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CHAPTER 3

ATV DESCRIPTION AND DAMPER SELECTION

The proposed MRD is considered for use in a vehicle having low

speed and simultaneously negotiating rough terrain along with rapid
undulations in roads. Considering various models and types of vehicles it has
been perceived that testing of the BAJA ATV would be appropriate. This
chapter deals with details of the ATV, testing of MRD in DTM, and various
characteristics of MRF-based dampers.

3.1 ALL-TERRAIN VEHICLE

ATV has weight in the range of 220-300 kg, with a maximum

achievable speed of 60 kmph, and all four wheels have independent suspension,
making it easy for the fitting of MRD in the vehicle. The ATV was virtually
designed and fabricated per BAJA rules. The vehicle with rear wheel drive
buggy and a self-designed gearbox is selected for optimum torque and speed.
This vehicle weighs 240 kg.

The ATV is propelled by a 305 cc, four-stroke, single-cylinder, air-

cooled petrol engine weighing 30.5 kg (BRIGGS & STRATON; Model No
INTEK I/C, Type 202400). It is mated with a four-speed sequential-manual
gearbox with custom gear ratios and fuel consumption of 12 kmpl. The engine
power has been restricted to produce a maximum speed of 60 kmph. The engine
produces a power of 8 kW at 4400 rpm and a maximum torque of 19 Nm at
3000 rpm with a compression ratio of 8:1 This transmission has been perfectly
 42

synchronized with the engine to yield optimum performance. The virtual model
is shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Virtual ATV

3.2 SUSPENSION SELECTION

For an off-road application, the suspension has to be durable to

withstand all impacts and shocks and provide better handling during cornering.
Thus, an SLA type suspension with a coil-over-damper configuration has been
used because this will allow to adjust the geometry of the arms and their
mounting location to fine-tune performance and handling.

The design of the A-arms is selected by locating the roll center of the
vehicle. The roll center helps to establish a force coupling point between sprung
and unsprung masses. It is the point about which the vehicle tends to roll on
action of lateral force. With the help of a 2D representation, the position of the
roll center and the suspension is set for better dynamic stability as shown in
Figure 3.2. The suspension arms are connected to the wheels through OEM
hubs and knuckles. Their small size helps in the reduction of sprung mass and
enhanced performance.
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Table 3.1 Spring and damper values

Parameters Front coil spring Rear coil spring

Angle of Inclination 20° 15°
Spring Wire Diameter 0.005 m 0.007 m
Spring Outer Diameter 0.036 m 0.044 m
Number of Coils 14 15
Free Length 0.175 m 0.205 m
Stiffness 6879.36 N/m 13658.87 N/m
Maximum Deflection 85 mm 65 mm
Damping Coefficient* 1,500 Ns/m 520 Ns/m @ i=0 MRD
2,555Ns/m @ i=2
2 ,600Ns/m Passive
*Tested in DTM.

Figure 3.2 A-arm Position

ATV employs independent suspension on all sides, with double

wishbone with coil spring and hydraulic shock absorber on upper and lower
arms in all the four wheels. The suspension design follows the process
developed by Reimpell et al (2005) and Milliken et al (2000). The process
requires vehicle level targets (roll stiffness, ride frequencies etc.), system
 44

architecture (type of suspension, steering, etc.), hard points (kinematics of

suspension), compliance analysis (bushings), loads, design of suspension arms,
etc. for the vehicle. While designing the spring, the various criteria like spring
rate, energy storage capacity, axial load on the spring, allowable stress in the
material of spring, deflection of spring, Modulus of rigidity, free length, spring
index, etc., are to be considered as tabulated in Table 3.1.

3.3 MRD SELECTION

MRDs have recently turned into an entity of intensive study, due to

their interesting physical features as well as their potential application to control
damping in mechanical systems.

The linear MRD is an actuator that allows controlling of performance

characteristics. The resisting force depends on piston speed and on the strength
of magnetic field in the working gap. The structure of the damper has been
developed on the basis of the analysis of strength properties and dynamic
phenomena.

The various parameters considered at the design stage are as follows:

 Loads, the system must carry.

 Geometric volumes, restricted by the working environment.

 Suitable Damping value.

 Reliability of the system.

 Range of temperatures at which proper functioning of the system

is assured.
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This type of design permits the control of damping characteristics by

means of a magnetic field generated by an electromagnetic coil and by means
of an equalizing suction valve (Świtoński et al, 2003).

