Structural Analysis and Design of Bridges – A case study of

Golden Gate Bridge

Introduction
Joseph B. Strauss designed and a competent team of engineers, architects, geologists, and

construction laborers constructed the Golden Gate Bridge, a suspension bridge that connects

San Francisco to Marin County. Due to powerful ocean currents, frequent fog, high winds, and

difficult access, the construction site presented numerous obstacles. The bridge can withstand

wind surges and oscillate with the currents due to its flexible suspension system (Lin and Yoda,

2017a).

Due to the presence of soft marine deposits, a geotechnical investigation revealed that the site

was extremely vulnerable to intense seismic activity and differential settlement. Concrete was

used for anchoring the cables and sustaining the structures (Golden Gate Bridge, 2023b). The

steel components of the bridge were prefabricated and specially formulated to resist corrosion

and fatigue.

Location, environmental conditions, intended purpose, traffic volume, cost, availability, and

durability all influence the bridge's design and material selection, which are meticulously

evaluated to ensure the bridge's safety, longevity, and functionality. Today, the Golden Gate

Bridge is a San Francisco icon, painted orange to merge in with the surrounding landscape and

increase ship visibility in fog (Martin, 2021).

Body

Structural System of the Golden Gate Bridge

The suspension bridge consists of two towers, a deck, cables, anchorage, and piers. The anchors

secure the cables, which support the deck's burden. Each structure exerts tension on the cables

to suspend the deck. The tension exerts a downward force on the towers, which the foundations

absorb (Ravi Panwar, 2023).

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 Fig. 1: Structural elements of Golden Gate Bridge

The bridge superstructure of the Golden Gate Bridge is sustained by a system of beams and

trusses. This truss system extends between the bridge pylons and is suspended from 15m-apart

vertical cables. These vertical cables are sustained by two main catenary suspension cables that

pass over the bridge's pylons and into anchors at either end. During operation, the bridge deck

burdens are transferred to the deck truss. The majority of this burden is borne by the vertical

cables, thereby tensioning the vertical cables. This tension load is then transferred to the main

cables, which transport the tension load to the abutment anchors at each end of the bridge. A

portion of the truss's burden is also supported by the pylons. The primary function of the deck

truss is to transmit loads applied at locations distant from the intersection of two vertical cables

to an adjacent cable. The entire deck system has a stiffening effect against deflections (Game

et al., 2016). Below is a description of the primary structural components:

1. Main Deck: Comprised of 4 major components;

- Concrete Bridge Deck.

- Permanent Corrugated Steel Formwork

- Cross Girders

- Deck Truss System

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2. Catenary Cables: There are two "main" cables, each measuring 2332 meters in length. This

consists of 27572 galvanized steel wires with a combined diameter of 0.92m. These cables

have a yield stress of 1100MPa and a length of 1280m suspended between the two pylons.

Vertical Cables: There are 250 pairs of 68.3m-diameter, 1100 MPa-yielding vertical cables

with a diameter of 68.3m.

3. Pylons are 227 meters tall and made of structural steel. 300 MPa tensile strength. The

footing base dimensions are 10 x 16 meters. A riveted plate connects these to the deck truss

rigidly.

Fig. 3: Internal view of deck

truss
Fig. 2: Truss system below the bridge
deck
According to Lin and Yoda (2017a), the bridge deck conducts vertical loads via bending and is

constructed of reinforced concrete using the same design principles as a building foundation.

The top of the deck is under tension, while the underside is compressed. The deck is supported

by cross girders every 5 meters, and it functions as a continuous surface with one-way action.

The cross girders are I-beams with web stiffeners, and they transfer loads from the deck to the

truss system below the deck through flexing. The truss system is composed of smaller trusses

that support the bridge deck's cross girders and deck margins. The primary longitudinal truss
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spans between the vertical cable supports and supports the load via bending, with compression

in the top chord, tension in the bottom chord, and axial forces in the diagonal members.

The static design of this type of bridge is simple. Typically, diagonal wind loading is of greater

concern. To suspend a uniformly-weighted object, such as the deck, from a cable, we must

determine the shape that the cable will naturally assume. A formula was devised to demonstrate

the cable. The cable was deformed into a parabola, and the horizontal component force was

constant (Lin and Yoda, 2017).

2
𝐻 = wl ⁄8𝑓 Equation. Where w is the weight per unit length, l is the plan length of the cable

and f is the dip of the cable at midspan.

Design Phases

Beginning in 1917, Joseph Strauss and a team of engineers and architects designed the Golden

Gate Bridge over the course of several years. The design procedure, according to Golden Gate

Bridge (2023a), consisted of site selection, conceptual design, preliminary design, detailed

design, and construction. During the conceptual design phase, the team considered various

bridge types before deciding on a suspension bridge, which was regarded the most appropriate

for the site conditions and traffic requirements (Tang, 2017). The preliminary design phase

entailed the selection of materials and construction methods, whereas the detailed design phase

centered on analyzing the bridge's performance under various loading conditions, including

wind and seismic loads, and creating detailed construction drawings and specifications. During

the construction phase, the bridge was manufactured, transported to the construction site, and

then assembled piece by piece.

