Following are the important differences between light and dark reaction:

Light Reaction Dark Reaction

It takes place only in the presence of
light.
It is a photochemical phase.
It takes place in the grana of the
chloroplast.
NADP utilizes H+ ions to form
NADPH.
The end products are ATP and NADPH.
The water molecules split into hydrogen
and oxygen.
Photolysis occurs in PS-II.
It can take place in the presence or absence of sunlight.
It is a biochemical phase.
It takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast.
The hydrogen of NADPH combines with CO2.
Glucose is the end product. ATP and NADPH help in the
formation of glucose.
Glucose is produced. Co2 is utilized in the dark reaction.
Photolysis does not occur.

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis process requires several factors such as:

 Light Intensity: Increased light intensity results in a higher rate of photosynthesis. On the other hand,
low light intensity results in a lower rate of photosynthesis.
 The concentration of CO2: Higher concentration of carbon dioxide helps in increasing the rate of
photosynthesis. Usually, carbon dioxide in the range of 300 – 400 PPM is adequate for
photosynthesis.
 Temperature: For efficient execution of photosynthesis, it is important to have a temperature range
between 25° to 35° C.
 Water: As water is an important factor in photosynthesis, its deficiency can lead to problems in the
intake of carbon dioxide. The scarcity of water leads to the refusal of stomatal opening to retain the
amount of water they have stored inside.
 Pollution: Industrial pollutants and other particulates may settle on the leaf surface. This can block the
pores of stomata which makes it difficult to take in carbon dioxide.
Factors Affecting Transpiration in Plants
Different factors affecting the rate of transpiration are:

Cellular Factors
The cellular factors affecting the rate of transpiration are:

1. The orientation of leaf,

2. The water status of the plant,
3. Structural Peculiarities of the leaf,
4. Total number and distribution of stomata in a leaf.

Environmental Factors
The environmental factors affecting the rate of transpiration are:

1. Light,
 2. Humidity,
3. Temperature,
4. Atmospheric pressure,
5. Wind speed or velocity.

Relative Humidity
The amount of water vapour present in the air at a particular time and temperature is expressed
as a percentage of the amount required for saturation at the same temperature. The rate of
transpiration is inversely proportional to relative humidity. More the relative humidity less is the
transpirate rate.

Temperature
A high temperature lowers the relative humidity and opens the stomata even in darkness. As a
result, the rate of transpiration increases.

Light
The stomata open during the day and close in the dark. Presence of light is directly proportional
to the rate of transpiration.

Air
If the air is still, the transpiration rate is low. This is because the water vapour accumulates
around the transpiring organs and reduce the diffusion pressure deficit of the air.

If the air is moving, the saturated air around the leaves is removed and the transpiration rate
increases.

Water Availability
The transpiration rate is directly proportional to the absorption of water by the roots from the
soil. A decrease in water absorption causes the closure of stomata and wilting, thereby reducing
the rate of transpiration.

Surface Area of the Leaves

A leaf having more surface area will show more transpiration rate than the leaf with a lesser
surface area.
Significance of Transpiration in Plants
The significance of transpiration is explained below:

1. Transpiration helps in the conduction of water and minerals to different parts of the plants.
2. Due to the continuous elimination of water from the plant body, there is a balance of water
maintained within the plant.
3. It maintains osmosis and keeps the cells rigid.
4. A suction force is created by transpiration that helps in the upward movement of water in the
plants.
5. Certain hydrophilic salts are accumulated on the surface of the leaves, which keeps the leaves
moist.
6. It maintains the turgidity of the cells and helps in cell division.
7. Optimum transpiration helps in the proper growth of the plants.
8. The cooling effect of a tree is due to the evaporation of water from its leaves.
In addition to the significance, transpiration has a few drawbacks:

 Transpiration slows down if the transpired water is not compensated by absorption from the
soil.
 A lot of energy is released during transpiration.
 Plenty of unnecessary water is absorbed by the plants during the process.

Types of Transpiration
There are three different types of transpiration in plants:

Stomatal Transpiration
It is the evaporation of water from the stomata of the plants. Most of the water from the plants is
transpired this way. The water near the surface of the leaves changes into vapour and evaporates
when the stomata are open.

Lenticular Transpiration
Lenticels are minute openings in the bark of branches and twigs. Evaporation of water from the
lenticels of the plants is known as lenticular transpiration.

Lenticels are not present in all the plants. A minimal amount of water is lost through lenticels.
Cuticular Transpiration
It is the evaporation of water from the cuticle of the plants. The cuticle is a waxy covering on the
surface of the leaves of the plants. About 5-10% of the water from the leaves is lost through
cuticular transpiration. During dry conditions when the stomata are closed, more water is
transpired through the cuticles.

Active and Passive Transport

“Active transport is the movement of molecules across a membrane from a region of lower
concentration to a region of higher concentration against the concentration gradient, often
assisted by enzymes and requires energy”

“Passive transport is the movement of ions and molecules across the cell membrane without
requiring energy.”

Difference Between Active And Passive Transport

Following are the important difference between active and passive transport:

Active Transport Passive Transport

Requires cellular energy. Does not require cellular energy.

It circulates from a region of lower concentration to a It circulates from a region of higher concentration to a
region of higher concentration region of lower concentration

Required for the transportation of all soluble molecules,

Required for the transportation of all the molecules such as
including oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, lipids, sex
proteins, large cells, complex sugars, ions, etc.
hormones, etc.

It is involved in the maintenance of the equilibrium level

It transports various molecules in the cell.
inside the cell.

Active transport is a dynamic process. Passive Transport is a physical process.

It is highly selective. It is partly non-selective

Active transport is a rapid process. Passive transport is a comparatively slow process.

