Human Memory

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
In 1968 Atkinson and ShiIIrin proposed a model oI human memory which posited two distinct
memory stores: short-term memory, and long-term memory. Later a third memory store (actually
the Iirst in sequence) was added: sensory memory. In this paper I describe this augmented three-
store model and indicate some oI the characteristics oI each memory system.
Sensory Memory
InIormation enters the human inIormation processing system via a variety oI channels associated
with the diIIerent senses. Perceptual systems operate on this inIormation to create perceptions.
But because oI a limited processing ability at the higher levels, most incoming inIormation
cannot be immediately dealt with. Instead, we attend only to certain inIormation. However,
inIormation not immediately attended to is held brieIly in a very temporary "buIIer" memory,
making it possible to attend to some oI it a bit later -- as when you can still hear someone asking
you a question even though you weren't really listening when they asked it. This buIIer memory
is called sensory memory.
Sensory memory is really many sensory memory systems, one associated with each sense. For
example, there is a sensory memory Ior vision, called iconic memory, and one Ior audition
(hearing), called echoic memory. Here are some characteristics oI these two sensory memory
systems:
O Iconic Memory (vision)
4 apacity: Essentially that oI the visual system (Sperling)
4 uration: About 0.5 to 1.0 seconds (Sperling)
4 Processing: None additional beyond raw perceptual processing
O Echoic Memory (hearing}
4 apacity: ????
4 uration: About 4 to 5 seconds
4 Processing: None additional beyond raw perceptual processing
Short-term Memory (STM) or "Working Memory"
InIormation that is attended to arrives in another temporary store called short-term or working
memory. The more recent term "working memory" is intended to convey the idea that
inIormation here is available Ior Iurther processing. In general inIormation in working memory is
inIormation you are conscious oI and can work with. Here are some properties oI STM:
O apacity: About 7 plus or minus 2 "chunks" oI inIormation (Miller, 1956)
O uration: About 18 to 20 seconds (Peterson & Peterson, 1959)
O Processing: To hold inIormation in STM, it is oIten encoded verbally, although other
strategies may also be used such as visualization. These strategies make it possible to
"rehearse" the inIormation.
The low capacity oI STM was Iirst noted by George Miller in a Iamous paper intitled %he
Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus %o. Miller concluded that about seven (plus or minus
two) "chunks" oI inIormation could reside in STM simultaneously. Miller deIined a "chunk" as
an independent item oI inIormation -- one whose recall did not aid in the Iurther recall oI the
other items. Random letters such as "GJK" would each be considered a chunk, but letters that
Iorm a recognizable larger whole, such as "AR" would not. (In this case the word "car" is a
single chunk.)
InIormation that enters STM Iades away, or decays as soon as it is no longer attended to. (The
duration oI 18-20 seconds assumes that the inIormation is not being actively rehearsed.)
InIormation that is being actively attended to is represented by a pattern oI neural activity in the
brain may become represented more permanently by guiding changes in neural connectivity in
the brain, a process reIerred to as storage. But inIormation that is not more permanently stored is
simply lost shortly aIter attention is directed elsewhere.
Because STM presents severe limits on the amount oI inIormation that can be held in mind
simultaneously and on the duration Ior which it lasts once attention is withdrawn Irom it, STM
has been described as the bottleneck oI the human inIormation processing system.
ong-term Memory (TM)
ong-term memory is the relatively permanent memory store in which you hold inIormation
even when you are no longer attending to it. InIormation held in LTM is not represented as
patterns oI neural activity (as in STM), but rather as changes in brain wiring -- in the
"conductivity" oI existing synapses, and in the Iormation new synapses and destruction oI old
ones. Storing inIormation in LTM is equivalent to a computer writing inIormation out to its hard
drive, or to a tape recorder writing patterns oI magnetization onto tape to record music. The
