht
halmoscopy.Theins
tru
me ntishel
da tcl
oserangetothepa
ti
ent
’s
eyeandthefiel
dofvie
wi ssmall(
les
sthan10°)
.
Thema gni
fi
cat
ion,M ofadi
rec
topht
hal
mos
copei
sgi
venbyt
he
expr
ess
ion
M=Fe/4,wh
ereFi
sthepowe
roft
hee
ye.

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res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
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-22-
Opt
ica
lra
ytr
aci
ngf
oradi
rec
topht
hal
mos
cope
.

Lightfr
omt heil
lumina
tingsourceisre
fle
cte
dintot
heeyeandthenback
-r
eflec
tedbythefundusthroughami r
ror(wi
thei
the
raholethr
oughitor
withpart
ialre
fle
cti
vit
y).Oi stheobse
rver
’seye
,whil
ePisthepati
ent’
s
eye;M, s
emi -
sil
ver
edmi rr
or.

I
ndi
rec
tOpht
hal
mos
cope
Anindir
ectophthalmos
copepr oducesaninvert
ed( r
ever
sed)i
magewi t
h
a2–5×ma gnifi
cationa
ndf orme d.As mallhand-hel
dlensandei
thera
sl
itl
ampmi croscopeoralighta tt
achedt
oahe adba
nda r
eusedtoform
animageoftheba ckoftheeyei ns pa
ce,atapproxi
ma t
elyar
m’sle
ngth
f
romthedoc t
or.
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res
ponde
nce:sta
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-23-
Anindir
e c
tophthal
moscopeprovide
sastr
onge
rlightsourc
e,aspec
ial
ly
desi
gnedobject
ivelens
,a ndopport
uni
tyfors
ter
eoscopicins
pect
ionof
thei
nte
rioroft
hee yeba
ll.
Iti
sinva
lua
blef
ordi
agnos
isa
ndt
rea
tme
ntofr
eti
nalt
ear
s,hol
es,a
nd
det
achme
nts
.
Thi
sa er
ialimagei
sus
ual
lyproduc
edbyast
rongpos
it
ivel
ensra
ngi
ng
inpowerf r
om +13di
opt
erto+30diopt
ert
hati
sheldinfr
ontoft
he
pat
ient
’seye.

Opt
ica
lra
ytr
aci
ngf
orabi
noc
ula
rindi
rec
topht
hal
mos
cope
.

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res
ponde
nce:sta
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-24-
Thelightsour
cemount edonthedoct
or’
sheadil
lumi
nat
esahand-
held
condenserl
enswhichformsaninve
rte
dster
eos
copici
mageoft
heret
ina
i
nf re
es pac
e(aer
iali
ma ge)
.

Magni
fi
cat
ionisgive
na s
,M =Fe/Fc,wher
eFea ndFca r
ethe
powersoftheeyeandoft
hec
ondens
ingl
ens,r
espec
tive
ly.

Pr
inc
ipl
e
Thepr ac
tit
ione
rvie wst hi
sa eri
alimaget hroughas i
ghthol
ewi tha
focusi
nglenstoc ompe nsat
ef ora met
ropi
aa ndacc
ommoda t
ion.This
i
ns t
rumentprovi
desal argefiel
dofvi ew( 25–40°
)a ndal
lowse as
ier
examinat
ionoft heperipheryoft hereti
na.Thi si
nstr
umentha sbee
n
suppla
ntedbythebinocularindi
rectoph
thal
mos c
ope
.

4.RETI
NOSCOPE
Ar e
tinos
copeisa noptica
lha nd-
helddevi
ceusedbyoptome t
ri
st
st o
measuret
heoptica
lr e
fra
cti
vepowe roftheeyesa
ndwhethe
rc or
rect
ive
gl
assesmightbeneededandtheassoc
iat
edpres
cri
pti
onva
lue.
As a pers
on c an have nor
ma l vis
ion (emmetr
opi
a) ,my
opi
a
(
nea
rsi
ght
ednes
s),hype
ropi
a(far
sight
edness
),oras
ti
gmati
sm.
Theret
inos
copeisus
edtoil
lumi
nat
etheint
ernale
ye(whil
ethepat
ient
i
slooki
ngafarfi
xedobj
ect
)andobs
ervehowt her
efl
ect
edl
ightr
aysby