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 Fig. 4: Strauss' preliminary design of a cantilever bridge

Fig. 5: A suspension span replaces the original structure.

BRIDGE DESIGN DATA

According to Golden Gate Bridge (2023b) and WIKIARQUITECTURA (2023), the Golden

Gate Bridge is a remarkable achievement of engineering, with a total length of 2,737 meters

including approaches and a width of 27 meters. The suspension span of the bridge, including

the main span and side spans, measures 1,966 meters, with the main span measuring 1,280

meters. The height of the bridge above mean higher high water is 67 meters, while the

maximum downward deflection at midspan is 3.3 meters and the maximum upward deflection

is 1.8 meters. The load capacity of the bridge is 4,000 pounds per linear foot. The bridge is

supported by two primary pillars that are 227 meters above the water and 152 meters above the

roadway. The primary cable burden on each tower is 61,500 tons, and the combined weight of

the two main towers is 44,000 tons. The depth of the south tower foundation below mean low

water is 34 meters, and 9.41 million gallons of water were drained out to construct the south

tower pier.
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Suspender Rope (vertical ones) Statistics
On both sides of the Golden Gate Bridge, there are 250 pairs of vertical suspender cables spaced

50 feet apart. Each suspender rope has a diameter of 2-11/16 inches. All cables were replaced

between 1972 and 1976, with the final replacement taking place on May 4, 1976.

Concrete Quantities
These quantities existed during the bridge's construction (1933-1937). After the replacement

of the original concrete carriageway superstructure, the quantity of concrete is 25,000 cubic

yards LESS than when the Bridge was constructed (Golden Gate Bridge, 2023b).

Concrete Quantities (as built) Cubic Yards Cubic Meters

San Francisco Pier and Fender 130,000 99,400
Marin Pier 23,500 18,000
Anchorages, Pylons, and Cable Housing 182,000 139,160
Approaches 28,500 21,800
Paving 25,000 19,115
Total 389,000 297,475

Structural Steel Quantities

Tons Kg
Main Towers 44,400 40,280,000

Suspended Structure 24,000 21,772,000

Anchorages 4,400 3,991,000

Approaches 10,200 9,250,000

Total 83,000 75,293,000

Loads considered for design

Dead Weight
The structure's only inert burden was its own weight, as no other significant loads acted upon

it. The Strand7 model calculated the structure's mass based on the dimensions and densities of

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its constituents. By defining gravitational acceleration, Strand7 determined the structure's

inactive loads and incorporated them into the analysis.

Live loads
The live load applied to the structure was in accordance with AS5100.2 SM1600 Loading. An

extract of the loading has been included in Figure 6.

Fig 6: M1600 Traffic Loading AS5100.2

The live load was applied as a pressure load. The total load specified by AS5100.2 was added

together and averaged as a pressure load over the road deck. Since there are 6 lanes of traffic

this load was multiplied by six. Live loading is applied for the worst case. In light of this the

bridge was assumed to be fully loaded with the worst-case truck as specified in the above

standard (Game et al., 2016)

Wind loads
Wind speeds for the Golden Gate Bridge were determined using data from the National

Climatic Data Centre and the ASCE 7-10 standard for a risk category IV structure. The ASCE

7-10 wind speed of 115 mph (51.4 m/s) matched well with the 500-year design wind speed

from NCDC data. Lateral wind loads from the westerly direction were considered since it is

the most critical due to winds from the Pacific Ocean. Wind loads were applied as UDL to plate

and beam members, and as equivalent point loads to the end nodes of each truss member (Game

et al., 2016).

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Dynamic Earthquake loads
To ensure safety, the bridge's earthquake design must be specific to its location. The spectrum

for the design was taken from the 2009 AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic

Bridge Design at the bridge's coordinates of 37.815°N, 122.48°W. The bridge was identified

as high importance category IV, and the soil type at the site was classified as "Rock" or Site

Class B. The site's spectrum was obtained from data provided by the United States Geological

Survey (USGS) (Game et al., 2016)

Structural Design
Using Strand7 software, the structural members of the Golden Gate Bridge were meticulously

designed by comparing their capacity to the loads determined for each member. Based on the

highest tension, moment, or deflection, each member's critical area was identified. The

members were then constructed with this worst-case scenario in mind. Before comparing the

capacity of a section to its maximal loading, the yield stress was reduced by 90% and this

reduced strength was used for redesign. The results of the design are detailed in the Appendix.

Appropriateness of Design, Materials Used, and Design Phases Implemented:

The Golden Gate Bridge was designed and built with the proper materials and phases of design,

taking into consideration the geological conditions, seismic activity, and wind loading of the

site. Suspension bridges were chosen due to their ability to traverse great distances and be

flexible in strong winds. Steel, which is resistant to corrosion and fatigue, was used to guarantee

the durability of the bridge. Implemented design phases included analysis under diverse loading

conditions to guarantee structural integrity. Despite obstacles such as anchoring cables in water

and erecting components in high gusts, the bridge's construction was a remarkable feat.