recording process is called storage and the "playback" process, retrieval.
Here are some properties oI LTM:
O apacity: Virtually unlimited
O uration: Up to a liIetime
O Processing: InIormation is organized according to meaning and is associatively linked
apacity is unlimited in the sense that nobody seems to run out oI the capacity to store new
inIormation, even iI they live beyond 100 years. II they did, then either they would stop learning
entirely or new learning could only take place by Iirst erasing something already stored in LTM.
This does not appear to happen -- when storage/retrieval capability is lost it is due to
deterioration oI brain systems rather than to systems exceeding their holding capacity.
It is diIIicult to determine how long memories can exist in LTM. II you cannot remember
something you once knew, is it because it has been lost Irom the system, or because you have
developed a problem locating it Ior retieval? Permanent losses do occur as a result oI brain
damage, and it is possible that some memories simply decay away iI they are not accessed Ior a
very long time. We do know with certainty, however, that some Iailures oI retrieval are due to
temporary blockages and not to the loss oI the inIormation in memory. You may be unable to
remember someone's name at present, Ior example, but later it comes to you. Obviously, it was
there in memory all the while.
A common idea is that everything we have ever experienced has created a long-term memory,
but this is unlikely to be so. Much oI what we experience is never attended to, or not attended to
beyond a Iew brieI moments, and probably does not result in activation oI the storage process.
vidence that STM and TM are Physically Distinct Systems
I have asserted that memories in STM consist oI patterns oI neural Iiring that are being sustained
in the brain, and that memories in LTM consist oI altered patterns oI brain wiring. The latter
changes supposedly make it possible Ior certain inputs to regenerate something like the original
patterns oI neural Iiring that were present when the long-term memories were being laid down.
One especially convincing piece oI evidence Ior this distinction is Iound in the case oI "H. M.," a
victim oI severe epilepsy who received experimental surgery in an attempt to control the
symptoms. The surgery involved destruction oI the hippocampus in both cerebral hemispheres.
Following the surgery, H. M. could no longer store new inIormation in LTM (with certain
exceptions to be discussed elsewhere), although he could still retrieve inIormation that had been
stored there in the years beIore the surgery. His STM was unaIIected. He had become like a tape
recorder that could still play back old tapes but could no longer record new ones. The Iact that
his LTM was severely aIIected without damaging his STM shows that these are two Iunctionally
distinct systems.
There is also evidence that LTM involves a rather slow process requiring many hours to
complete, called consolidation. II an individual is rendered unconscious (as in an accident),
memories just beginning to consolidate at that time may not Iorm. OI course, STM involves no
such consolidation process.
Memorl Manusla
ALklnsonShlffrln Model
ada Lahun 1968 ALklnson dan Shlffrln mengusulkan sebuah model memorl manusla yang
mengemukakan dua Loko yang berbeda memorl memorl [angka pendek dan memorl [angka pan[ang
kemudlan sebuah Loko memorl keLlga (sebenarnya perLama dalam uruLan) dlLambahkan memorl
sensorlk ualam Lullsan lnl saya men[elaskan lnl dlLambah Llga Loko model dan menun[ukkan beberapa
karakLerlsLlk darl seLlap slsLem memorl
Sensory Memorl
lnformasl memasukl slsLem pengolahan lnformasl manusla melalul berbagal saluran yang LerkalL dengan
lndera yang berbeda SlsLem persepLual beroperasl pada lnformasl lnl unLuk membuaL persepsl 1eLapl
karena kemampuan pemrosesan yang LerbaLas pada LlngkaL yang leblh Llnggl lnformasl yang pallng
masuk Lldak dapaL segera dlLanganl Seballknya kaml hadlr hanya unLuk lnformasl LerLenLu namun
lnformasl Lldak segera dlperhaLlkan dladakan secara slngkaL dalam memorl yang sangaL semenLara
buffer sehlngga memungklnkan unLuk hadlr ke beberapa sedlklL kemudlan seperLl keLlka Anda maslh
dapaL mendengar seseorang memlnLa Anda perLanyaan mesklpun Anda Lldak benarbenar
mendengarkan keLlka mereka menanyakannya lnl memorl buffer dlsebuL memorl sensorlk