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res
ponde
nce:sta
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-25-
t
heret
ina(
call
edtherefl
ex)al
igna
ndmovewi
thr
espe
ctt
othel
ight
r
efl
ect
eddi
rec
tlyof
fthepupi
l.
Ift
hei nputl
ightbea
mf ocuse
sinfrontoforbe hi
ndthereti
na,t
he r
eisa
“re
fra
c ti
veerror
”oftheeye.Ahighde gre
eofr ef
ract
ivepowerindi
cat
es
tha
tthel i
ghtfocusr
ema i
nsinfr
ontoft here
tina,inwhichcasetheeye
dis
playsmyopi a
.
Conver
sel
y,ifthefoca
ls p
othappe
nsbe hi
ndt
her
eti
na,t
her
eisl
it
tl
e
re
fra
cti
vepowerandtheeyeha
shyperop
ia.
Thee rr
orofrefr
act
ioni sthe
nc or
rect
edbyus ingaphoropt
er,whic
h
i
ntroducesase
rie
sofl ens
esofvari
ousopt
icalst
rengt
hsunt
ilt
heret
inal
re
flexfocus
esatt
herightposi
ti
ononthere
tina.

De
signa
ndCons
truc
tionf
eat
ure
s
Thereti
noscopec ons
ist
sofa nint
egra
tedlamporLED lights our
ce,a
conde
nsingle ns
,andami rr
or.Themi r
rorise
ithe
rsemi
-transpare
ntor
hasaholethroughwhichth
epr a
cti
ti
onercanvi
ewthepat
ie
nt ’seye.

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ponde
nce:sta
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-26-
MODERNRETI
NOSCOPE

De
scr
ipt
ion
[
4]t
hede
vic
eshi
nesl
ightt
hroughac
oll
ima
tingl
ens
[
3]ont
oapa
rti
al
lyr
efl
ect
ivemi
rr
or
[
2],whi
chdi
rec
tst
hel
ightt
othee
ye.
[
4]Theba
ck-
ref
lec
tedl
ightf
romt
hef
undusa
nd
[
1]t
hec
orne
aise
xami
nedbyt
hedoc
tort
hrought
hee
yepi
ece
[
5]a
ndf
ocusa
djus
tedus
ingt
hel
ensdi
al
.

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res
ponde
nce:sta
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-27-
HowOpt
ome
tri
stus
est
hed
evi
ce
Duri
ngt hepr
ocedur
e,there
tinos
copeshi
nesabeamoflightthroughthe
pupi
l.Then,t
heoptome t
ri
stmove st
heli
ghtvert
ica
llyandhor iz
ontal
ly
acr
ossthepat
ient
’seyeandobser
veshowtheli
ghtref
lec
tsoffthereti
na.
Iftheli
ghtre
flexinthepati
ent’
spupilmove s“wi
th”or“aga
inst”moti
on.
Iftherefl
exmove sins a
medi recti
on,the
nt hec
orrec
tionrequir
espl
us
powe r(
myopia )andmotionagainstdir
ect
ionoftheret
inos
cope ,mea
ns
negati
vepowe rcorr
ect
ion(hyperopia
)asshownbe l
ow;

ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
.c
om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-28-
Todete
rminethec or
rec
tiv
er ef
rac
tivelenspowe rnee
ded,lens
esof
i
ncr
easi
ngrefr
act
ivepowerarepl
acedinfrontofthee
yeandthechange
i
nthedi
rec
tionandpat
ter
noftheref
lexisobserve
d.
Theoptometr
istkeepscha
ngingthele
nsesunt
ilr
eac
hingalenspowe
r
t
hatprovidesa de
qua t
efocusi
ng on t
hereti
na,which ma
nif
est
sas
al
ignmentoft
her e
flex.

ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
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om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-29-
Wha
tisaPhor
opt
er
A phoropte
risa nopht halmicbinocularr
efr
acti
ngt esti
ngde vice
,a l
so
c
alle
dar efrac
tor.I
tisc ommonlyus e
dbyopht hal
mol ogis
ts,optometr
ist
s,
a
nde yec areprofe
ssionalsduri
nga ne yeexaminat
iont ode t
erminethe
c
orrecti
vepowe rneededf orpre
scri
ptiongl
asses
.Itisc ommonl yusedin
c
ombi nati
onwi t
har eti
noscope.

