Distributed System

A distributed system is a collection of processors that do not share memory or a clock.

Instead, each node has its own local memory. The nodes communicate with one another
through various networks, such as high-speed buses and the Internet. In this chapter, we
discuss the general structure of distributed systems and the networks that interconnect them.
We also contrast the main differences in operating-system design between these systems and
centralized systems.

Advantages of Distributed Systems

A distributed system is a collection of loosely coupled nodes interconnected by a

communication network. From the point of view of a specific node in a distributed system,
the rest of the nodes and their respective resources are remote, whereas its own resources are
local. The nodes in a distributed system may vary in size and function. They may include
small microprocessors, personal computers, and large general-purpose computer systems.
These processors are referred to by a number of names, such as processors, sites, machines,
and hosts, depending on the context in which they are mentioned. We mainly use siteto
indicate the location of a machine and node to refer to a specific system at a site. Generally,
one node at one site, the server, has a resource that another node at another site, the client (or
user), would like to use. There are four major reasons for building distributed systems:
resource sharing, computation speedup, reliability, and communication.

Types of Network-based Operating Systems

In this section, we describe the two general categories of network-oriented operating

systems: network operating systems and distributed operating systems. Network operating
systems are simpler to implement but generally more difficult for users to access and utilize
than are distributed operating systems, which provide more features. 17.2.1 Network
Operating Systems A network operating system provides an environment in which users, who
are aware of the multiplicity of machines, can access remote resources by either logging in to
the appropriate remote machine or transferring data from the remote machine to their own
machines. Currently, all general-purpose operating systems, and even embedded operating
systems such as Android and iOS, are network operating systems.
  Remote login
 Remote file transfer

Network Structure

There are basically two types of networks: local-area networks (LAN) and wide-area
networks (WAN). The main difference between the two is the way in which they are
geographically distributed. Local-area networks are Distributed Systems of hosts distributed
over small areas (such as a single building or a number of adjacent buildings), whereas wide-
area networks are composed of systems distributed over a large area (such as the United
States). These differences imply major variations in the speed and reliability of the
communications networks, and they are reflected in the distributed operating-system design.

Communication Structure

Now that we have discussed the physical aspects of networking, we turn to the internal
workings. The designer of a communication network must address five basic issues:

• Naming and name resolution. How do two processes locate each other to communicate?

• Routing strategies. How are messages sent through the network?

• Packet strategies. Are packets sent individually or as a sequence?

• Connection strategies. How do two processes send a sequence of messages?

Communication Protocols

When we are designing a communication network, we must deal with the inherent
complexity of coordinating asynchronous operations communicating in a potentially slow and
error-prone environment. In addition, the systems on the network must agree on a protocol or
a set of protocols for determining host names, locating hosts on the network, establishing
connections, and so on. We can simplify the design problem (and related implementation) by
partitioning the problem into multiple layers. Each layer on one system communicates with
the equivalent layer on other systems. Typically, each layer has its own protocols, and
communication takes place between peer layers using a specific protocol. The protocols may
be implemented in hardware or software. For instance, shows the logical communications
between two computers, with the three lowest-level layers implemented in hardware. The
International Standards Organization created the OSI model for describing the various layers
of networking. While these layers are not implemented in practice, they are useful for
understanding how networking logically works, and we describe them below: real systems
environment OSI environment network environment data network computer A application
layer presentation layer session layer transport layer network layer link layer physical layer
AP computer B A-L (7) P-L (6) S-L (5) T-L (4) N-L (3) L-L (2) P-L (1) AP Figure 1. Two
computers communicating via the OSI network model.

Layer 1: Physical layer. The physical layer is responsible for handling both the mechanical
and the electrical details of the physical transmission of a bit stream. At the physical layer,
the communicating systems must agree on the electrical representation of a binary 0 and 1, so
that when data are sent as a stream of electrical signals, the receiver is able to interpret the
data properly as binary data. This layer is implemented in the hardware of the networking
device. It is responsible for delivering bits.

Layer 2: Data-link layer. The data-link layer is responsible for handling frames, or fixed-
length parts of packets, including any error detection and recovery that occurs in the physical
layer. It sends frames between physical addresses.

Layer 3: Network layer. The network layer is responsible for breaking messages into
packets, providing connections between logical addresses, and routing packets in the
communication network, including handling the addresses of outgoing packets, decoding the
addresses of incoming packets, and maintaining routing information for proper response to
changing load levels. Routers work at this layer.

Layer 4: Transport layer. The transport layer is responsible for transfer of messages
between nodes, including partitioning messages into packets, maintaining packet order, and
controlling flow to avoid congestion.

Layer 5: Session layer. The session layer is responsible for implementing sessions, or
process-to-process communication protocols.
Layer 6: Presentation layer. The presentation layer is responsible for resolving the
differences in formats among the various sites in the network, including character
conversions and half duplex–full duplex modes (character echoing).

Layer 7: Application layer. The application layer is responsible for interacting directly with
users. This layer deals with file transfer, remote-login protocols, and electronic mail, as well
as with schemas for distributed databases.