Memorl sensorlk adalah slsLem memorl memang banyak sensorlk saLu berhubungan dengan rasa
maslngmaslng Sebagal conLoh ada memorl sensorlk unLuk pengllhaLan dlsebuL memorl lkonlk dan
saLu unLuk audlsl (pendengaran) dlsebuL memorl yg menlrukan bunyl 8erlkuL adalah beberapa
karakLerlsLlk darl kedua slsLem memorl sensorlk

lconlc Memorl (vlsl)
kapaslLas ada dasarnya yang darl slsLem vlsual (Sperllng)
uurasl 1enLang 03 sampal 10 deLlk (Sperllng)
engolahan 1ldak ada Lambahan dl luar persepsl baku pengolahan

Memorl yg menlrukan bunyl (pendengaran
kapaslLas????
uurasl SeklLar 4 sampal 3 deLlk
engolahan 1ldak ada Lambahan dl luar persepsl baku pengolahan

Memorl [angka pendek (S1M) aLau Memory ker[a
lnformasl yang dlhadlrl unLuk Llba dl Loko laln semenLara dlsebuL [angka pendek aLau memorl ker[a
lsLllah yang leblh baru beker[a memorl dlmaksudkan unLuk menyampalkan gagasan bahwa lnformasl
dl slnl Lersedla unLuk dlproses leblh lan[uL lnformasl umum dalam memorl ker[a adalah lnformasl Anda
sadar dan dapaL beker[a dengan 8erlkuL adalah beberapa slfaL darl S1M

kapaslLas SeklLar 7 plus aLau mlnus 2 poLongan lnformasl (Mlller 1936)
uurasl SeklLar 18 sampal 20 deLlk (eLerson eLerson 1939)
engolahan unLuk menylmpan lnformasl dl S1M serlng dlsandlkan secara llsan mesklpun sLraLegl
laln [uga dapaL dlgunakan seperLl vlsuallsasl SLraLegl lnl memungklnkan unLuk melaLlh lnformasl

kapaslLas yang rendah darl S1M lnl perLama kall dlcaLaL oleh Ceorge Mlller dalam sebuah makalah yang
Lerkenal lnLlLled Slhlr nomor 1u[uh lus aLau Mlnus uua Mlller menylmpulkan bahwa seklLar Lu[uh (plus
aLau mlnus dua) poLongan lnformasl blsa berada dl S1M secara bersamaan Mlller mendeflnlslkan
sepoLong sebagal lLem lnformasl yang lndependen salah saLu yang lngaL Lldak Lldak membanLu dalam
menglngaL leblh lan[uL darl lLem lalnnya Puruf acak seperLl C!k maslngmaslng akan dlanggap
sepoLong namun suraL yang membenLuk keseluruhan yang leblh besar dlkenall seperLl CA8 Lldak
akan (ualam hal lnl kaLa mobll adalah sepoLong Lunggal)

lnformasl yang masuk S1M memudar pergl aLau meluruh secepaL lLu Lldak lagl dlperhaLlkan (uurasl 18
20 deLlk mengasumslkan bahwa lnformasl LersebuL Lldak sedang akLlf berlaLlh) lnformasl yang sedang
akLlf dllayanl dlwaklll oleh pola akLlvlLas saraf dl oLak dapaL men[adl leblh permanen dlwaklll dengan
memblmblng perubahan dalam konekLlvlLas saraf dl oLak proses yang dlsebuL sebagal penylmpanan
1apl lnformasl lLu Lldak leblh permanen dlslmpan hanya hllang sesaaL seLelah perhaLlan dlarahkan dl
LempaL laln