Aphoropte
rwhi c
hc ons
ist
sindoubl
esets(
oneforea
c heye)ofrot
ati
ng
di
scsconta
iningconvexandconcavespher
ica
landc yli
ndr
icalle
nses,
occ
luder
s,pinhol
es,col
ore
dfil
ter
s,pol
ari
zer
s,pri
sms,andotheropt
ical
el
ements
.
Thepati
ents
itsi
nfrontofthede vi
ceandthele
ns e
swithinaphor
opter
ref
rac
tli
ghti
nor de
rtofocusi magesonthepat
ient’
sret
inaatt
heright
spott
ocompensa
teforeac
hi ndivi
duale
yeref
rac
tiveerr
ors.
Theopt
ic
alpowe
roft
hes
ele
nse
sisme
asur
edi
n0.
25di
opt
eri
ncr
eme
nts
.
ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
.c
om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
__
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_
-30-
Bychangingt hesel
enses
,thee
xaminerisablet
odeter
mi net
hespher
ica
l
and cyl
indricalpowe r
,a ndcyl
indr
icala xi
sne c
essarytoc or
rec
ta
per
son’sre f
racti
vee r
ror
.Theseinst
rumentswe r
ef i
rstdevi
sedinthe
ear
lytomi d-1910s.

5.LARYNGOSCOPE
Al ar
yngoscopeisanopti
calinst
rumentusedf
orexa
mini
ngtheint
eri
or
ofthelarynxa ndst
ruct
uresaroundthethr
oat
.Ther
earetwotypesof
la
ryngoscopes:di
rec
tandindi
rectla
ryngos
cope
s.
A dir
ectla
ryngoscopeconsi
st
sofaha ndlecont
aini
ngbat
teri
es,an
i
nte
grat
edli
ghts ource
,andas etofint
erc
hangea
blebla
desfore a
sy
r
eachandpl
acementintoapa
ti
ent’
sthr
oat
.

Bes
ide
sbe i
ngusedforvis
uali
zat
ionoftheglot
tisandvocalcor
ds,a
dir
ectla
ryngos
copema yalsobeus edduri
ngs urgi
calpr
ocedur
esto
removefore
ignobj
ectsinthethr
oat,col
lec
ttis
s uesampl
es(bio
psy)
,
ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
.c
om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
__
___
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___
___
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___
_
-31-
r
emovepolypsfr
omt hevoc
alcords
,per
for
ml as
ert
reat
ment
sa nd,very
c
ommonly,a satoolai
dtofac
ili
tat
etr
achea
lint
uba
tiondur
ingge ne
ral
a
nes
thes
iaori nc
ardi
opul
monar
yr es
usc
it
ati
on
Ope
rat
iona
lPr
inc
ipl
e
Thepa t
ientope nshismout ha swi delyaspossi
ble,protrudinghistongue.
Thedoc t
or ,withas ma llnapkinta kestheprot
rude dtonguebe tweenhi s
thumba ndf orefi
nge randhol dsiti nplace
,s oast oe nlar
geope ningof
themoutha smuc ha spossible.Thel ar
yngealmirrorisne xtins
e r
teda nd
dexte
rouslypos it
ionedt otheba ckoft hemout htodi rectthelightf r
om
theexte
rna lli
ghts ource(mi rr
ororl amp )i
ntotheba ckoft hethroat.An
imageoft helowe rthroatisreflec
te dbackbythemi rrorforthedoc torto
viewanda sse
ssthec onditi
o nofthel ar
ynx.

MEDI
CALAPPLI
CATI
ONSOFLASERS
 Ca
rdi
ology:f
orAngi
opl
ast
y,ve
sse
lre
cana
liz
ati
on
 Ne
urol
ogy:To cut
,,va
por
izea
nd c
oagul
at
e t
is
suewi
th out
mec
hani
calc
ont
acts
 Ur
ology:l
it
hot
ri
psy(
remova
lofki
dne
yst
one
s)
 La
sers
cal
pel
:gyne
col
ogy,ur
ology,l
apa
ros
copy
 Opt
ica
lIma
ging:f
iel
dofonl
inemoni
tor
inga
nddi
agnos
ti
cs
 Cosme
ticsurger
y:Us edi
nremovi
ngt
att
oos
,sc
ars
,st
ret
chma
rks
,
wri
nkl
es,bir
thmarks
,andhai
rs.