Network operating system (NOS)

A network operating system (NOS) is a computer operating system (OS) that is designed
primarily to support workstations, personal computers and, in some instances,
older terminals that are connected on a local area network (LAN). The software behind a
NOS allows multiple devices within a network to communicate and share resources with each
other.

The composition of hardware that typically uses a NOS includes a number of personal
computers, a printer, a server and file server with a local network that connects them together.
The role of the NOS is to then provide basic network services and features that support
multiple input requests simultaneously in a multiuser environment.

Due to earlier versions of basic operating systems not being designed for network use,
network operating systems emerged as a solution for single-user computers.

Types of network operating systems

There are two basic types of network operating systems, the peer-to-peer NOS and
the client/server NOS:

1. Peer-to-peer network operating systems allow users to share network resources saved in a
common, accessible network location. In this architecture, all devices are treated equally
in terms of functionality. Peer-to-peer usually works best for small to medium LANs and
is cheaper to set up.

2. Client/server network operating systems provide users with access to resources through a
server. In this architecture, all functions and applications are unified under one file server
 that can be used to execute individual client actions regardless of physical location.
Client/server tends to be most expensive to implement and requires a large amount of
technical maintenance. An advantage to the client/server model is that the network is
controlled centrally, makes changes or additions to technology easier to incorporate.

Common features of network operating systems:

Features of network operating systems are typically associated with user administration,
system maintenance and resource management functionality. This includes:

 Basic support for operating systems like protocol and processor support, hardware
detection and multiprocessing.

 Printer and application sharing.

 Common file system and database sharing.

 Network security capabilities such as user authentication and access control.

 Directory

 Backup and web services.

 Internetworking.

Examples of network operating systems

True network operating systems are categorized as software that enhances the functionality of
operating systems by providing added network features. A few examples of these network
operating systems and their service providers are:

 Artisoft’s LANtastic- This is a simple, user-friendly NOS that supports most PC

operating systems.

 Banyan’s VINES- This uses a client-server architecture to request specific functions and
services.

 Novell’s NetWare- This was the first network operating system to be released and is
designed based on XNS protocol architecture.
 Microsoft’s LAN Manager- This operates as a server application and was developed to
run under the Microsoft OS. Now, most of the functionality of LAN Manager is included
in the Windows OS itself.

In addition, some multi-purpose operating systems, such as Windows NT and

Digital's OpenVMS come with capabilities that enable them to be described as a network
operating system. Further, the most popular operating systems
like Windows, Unix, Linux and Mac include built-in networking functions that may not
require additional network services.

Network operating system is that in which two or more computers are connected to each
other to share resources with each other. There are two types of network operating system.

 Peer to peer network

 Client and server network

Fig 2. Peer to peer network operating system

Peer to peer network: -

This is a type of network in which all computers are connected to each other. It is inexpensive
to setup. Files are placed on any computer and can be accessed by any other computer in the
network. This type of network is best for small or medium size organization.

Advantages of peer to peer network: -

 It is easy to configure

 It is not expensive to setup

Disadvantages of peer to peer network: -

 No control over all the computers i.e. decentralized

 Security problem

Client and server network

Client and server network: -

This is type of network in which there is a server that is attached to client computer. So one
computer is behaving as a center server controlling and managing other computers.

Advantages of client and server network: -

 Security is well managed in these systems

 New resources can be easily added and removed to these networks

 New technology can be put in without any problem

 Server can be accessed remotely also

Disadvantages of client and server network: -

 It is expensive to setup

 Maintenance of these systems require more staff

 All computers are dependent on server. If server crashes then all computers effected

Examples of network operating systems: -

  Windows xp (peer to peer network)

 Windows server 2000 (client and server network)

 Appleshare

Types of Network Topology

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various

nodes (sender and receiver) through lines of connection.

BUS Topology

Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Fig. 3 Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.

2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.

3. Used in small networks.

4. It is easy to understand.

5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.

3. Cable has a limited length.

4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology

It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.

Fig . 4 Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes,
because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with
100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node.
Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.

2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2

connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
 3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite
direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep
the network up.

4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to
pass through each node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only
the nodes having tokens can transmit data.

2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.

3. Failure of one computer distur

STAR Topology

In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This
hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.
 Fig. 4 Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.

3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

2. Hub can be upgraded easily.

3. Easy to troubleshoot.

4. Easy to setup and modify.

5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.

3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
 4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology

It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are
connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.

There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :

1. Routing

2. Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic
to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which
has information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have
routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to
unwanted load over the network.
 Fig 6. Mesh Topology

Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in the
same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three
devices.

2. Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.

2. Robust.

3. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.

3. Fault is diagnosed easily.

4. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.

3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology

It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
 Fig. 7: Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.

3. Easily managed and maintained.

4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.

2. Costly.

3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.

4. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology

It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For
example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is
used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star
topology).
 Fig 8. Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or topologies

2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and troubleshooting is easy.

2. Effective.

3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.

4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design.

2. Costly.