Transpires in one direction. Transpires bidirectionally.

Active transportation is influenced by temperature. Passive transportation is not influenced by temperature.

In active transport, carrier proteins are required In passive transport, carrier proteins are not required

This process reduces or halts as the oxygen content level is

This process is not affected by the level of oxygen content.
reduced.

Metabolic inhibitors can influence and stop active Passive transportation is not influenced by metabolic
transport. inhibitors.

Different types of Active Transport are – Different types of Passive Transport are – Osmosis,
Exocytosis, endocytosis, sodium-potassium pump diffusion, and facilitated diffusion
Following are the important differences between xylem and phloem:

Xylem Phloem

Definition

Xylem tissues are the tubular-shaped structure, with the

Phloem tissues are tubular-shaped, elongated, structures
absence of cross walls. This tissue resembles the shape
with the presence of walls with thin sieve tubes.
of a star.

Location

It is located in the centre of the vascular bundle. It is located on the outer side of the vascular bundle.

Fibres

Xylem fibres are smaller. Phloem fibres are larger.

Found In

They are present in stems and leaves, which later transports

They are present in roots, stems and leaves.
and grow in roots, fruits and seeds.

Movements
These tissues move in a Unidirectional. (only in one These tissues move in a Bidirectional. (both ways – up and
direction – upward direction) down)

Comprises

They live with hollow dead cells. They live with cytoplasm without the nucleus.

No of Tissues

The total amount of xylem tissue is more. The total amount of phloem tissue is less.

Features

It consists of four elements: companion cells, sieve tubes,

It consists of tracheids, vessel elements, xylem
bast fibres, phloem fibres, intermediary cells and the
parenchyma, xylem sclerenchyma and xylem fibres.
phloem parenchyma.

Functions

Transports soluble mineral nutrients and water Transports food and other nutrients including sugar and
molecules from the roots to the aerial parts of the amino acids from leaves to storage organs and growing
plant. parts of the plant.

Vascular Bundles

Forms vascular bundles with phloem. Forms vascular bundles with xylem.

Functions

Translocates the synthesized sugars by the photosynthetic

Provides mechanical strength to the plant and helps in
areas of plants to storage organs like roots, bulbs and
strengthening the stem.
tubers.

Functions

It is responsible for replacing the total amount of lost

It is responsible for transporting proteins and mRNAs
water molecules through transpiration and
throughout the plant.
photosynthesis.
Driving Forces Responsible For Transportation in Plants
The driving forces responsible for the transportation of water and minerals in plants include:

 Transpiration
 Force of surface tension
 Water potential gradient
 The force of hydrogen bonding between water molecules

Tracheids vs Vessels
Following are the important difference between tracheids and vessels:

Tracheids Vessels

Presence
In all vascular plants In angiosperms

Type of cells

Imperforated Perforated

Cell wall

Thin Thick

Connection

Lateral End to end

Cross section

Polygonal Circular

Water conduction

Inefficient Very efficient

Lumen

Narrow Wide

Cell length

1 mm 10 cm

Surface to volume ratio

High Low

End walls

Tapering Transverse or diagonal

 Pits

Less large pits Large small pits

Transpiration Definition
“Transpiration is the biological process by which water is lost in the form of water vapour
from the aerial parts of the plants.”

Types of Stomata
There are different types of stomata and they are mainly classified based on their number and
characteristics of the surrounding subsidiary cells. Listed below are the different types of
stomata.

Anomocytic Stomata
They are surrounded by epidermal cells, which have a fixed shape and size. The stomata appear
to be embedded in epidermal cells. There is no definite number and arrangement of cells
surrounding the stomata.
Anisocytic Stomata
Stomata are surrounded by three subsidiary cells having unequal sizes, one is smaller compared
to the other two.

Diacytic Stomata
The stomata are surrounded by a pair of subsidiary cells that are perpendicular to the guard cell.

Paracytic Stomata
The stomata are continuously surrounded by two subsidiaries, which are arranged parallel to the
stomatal pore and the guard cells.

Gramineous Stomata
Each stoma possesses two guard cells, which are shaped like dumbbells. The subsidiary cells are
parallel to the guard cells. The guard cells are found narrow in the middle and wider at the ends.

Functions of Stomata
The main functions of stomata are:

1. Gaseous exchange- Stomatal opening and closure help in the gaseous exchange between the
plant and surrounding.
2. It helps in transpiration and removal of excess water in the form of water vapour.
3. Stomatal closure at night prevents water from escaping through pores.
4. It maintains the moisture balance according to weather by opening and closing.
5. Stomata facilitate carbon dioxide uptake and release of oxygen during the process of
photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis
 Plants are able to produce their own food through a process called photosynthesis.
 The chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis.
 Food production primarily is carried out in leaves. Water and minerals from the soil are
absorbed by the root and transported to the leaves through vessels. Carbon dioxide
reaches leaves through stomata – which are small pores on leaves surrounded by guard
cells.
  Chlorophyll is a green pigment present in leaves which helps the leaves capture energy
from sunlight to prepare their food. This production of food which takes place in the
presence of sunlight is known as photosynthesis. Hence, the sun serves as the primary
source for all living organisms
 During photosynthesis, water and carbon dioxide are used in the presence of sunlight to
produce carbohydrates and oxygen.
 Photosynthesis provides food to all living beings.
 Oxygen, one of the main components of life on earth is released by plants during
photosynthesis.

Conditions necessary for Photosynthesis

 Sunlight
 Water
 Carbon dioxide
 Chlorophyll

Steps in Photosynthesis
 Absorption of energy from sunlight
 Conversion of light energy into chemical energy
 Hydrolysis of water into oxygen and hydrogen
 Carbon dioxide is reduced to form glucose by utilizing chemical energy