 De
nti
st
ry:Us
edi
nde
nta
lca
rie
sre
mova
l,t
oot
hwhi
teni
ng,
a
ndor
als
urge
ry

ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
.c
om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
__
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_
-32-
 OPTI
CALI
MAGI
NG
_
_________
MOTI
VATI
ONFOROPTI
CALI
MAGI
NG
The mos tc ommon me di
calimaging moda l
it
iesinclude X-r
ays
radi
ography,
Ult
ras
oundimagi
ng(Ult
rasonogr
aphy),X-raysComputed
t
omogr aphy (CT),Magne
ticre
sona
nc eimaging (MRI)
.ButOpt ic
al
Imagingiscurr
ent
lyemergi
ngasapromi si
ngnewa ddi
ti
ont omedic
al
i
ma gi
ng
Re
asonsForOpt
ica
lIma
gingofbi
ologi
calt
is
sue
s:
 Opti
calphot
onsprovi
desNon-
ioni
si
nga
nds
afer
adi
ati
onf
or
medic
alappl
icat
ions
 Opt
ica
labs
orpt
ionpr
ovi
desc
ont
ras
tforf
unc
ti
ona
lima
ging
 Opti
calsca
tte
rings
pe c
traprovi
deinf
orma
tiona
boutt
hes
ize
di
st
ribut
ionofopti
calscat
ter
s,suc
hascel
lnucl
ei
 Pasca
lfr
eque
nc yshi
ft
sduetot
heopt
ica
lda
ppl
ede
ffe
ctpr
ovi
de
inf
ormat
ionaboutbl
oodfl
ow
 Pas
calt
rans
pare
ncyinthee
yeprovide
sauni
queoppor
tuni
tyf
or
hi
ghres
olut
ionima
gingofther
eti
na.
 Optic
alpr opert
iesorbiol
umines
c e
nceofpr
oduct
sfr
omgene
expre
ssionp r
ovidescontr
astf
orthemole
cul
arimagi
ngofg
ene
act
ivi
tie
s
 Opti
calpola
ris
a t
ionpr
ovidesi
nfor
mat
iona
boutst
ruc
tur
all
y
ani
sotr
opicti
ssuecomponents
,sucha
scol
lage
nandmuscle
f
ibers
ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
.c
om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
__
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_
-33-
 Compa
ris
onoft
heva
riousimagi
ngmoda
lit
ieswi
th
Opt
icalImagi
ng

Magnet
ic
Cha
rac
ter
ist
ics X-
Ray Ul
tr
asonogr
aphy Res
onance Op
tic
a l
Ima
ging I maging
I
magi
ng

Maxi
mum Exc
ell
ent
. Good Good Go
od
I
magingde
pth

Soft Tis
sue poor Good Exc
ell
ent
. Exc
ell
ent
cont
ras
t .

Non-
ionis
ing No Ye
s Exc
ell
ent
. Ye
s
Radi
ati
on
Da
ta Fa
st Fa
st Sl
ow Fa
st
Ac
quis
it
ion
Spa
tia
l Good Good Mi
xed
Res
oluti
on Exc
ell
ent
.
Func
tion None Good Exc
ell
ent Exc
ell
ent
Cos
t Low Low Hi
gh Low

ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
.c
om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
__
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_
-34-
LASERSa reusedashigh-r
esol
uti
onima
gingmoda
lit
ieswi
thgr
eat
ve
rsa
til
it
yinthe
ira
ppl
ica
tions
,suc
ha s
 Opt
ica
lHol
ogr
aphy
,
 Opt
ica
lCohe
renc
eTomogr
aphy(
OCT)
,
 Phot
oac
ous
ti
cima
ging(
PAI
),
 Sur
fac
e-Enh
anc
edRa
manSc
att
eri
ng(
SERS)
,et
c