The damper design considered in this work is a hydraulic damper

with symmetric piston and two working chambers (Figure 3.3) as adopted from
Titurus et al (2010). A number of functional flow paths can be identified
between these chambers. Forced movement of the piston located in the damper
cylinder induces fluid flow between the chambers through these flow paths.
This process is accompanied by energy transformation so that the damper acts
as an energy dissipating element within the overall system or structure.

The process of energy transformation is evident in the form of

pressure losses in the fluid continuum since the fluid is forced to flow across
the restricting elements and paths. The functional expression of these losses is
the force with which the damper resists the piston movement.

Figure 3.3 Two-chamber symmetric hydraulic damper flow pattern

Assuming this damper structure, the damper model can be

represented by a non-linear, non-autonomous ordinary differential equation
 46

(Titurus et al, 2010). The system has a single dynamic state, i.e., the pressure
difference between the two working chambers is denoted by

Dp = p1–p2 (3.1)

where p1.and p2 are absolute pressures in damper chambers.

It is assumed that these chambers can be modeled as lumped variable

fluid volumes with compressible fluid. It is also assumed that the fluid
behaviour can be characterized by the constant parameters of fluid density ρ,
dynamic viscosity μ and bulk modulus B, where these parameters are related to
fluid compressibility β =1/B. Both the model of the damper and later
experimental investigations assume isothermal operational conditions.

The definition of bulk modulus given by Merritt et al (1967), in the

form B = –V(dp/dV), where V is the fluid volume with internal pressure p,
allows the construction of the equation of the pressure and changes in this
volume. Using the bulk modulus definition, this equation adopts the form р =
–(B/V) ύ, where ύ can be seen as the total volumetric flow rate in the container
including variable volume effects, fluid inflows, and fluid outflows. Using this
equation for both damper chambers along with the condition Δp = p1–p2 enables
the formulation of a single damper state equation. For the damper with two
chambers, symmetric piston and NF flow paths, the following model can be
written:

1 1 𝑁𝑓
𝛥ṗ = 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 ( + ) [𝐴𝑃 ẏ𝑃 − ∑𝑗=1 𝑄𝑗 (∆𝑝)] (3.2)
𝑉1(𝑦𝑝 ) 𝑉2(𝑦𝑝 )

where AP is the (symmetric) piston cross-sectional area, yP and ẏ𝑃 are the piston
displacement and velocity, respectively, Qj is the volumetric flow rate through
the jth flow path, Beff is the effective constant bulk modulus of the working fluid,
V1 and V2 are the variable volumes of the two damper chambers and 𝛥ṗ
 47

denotes the time derivative of the state ΔP. When damper acts in passive mode,
its pressure varies from compression zone to rebound zone. When vehicle hits
a bump, MRD works in passive mode and when it crosses the bump, the current
input is given to MRD. Now there is a large variation of pressure difference
between chamber 1 and chamber 2. This characteristic of MRD is much more
effective in dampening the vehicle vibration.

3.4 MONO TUBE SHOCK ABSORBER

The mono tube shock absorber consists of a single piston which

works directly in the damping case as shown in Figure 3.4. Both compression
and rebound phase valves are incorporated at the end of the piston rod. Whether
the damper is compressed or extended is purely related to its velocity according
to the variation in force. The separating piston separates oil from the gas
chamber which is under strong pressure. The accumulator balances the oil
expansion with variation in temperature and volume changes, while the piston
rod retracts and starts moving upwards and downwards. The gas pressure
provided in the accumulator is required to support the damping forces in the
same direction of the pressure and provides progressive damping
characteristics.

Figure 3.4 Mono tube MR damper

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3.4.1 Phase of Compression

When the sprung mass swings towards the road, the piston rod moves
downwards. The compression phase valve on the top of the piston resists the
oil that streams upwards through holes. So, the downward movement is
resisted. The separating piston is lowered by the same degree as the piston
retreats downwards. Hence the gas pressure underneath the separating piston
prevents the oil from foaming above the piston.

3.4.2 Phase of Rebound

When the sprung mass swings upwards, away from the road, the
shock absorber is extended and subsequently the piston rod moves out of the
damping case. The rebound phase valve at the lower piston resists the oil
flowing downwards through the holes in the space above the piston. Therefore,
the upward movement speed is resisted. The separating piston is thereby lifted
upwards by the same degree as the piston extends.