Final Structural Result, Advantages/Innovations, Design Flaws, and Service Life:

Since 1937, the Golden Gate Bridge has served as an essential transportation connection in the

San Francisco Bay Area. Throughout the years, the bridge has undergone numerous

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renovations and improvements, including the replacement of the original promenade with a

wider pedestrian and bicycle path.

It is anticipated that the Golden Gate Bridge will continue to serve as a vital transportation

connection for many years to come, as its current service life exceeds 100 years. The bridge

has also inspired the design of many other suspension bridges around the globe, demonstrating

the bridge's innovative and enduring design.

Advantages/Innovations
The construction of the Golden Gate Bridge decreased commuters' travel times, displacing

ferries as the primary mode of transportation between San Francisco and Marin County. The

innovative design of the bridge incorporated high-strength steel wire for suspension cables,

enabling for extended spans, and pneumatic caissons for tower construction in the difficult-to-

reach bay area. These characteristics helped reduce construction time and costs, making the

bridge a successful and long-lasting infrastructure project that has inspired the construction of

a great number of suspension bridges around the globe.

Design Flaws
According to Anaswara (2021), the Golden Gate Bridge has received criticism for its design

flaws, such as the absence of a barrier to prevent suicide attempts, leading to many documented

cases. To address this, a suicide prevention net is being installed beneath the bridge. The

bridge's design has also been criticized for not complementing the natural beauty of San

Francisco Bay. Nonetheless, its unique design has become an iconic symbol of San Francisco

and is celebrated worldwide.

The other design flaw of the Golden Gate Bridge is its vulnerability to seismic activity, which

could result in severe damage or collapse during a major earthquake. Despite retrofitting and

enhancements, high support towers and the signature span are at risk of displacement and

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significant damage (Golden Gate Bridge, 2023c) The design may not have fully considered the

seismic risks, jeopardizing the bridge's stability and durability.

Fig. 7: Schematic of retrofit measures for golden gate bridge

Conclusion
In conclusion, the Golden Gate Bridge is a remarkable engineering and infrastructure

achievement. Its innovative design and use of high-strength materials have made it a long-

lasting and recognizable icon of San Francisco. Despite its faults, such as its susceptibility to

seismic activity and lack of a suicide prevention barrier, the bridge continues to serve as a vital

transportation link and an inspiration for suspension bridges around the globe. The design and

construction phases of the bridge were meticulously planned and carried out, considering

various loading conditions and site conditions into consideration. Overall, the Golden Gate

Bridge is a testament to the ingenuity and tenacity of its architects, engineers, and constructors.

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REFERENCES
Anaswara, (2021) Golden Gate Bridge: Design and 2 Main Issues. [online] Available at:

https://vincivilworld.com/2021/02/20/golden-gate-bridge/

[Accessed: 6th May 2023].

Game, T., Vos, C., Morshedi, R., Gratton, R., Alonso-Marroquin, F. and Tahmasebinia, F.,

(2016) Full dynamic model of Golden Gate Bridge.

Golden Gate Bridge, (2023a) Concept for a Bridge. [online] Available at:

https://www.goldengate.org/bridge/history-research/bridge-construction/concept-for-a-bridge/

[Accessed: 3rd May 2023].

Golden Gate Bridge, (2023b) Design & Construction Stats. [online] Available at:

https://www.goldengate.org/bridge/history-research/statistics-data/design-construction-stats/

[Accessed: 4th May 2023].

Golden Gate Bridge, (2023c) Seismic Retrofit Construction Project. [online] Available at:

https://www.goldengate.org/district/district-projects/seismic-retrofit/

[Accessed: 6th May 2023].

Lin, W. and Yoda, T., (2017a) Steel Bridges. In: Bridge Engineering. Elsevier, pp.111–136.

Lin, W. and Yoda, T., (2017b) Suspension Bridges. Bridge Engineering, [online] pp.195–211.

Available at: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128044322000116

[Accessed: 1st Apr. 2023].

Martin, B.T., (2021) Highway bridges. Innovative Bridge Design Handbook: Construction,

Rehabilitation and Maintenance, pp.575–600.

Ravi Panwar, (2023) Golden Gate Bridge: Construction of One of the Longest Suspension

Bridges in the World. [online] Available at: https://theconstructor.org/case-study/golden-gate-

bridge-construction/80548/

[Accessed: 6th May 2023].

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Tang, M.-C., (2017) Conceptual design of bridges. Structure and Infrastructure Engineering,

[online] 134, pp.418–427. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/15732479.2016.1164723.

WIKIARQUITECTURA, (2023) Golden Gate Bridge. [online] Available at:

https://en.wikiarquitectura.com/building/golden-gate-bridge/

[Accessed: 6th May 2023].

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APPENDIX

(a).

(b).

Lateral bridge deck deflections were observed to be minimal. Under the load combination

including wind actions, a maximal displacement of 0.35m was observed (Game et al., 2016).

(c).

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 (d).

(e).

Appendices (d) and (e) show that only a minor quantity of vertical and lateral deflections were

observed during the earthquake scenario. Due to the structure's extremely low natural

frequency (given its substantial size and weight) in comparison to the extremely high natural

frequency of the applied earthquake, very minimal engagement is observed.

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Golden gate bridge under construction

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