1.OPTI
CALHOLOGRAPHY
Thei
deaofhologr
aphywa sf
irs
tdeve
lope
dbyDe nni
sGabbe
ri n1948.
Thei
nvent
ionofla
serdur
ing1960e
nhancedr
ese
archi
nthi
sfi
eld.
I
n Gr ee
k,‘ hol
o’me a
nswholea nd ‘gr
aphy’me answr it
ing.So
hologr
aphystandsforwhol
ewr i
ti
ng.Theme thodofproducing 3-
dimensi
onalimageofanobje
ctduetotheint
erfer
enc
ephe nomenaof
cohere
ntli
ghtwa ve
sonapho
togr
aphi
cplat
eisknownasholograph
y.
There
c ordedhol
ogr
amha snor es
embl
ancetotheor
igi
nalobj
ect
.Ithas
ini
tac odedformofinf
ormati
onoftheobj
ect.Thei
mageisrepr
oduce
d
byaproce s
scal
ledr
econst
ruc
tion.
Whe na nobj
ectisphotogr
aphedbyac amera,a2-dime ns
ionali
ma geof
3-dime nsi
onalobjectisobt
ained.He reonlythea mpli
tudeoft heli
ght
wa vei srecordedont hephotogr a
phicf i
lm.Inhol ography,boththe
pha s
ea ndthea mpli
tudeofthelightwa ve
sa r
erecordedinthefilm.The
result
ingphotographiscal
ledhologram.

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res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
.c
om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
__
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____
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___
___
___
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_
-35-
WORKI
NGPRI
NCI
PLE (
Rec
ordi
ngo
fahol
ogr
am)
Theexper
iment
ala
rra
ngeme
ntf
ort
her
ecor
dingofahol
ogr
am us
inga
l
aserbe
ami ss
hownbel
ow:

Thel as
erbeamf rom thesourceisma det ofal
lontheoptica
ld evice
call
edb ea
ms pli
tt
e r
.Thel i
ghtf r
om thel as
erisspl
itint
ot wop arts,
expandedwithas hort-
foca
l-l
engthle
ns( usual
lyamic
roscopeobje
ctive)
,ands pat
ial
lyf i
lter
edwi thapi nholet oremoveinte
nsityvari
ations
causedpri
ma r
ilybynonuni f
ormiti
esinthelens.
Apa r
tofthebeamspli
tt
erisma detofa
llonamirr
orM1.Thebe am
r
efl
ect
edwa ve
sfrom t
hemi rrorandmadetofal
lontheobjec
t.The
r
efl
ect
edwa ve
sfrom t
hesur f
aceoftheobj
ect
,cal
ledobj
ectwave
,is
madet
ofal
lonthephot
ographicpl
ate
.
Theot
herpa
rtoft
hebe
ami
sma
det
ofa
llonami
rr
orM2a
ndt
hent
o
ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
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om |Mob:+233(
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-36-
photogra
phicpla
te.Thisbeamiscall
edre
fer
encewave.Theobj
ectwa ve
andr ef
erencewaveinterf
ereandtheint
erf
ere
ncepatt
ernchar
act
e r
ist
ic
oftheobj e
ctisr e
cordedont hephotogr
aphicpla
te.Thisrecorded
int
erfer
encepat
ter
ngi veshol
ogra
m.
Thes
pac
ingoft
hes
efr
inge
sdi
sgi
venbyt
hegr
ati
nge
qua
tion:

d = λ /(
sinθ
1+s
inθ
2)

whe reλi st hewa velengt

hoft hel ight,andθ 1andθ 2a rethea ngles
ma debyt heobjec tandr ef
e rencebe amsr el
a t
ivetot henor mal.For
visi
blelighta ndc ommonr ec ordi
ngge ometr
ies,t hef r
ingefreque ncy
(1/d)c ane xceed20 00fri
nge s(orline-pai
rs)permillime ter.Therefore,
ther ec
or dingma teria
lmus tbeofv eryhi ghr esolutionr el
ati
vet o
conventionalphotographicfi
lmwhi chisusuallyinther angeof50l ine-
pairspermi lli
meter.Thes tabilit
yoft hefri
ngei sextreme l
ysensit
ivet o
theme chanicalmotionoft h
eobj ectandopticalcompone nts.
Torecor
dhologramswi t
hgoodf r
ingesta
bili
ty,theopti
calsyst
emmus t
bestabl
ee nough to preventmotionsgreate
rt han af r
acti
on ofa
wavel
ength.Forthi
sreason,thecommonpr acti
ceistouserigi
dopti
cal
component
splace
donas t
a bl
e,vi
brati
on-i
sol
atedtabl
e

RECONSTRUCTI
ONOFI
MAGES

Inordertoviewtheimage,hologrami stobeill
umina t
edwiththela
ser
havingthesamewa vel
engthusedf orrecor
dingofthehologram,which
resul
tsintwoimages-atwodi me ns i
onalr
ealimagea ndathree
dime ns
ionalvi
rt
ualimage.Il
lumina ti
onofthedevelopedhologra
mby
therefer
encebeama l
onerevealsat hre
e-di
me ns
ionalvir
tualimage
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res
ponde
nce:sta
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___
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_
-37-
whic
hise
sse
nti
al
lyi
dent
ica
ltot
heor
igi
nalobj
ecta
svi
ewe
dinl
ase
r
l
ight
.