It has been decided to use mono tube shock absorber for the
following reasons.

 Compact size.

 Provides excellent handling.

 Excellent control characteristics for most driving conditions.

 Offers additional performance and can have a more aggressive

ride.

 Aeration of the damping fluid is not present due to suppression

of accumulator.

 Progressive damping due to pressurized accumulator.

 Churning effect of fluid is reduced.

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3.5 EXPERIMENTAL BEHAVIOUR AND RESPONSE OF MRD

To understand the characteristics of controllable MRD in real-time

applications, various dynamic models have been developed. The experimental
procedure to measure the dynamic reaction of MRD under various conditions
are described in this section.

3.5.1 Experimental Analysis for MRD

Fixing of MRD in an ATV, which weighs around 340 kg including the

driver, is a challenging task. It depends on the required damping coefficient,
response time, ease of installation, stroke length, cost etc. Various surveys have
been done on selecting the suitable MRD. After all comparisons and
considerations, it was decided that Lord Corporation’s long-stroke 8041-D damper
as shown in Figure 3.5 is perfectly suitable for the vehicle. Figure 3.6 shows the
dimensions of the given MRD.

In a damping force testing machine (DTM) the MRD is fixed for the
purpose of obtaining the response data essential for detection and analysis
studies. The driving system utilizes a high-performance vector inverter and AC
servo motor, providing excellent torque and precision. A linear variable
differential transformer (LVDT) is used to measure the displacement of the MR
damper, and a load cell of 0-5000 N is used to measure the force exerted by the
damper. The data acquisition system employed consists of LABVIEW.

Using the set-up shown in Figures 3.7 and 3.8, the response of the
damper is measured for a velocity range of 0.05–0.41 m/s. The fixed velocities
(m/s) of the industrial practices of 0.05, 0.13, 0.26, 0.39, and 0.41 are applied
to the damper and the corresponding compression and rebound values
obtained.
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Figure 3.5 8041-D Lord MRD

Figure 3.6 8041-D Lord MRD Dimensions

 51

In the DTM the Lord long-stroke RD-8041-1 damper is fitted and

tested. Damper stroke length is 74 mm, but for safety precautions stroke length
is fixed at 25mm and crank speed at 200 rpm (measured under 3.33 Hz
sinusoidal excitation). The input current of “One” Amp could be given
continuously and ‘Two” Amps intermittent. But for the experimental purposes
and studying complete characteristics of the damper, it is tested from “Zero” to
“Two” Amp with increment of 0.5 Amp (i.e., i = 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 Amp).

Figure 3.7 Damping force testing machine

The MRD is tested for its dynamic behaviour, which includes

velocity vs. force and displacement vs. force. The test is done for five cycles
and every test is repeated six times for its repeatability performance.
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Figure 3.8 MRD testing

3.6 MRD CHARACTERISTICS

The various characteristics of the MRD are recapitulated with

reference to the performance graphs obtained from the DTM.

 Hysteresis

The force-velocity as shown in Figure 3.9 can be generally

represented as symmetric bi-non-linear curve with significant hysteresis at
lower velocities, followed by a linearly increasing force at higher velocities. A
force-limiting behaviour is also marked during transition between low- and
high-velocity responses. This behaviour is also evident in these types of
characteristics in typical hydraulic dampers, with low-speed bleed flows and
high-speed blow off valves. The damping force may thus be characterized as
an augmentation function of velocity in the pre- and post-yield conditions.

MRD hysteresis along anticlockwise direction increases with respect

to time. In Figure 3.9, the upper curves of ‘x’ axis expose the force variation
with reduction in velocities (negative direction). Whereas the curves below ‘x’
axis are in contact to force with rising velocities (positive velocity). The viscous
 53

damping coefficient is referred as a hysteresis loop, and it always depends on

the applied current, stroke length etc.

 Passive Behaviour

The MRD exhibits viscous property when zero Amps control current
is applied (passive property), as evident from the near-elliptical force-
displacement curve and near-linear force-velocity curve with relatively small
hysteresis as shown in Figures 3.9 and 3.10.