HOLOGRAPHI
CINTERFEROMETRY
Int
erf
erometry providesame ansofme asur
ing opticalpath
dif
fer
encesthrought heanal
ysi
soffri
ngepatt
ernsforme dbythe
int
erf
erenc
e of c oher
e nt l
ight waves.Iti nvolves the
int
erf
erometri
cc ompa r
isonoft
wowa vefr
ont
sse pa
ratedinti
me .
Theba
sicme
thodsofhol
ogr
aphi
cint
erf
erome
tryt
echni
que
i
ncl
ude
s:
 Re
al-
ti
me,
 Ti
me-
ave
rage
ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
.c
om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
__
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____
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___
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_
-38-
  Doubl
e-e
xpos
ure
,

Re
al-
ti
me
Real-
ti
meholographicint
e rf
eromet
rya l
lowsonetostudythe
eff
ect
sofobjectper
turbat
ionofvaryingtype
sanddegr
e e
sover
anydesi
redl
engthoftimea ndinre
altime
I
ti sr eali
zed by t
heint
erf
ere
nce of a hol
ogr
aphic
all
y
r
econstr
ucte
dobjec
twavewi
ththewaveemanati
ngfrom t
he
a
ctualobje
ct.
Thi
sisa
ccompl
is
heda
sfol
lows
;
Thehol ogr aphicpl a t
ei se xposed,de ve lope d,thenr e
pl ac
e din
itsholde rini tsor igina lpos i
ti
on.Re f
e renc eandobj e ctbeam
intensi
ti
e sa rea djusteds ot hatt hei ll
umi natedobj ecta ndi t
s
holographi ci ma gea r
eofa pproxi ma t
elye qualbr i
ghtne s
s.The
objects houldbeda r
kwhe nvie we dt hr ought hehol ographic
plate.I
npr acti
c e,oneort wobr oadf r
inge sus ual
lya ppearac r
oss
the obje ctdue t oe mul sion shr inkage e ff
ectsa nd l ack of
compl et
eme chanic alpr ecis
ion i nr etur ning thehol ographic
platetoi tsor igina lpos i
tion.Anydi st
ur banceoft heo bje
ct
whi chre sult
si name c hanicaldis placeme ntofi t
ss urfacewi l
l
nowpr oduc eaf ringes ystemwhi chc anbevi ewe dinre alt
ime.
Thes t
ructurea ndpe riodicityoft hef ringe sa r
er elat
edt ot he
surfacedi splaceme nt.Theme cha nicals ur fac
ede forma t
ionc an
resultfrom a na ppl iedf orce,c ha ngei npr ess
ure,c hangei n
tempe r
atur e,ora nyc ombi nati
onoft het hree.Thequa nti
tat
ive
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res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
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om |Mob:+233(
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__
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-39-
det
ail
softhissur
fac
ede for
mat
ionc
anbede
rive
dfr
om a
n
ana
lysi
soft
hisf
ri
ngesys
tem.

Doubl
e-e
xpos
ure
Thedouble
-expos
urehol
ogra
phi
cin
ter
fer
ometr
yexami
nesa
par
ti
cul
archangeofthes
tat
eoft
heobj
ectbe
tweent
wo
par
ti
cula
rpointsi
nti
me.
I
n double-e
xpos
ure hologra
phic i
nte
rfe
romet
ry, t
he t
wo
wave
front
stobecompa
reda r
estor
edi
nthesamehol
ogr
am.
Thisisdonebyhol og r
aphi
c allyr ecordingthei ma geoft he
objectunde rs tudyi ntwoe xpos ure
ss epar
ate
di nt imei nt he
samehol ogra phicpl a
te.Ifnot hingi sdonet oalt
e rtheo bject
wa vef
rontbe t
we enthesetwoe xpos ures,theres
ulti
ngi ma gewi l
l
appearasf oras ingl
e -
exposur
ehol ogram.Howe ver,iftheobject
ispe r
turbedi ns omewa ybe t
we ent hesetwoe xposures,a n
int
e r
fer
enc efringesystemwi l
la ppearint hefi
nalima ge.Aga in,
thi
sf r
inges ys t
e misr el
atedtot heme c hani
caldeforma t
ionsof
theobjectsurfac ecausedbythedi st
urba nce.Thei nterfe
rogram
mightbear ecordoft hec hangeo ftheobj ectfr
om ones table
stat
et oa nothe r,whichmi ghtber ecordedwi thac ontinuous
wa velas
e r.

ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
.c
om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-40-
Me
dic
alAppl
ica
tionsofHo
logr
aphy
Hol
ogr
aphi
cTe
chni
que
s
Rec e
nti mproveme ntsin hologram r ecordi
ng techni
quesa nd the
avail
a bil
it
yoft oolsfortheint
erpr
etat
ionofhol ogr
a phi
cinterf
e r
ograms
andt hes ucces
sofhol ographi
ct e
chniquesi nimagingthrought i
ssues
,
ophtha l
mology,de nti
st
ry,urol
ogy,otology,pathol
ogy,andor thopedi
cs
showsas tr
ongpr omiseforhol
ographyt oe mer
gea sapowe rf
ult oo
lfor
me di
c alappl
icati
ons.
Hol
ogr
aphi
c3D imagesofeyesa
ndi nt
erf
eromet
ri
ctest
ingofhuman
t
eet
handche
stmot
iondur
ingre
spi
rat
ionwerecar
ri
edoutqui
tee
arl
y.

 X-r
ayhologr
aphyc a
nbea ppl
iedforimagi
ngofint
erna
lpa r
tsof
t
hebodyandlivi
ngbiologi
calspeci
menswithve
ryhighres
olut
ion
wit
houtt
heneedforsampleprepar
ati
on.
 Endoscopic hol
ogra
phy ha s opened up the pos si
bil
it
y of
nonconta
ct high re
solut
ion 3D i magi
ng a nd nondest
ruct
ive
measurement
sinsi
dethenatur
alca
viti
esofint
erna
lorgans.
 Thr e
e dime nsionalima ge
s of biologi
cals pec
ime ns ca
n be
synthesi
sedfrom as eri
esoftwodime nsi
onalradi
ologic
alimage
s
using the techniques ofhologr
aphics t
ereogr
am,hol ogra
phi
c
conicalst
ere
ogr ama ndmulti
ple
xhologram.
 Hologra
phiccontourge
ner
ati
oni
sus
efulf
orme
asur
eme
ntsf
or
bi
ome di
calspe
cimen.

ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
.c
om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-41-
Hol
ogr
aphyi
nDe
nti
st
ry
Bothcont
inuouswaveandpul
selas
erhol
ogr
aphyha
vebe
enus
edf
or
appl
ica
ti
onsofhol
ogra
phyinde
nti
st
ry.
 Thehologramsof f
eraconveni
entwayofst
ori
ngtoothpr
ints
,i .
e.
dent
alrecordsoftheca
stsofuppera
ndlowercent
it
ionsforlegal
andfor
ensicpurpose
.
 Hologr
amscanbeus e
dforstori
ngorthodonti
cstudymodelst
hat
ca
nber e
tri
eve
dbyal aserbeam orawhi telightsour
cefor
ac
curat
e3Dme asur
ement
s.Thissave
sal otofst
oragespa
ce.
 Thehologra
phi
cima ge
sa r
ec l
ini
c al
lyrel
iabl
eandr a
ndom e
rror
s
ar
enotc l
ini
cal
lysi
gnif
ica
nt.bystudyingtheol
da ndnewre
cords
,
or
thodont
ist
scanwatc
htheprogre
s softhe
irpat
ient
s.
 Hologr
amsc a
nbeemployedastr
aininga
idsi
nthedi
sci
pli
nesof
de
ntalana
tomyandop
erat
ivedent
is
try.
 Hologr
aphici nte
rfer
ome tr
y hasbe en use
df orthec ont
act
les
s
measur
e mentofin-vivotoothmobili
tyanditsmovementinthr
ee
di
me ns
ions,andme asurementofdimensi
onalcha
ngesofthet
iss
ue
be
arings ur
facesofma xil
laryful
ldentur
esduetode f
ormati
onof
de
nturesma t
eria
lbyor alfl
uids
.
 Hol
ogr
aphi
ccont
our
ingt
echni
quec
anr
eve
alt
het
opogr
aphyof
t
eet
h.

ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
.c
om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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_
-42-
Hol
ogr
aphyi
nOr
thope
dic
s
Holography of fer
sa ne xc
ellentt oolf ort he c onta
c t
le
sss t
udy of
or
thopedics tr
ucture
s,s peci
ficallye xt
e rna
lf ixturest or eveala nd
measures t
rainsonf i
xati
onpi nsa ndr ods.Suc hstudiesa r
eimportantin
os
teosynthesiswi thexterna
lf ixtur
eus e dforlongbonef ract
ures,to
pr
eventdi slocat
ionsofbot hf r
a ct
urede ndsthata rema i
nlycausedby
de
c r
easei ns t
rengthofthefixationpins .Dr ybone inc a
ntil
everbending
modeha sa lsobeenstudiedbyhe t
erodynehol ographi cint
erf
erometryto
de
terminet hepiezoele
ctr
iccoe f
ficient
sofbone .

Hol
ogr
aphyi
nOt
olo
gy
Thehuma ne a rise mbe dde di ntempor a lbonet hatformspa rtoft hes kull
base.Th ee arma ybebr oa dlydivi dedi ntothreepa rts:t heout ere a
r,t he
middl ee ara ndt hei nne re ar.Theout e re arconsist
sofpi nna( nots hown
inthef igur e),t hee xternala udit
or yc ana landt het ympa nicme mb r
a ne.
Thet ympa nicme mbr anei st heinletoft hemi ddlee ar ,whi c ht ra n
smi t
s
thesoundc omi ngf rom t heout ere art ot heinne re art hrougha udi
tor y
ossi
cle svi z.ma lleus ,incusa ndstapes .Themi ddlee ari sl oca tedwi thin
thetympa nicc avitya ndc ont ai
nsac ha i
nofa udit
oryos si
cles .Thei nne r
earisthec oc hleat ha tha sac oi
llikes ha pe.Thec ochle ai ss epa r
a tedi nto
twopa rall
e lc ana l
sbyba sil
arme mbr ane .Ther eceptorc ellsf orhe aring
sensea res patiallydi st
ribut e
dont heba s il
arme mbr ane .Doubl ee xpos ure
andt ime -ave ragehol ogra phicint er
ferome t
rictechni que sa repowe rful
forstud yingdi ffe r
e ntpa rtsoft hehuma npe r
ipheralhe a ri
ngor ga n.

ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
.c
om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-43-
Thevi
brat
ionbehavi
ourofmode
lsofthei
nnerea
rpart
ssuc
hasunr
oll
ed
coc
hle
aandc oi
ledbasi
larme
mbranehavebe
e ns
tudi
edbyti
me-
aver
age
hol
ogr
aphy.
Time-
averagehologra
phicinter
ferometr
yha salsobeenusedf orthe
st
udyofvibrati
onanalys
isofincudo-mall
arj
ointwithf
orc
esa ppli
edto
t
hemi ddleearmus cl
eshasde mons t
rat
edthattheinc
usa ndma ll
eus
movelikealeverar
oundafrequencydepende
ntaxis.

REFERENCES
ht
tps
:/
/me
dia
.spr
inge
rna
tur
e.c
om/
ori
gina
l/
spr
inge
rst
ati
c/i
mage
/chp

Ka
tzi
r,A.1993.La
ser
san
dOpt
ica
lFi
ber
sinMe
dic
ine
.Sa
nDi
ego,
Ca
li
f.
:Acade
micPre
ss.

Kra
uss
,J.
M. ,a
ndC.A.Pul
iaf
it
o.1995.La
ser
sinopht
hal
mol
ogy.La
ser
s
Sur
g.Med.17:
102-
159.

Ame
ric
an Optomet
ri
c Assoc
iat
ion.1
996.Car
ing forthe Eye
sof
Ame
ric
a.St
.Louis
,Mo.:Ameri
canOpt
omet
ri
cAssoc
iati
on.

htt
ps:/
/www.i
nte
gra
f.c
om/
res
our
ces
/ar
ti
cle
s/a
-me
dic
al-
appl
ica
tions
-of
-
hologr
aphy

ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
.c
om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-44-
 NEXTLECTURESERI
ESWI
LLBE
ON
1."
LASERPHYSI
CS"
_____________________

ForCor
res
ponde
nce:sta
ssumang@gmail
.c
om |Mob:+233(
0)240359694
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-45-