Figure 3.9 Force-Velocity Curve

 Non-symmetrical hysteresis

The tested MRD shows nil non-symmetrical hysteresis behaviour,

as seen in the velocity-force curve in Figure 3.9. But this phenomenon depends
on the density of the fluid. When density is varied continuously, it influences
the response of force. Another factor of MRD is a non-symmetric hysteretic
 54

response, particularly in the area (where positive to negative or vice versa force
takes place) of zero velocity

Figure 3.10 Force-Displacement Curve

 Pre-yield and post-yield

Shear stress is a function of shear strain, shear rate, and apparent

viscosity is a function of shear rate. A pre-yield region exhibits a strong
hysteresis, which is typically of a visco elastic material, and the post-yield
region is plastic with a non-zero yield force. This force varies with reference to
supplied current input, which is directly proportional to the magnetic flux
created around the coil as shown in Figure 3.10.

 Controllability

The damping force increases considerably with the magnitude of the

current input. The yield force corresponding to variation of velocity less than
zero (upper force-velocity curve) or more than zero (lower force-velocity
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curve) as shown in Figures 3.9 and 3.10 can be observed with increasing current
inputs. The rate of increase in force magnitude is approximately linear under
lower current levels (<0.5 Amp), which tends to gradually decrease under
higher values of applied current (0.5–2 Amp). Increasing the current to more
than 2 Amps leads to saturation of the MRF, resulting in no variation in
damping force.

 Roll-off effect

The roll-off effect is a significant factor to be considered while

designing a control system for MRD. Force-velocity curves play a foremost
role in influencing vibrations of mass, damper and spring system. For larger
velocities of the system, damper force is proportional to velocity. If velocity is
decreasing, even if it becomes negative, the force-velocity curve is turned into
non-linear in a very short span of time as shown in Figure 3.7. This effect of
damper becomes linear in a very short period at small velocities due to bleed of
fluid between the piston and the cylinder. So it is necessary to eliminate it from
the subjective feel of the damper especially in the vehicular applications where
comfort is very important.

 Viscous characteristics

For a given control current, the MRD would yield nearly identical
force-velocity curves under the same excitation velocity which may be realized
from different combinations of current and velocity as shown in Figure 3.9.
This figure also represents a variation in damper force (minimum to maximum)
vs. velocity (minimum to maximum) when damper is stroked at zero (0 Amp)
to two (2 Amps) current input. The damping force is expressed as a function of
piston velocity and control current, with appropriate consideration of the force-
limiting behaviour.
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Figure 3.11 Damper characteristics variation (Velocity vs. Force)

During the test (maximum velocity of 0.41m/s) it was observed that

the compression values were higher than the rebound values, which were
reverse in the case of conventional damper. This property reduces the bouncing
effect of the ATV and gives reduction in the vertical acceleration as shown in
Figures 3.9 to 3.11.

Figure 3.11 shows the variation of the damper force, in both

compression and rebound, with variation in current input. It is observed that the
rebound values are comparatively higher than the compression values and the
percentage varies from 20% to 25%. This variation is required for dampers,
which reduces the immediate release of spring after compression
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Figure 3.12 Damper characteristics (compression and rebound values)

Figure 3.12 shows the plot of maximum velocity vs. maximum

compression force and maximum rebound force with the variation of current
input to MRD. This figure represents only peak values of the compression and
rebound damper force of MRD depending on various current input. It clearly
indicates a relationship between stroke and damping force according to various
velocities and various inputs of current, varying from 0 Amp minimum to 2
Amp maximum. The damper is tested at the maximum velocity of 0.41 m/s,
which is considered as too high for ATV’s heave movement. But to assess the
reliability of the damper, it must be tested in extreme conditions.

It is challenging to control the damping force of the MRD because

of the strong nonlinearity between the damping force of MRF damper and the
velocity across the damper. The other parameter is the semi-active relationship
between damping force and applied voltage/current. Hence, the desired
damping force that ought to be generated by an MRF damper could not be
commanded directly. It is only directly controlled by the command current
applied by the current driver to the MRD.
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The velocity increases in a square curve of stroke vs. force. The

important factor is current input to the damper, which increases the force from
500 to 2500 N as shown in Figures 3.10 and 3.11. Conventional dampers having
constant damping force always perform similar in both smooth roads and rough
terrain, namely poor ride comfort and better handling. Therefore there is always
a trade-off between both the characteristics. Using a MRD having variable
damping force characteristics according to the current input will increase ride
comfort (“0” amps to MRD soft) and give better handling (“2” amps to MRD
hard) characteristics. Simultaneously the calculated damping co-efficient and
adaptability of passive damper are nearly matching with the MRD (8041-D
long stroke) value. Hence it is decided that Lord long damper is suitable to the
ATV in focus.