karena menya[lkan S1M baLas parah pada [umlah lnformasl yang dapaL dlselenggarakan dalam plklran
secara bersamaan dan pada durasl yang berlangsung sekall perhaLlan dlLarlk darl lLu S1M Lelah
dlgambarkan sebagal boLLleneck darl slsLem pengolahan lnformasl manusla
Memorl [angka pan[ang (L1M)
Memorl [angka pan[ang adalah Loko memorl yang relaLlf permanen dl mana Anda menylmpan lnformasl
bahkan keLlka Anda Lldak lagl hadlr unLuk lLu lnformasl dladakan dl L1M Lldak dlrepresenLaslkan sebagal
pola akLlvlLas saraf (seperLl dl S1M) melalnkan sebagal perubahan dalam pengkabelan oLak dl
kondukLlvlLas slnapsls ada dan dalam pembenLukan slnapsls baru dan penghancuran yang lama
Menylmpan lnformasl dalam L1M adalah seLara dengan sebuah kompuLer menulls lnformasl ke hard
drlve aLau Lape recorder menulls pola magneLlsasl ke Lape unLuk merekam muslk roses perekaman lnl
dlsebuL penylmpanan dan pemuLaran proses pengambllan

8erlkuL adalah beberapa properLl darl L1M

kapaslLas Pamplr Lak LerbaLas
uurasl Sampal seumur hldup
engolahan lnformasl dlaLur sesual dengan makna dan assoclaLlvely LerkalL

kapaslLas Lldak LerbaLas dalam arLl bahwa Lak seorang pun Lampaknya kehablsan kapaslLas unLuk
menylmpan lnformasl baru bahkan [lka mereka hldup melampaul 100 Lahun !lka mereka
melakukannya maka balk mereka akan berhenLl bela[ar bela[ar seluruhnya aLau baru hanya blsa
dllakukan dengan Lerleblh dahulu menghapus sesuaLu yang sudah dlslmpan dalam L1M Pal lnl
Lampaknya Lldak Ler[adl saaL penylmpanan / pengambllan kemampuan hllang lLu adalah karena
kerusakan slsLem oLak darlpada slsLem meleblhl kapaslLas memegang mereka

SullL unLuk menenLukan berapa lama kenangan blsa eksls dalam L1M !lka Anda Lldak dapaL menglngaL
sesuaLu yang Anda pernah Lahu apakah lLu karena Lelah hllang darl slsLem aLau karena Anda Lelah
mengembangkan masalah unLuk menemukan reLleval? 1eLap lakukan keruglan Ler[adl sebagal aklbaL
darl kerusakan oLak dan mungkln bahwa beberapa kenangan hanya membusuk pergl [lka mereka Lldak
dlakses unLuk wakLu yang sangaL lama klLa Lahu dengan pasLl bagalmanapun bahwa beberapa
kegagalan pengambllan adalah karena penyumbaLan semenLara dan Lldak hllangnya lnformasl dalam
memorl Anda mungkln Lldak dapaL menglngaL nama seseorang saaL lnl mlsalnya LeLapl kemudlan la
daLang kepada Anda !elas lLu ada dalam memorl semua semenLara

lde umum adalah bahwa semua yang klLa pernah mengalaml Lelah menclpLakan memorl [angka pan[ang
LeLapl lnl Lldak mungkln beglLu 8anyak darl apa yang klLa alaml Lldak pernah dlperhaLlkan aLau Lldak
hadlr unLuk melampaul beberapa saaL yang slngkaL dan mungkln Lldak mengaklbaLkan akLlvasl darl
proses penylmpanan
8ukLl bahwa S1M dan L1M adalah SlsLem Secara flslk 8erbeda
Saya Lelah menegaskan bahwa kenangan dl S1M Lerdlrl darl pola penembakan saraf yang sedang
dlperLahankan dl oLak dan bahwa kenangan dalam L1M Lerdlrl darl pola berubah kabel oLak erubahan
yang Lerakhlr seharusnya memungklnkan unLuk lnpuL LerLenLu unLuk menumbuhkan sesuaLu seperLl
pola asll darl penembakan saraf yang hadlr keLlka kenangan [angka pan[ang sedang dlLeLapkan SaLu
poLong LeruLama meyaklnkan bukLl unLuk perbedaan lnl dlLemukan dalam kasus PM korban epllepsl
parah yang menerlma operasl eksperlmenLal dalam upaya unLuk mengonLrol ge[ala Cperasl lnl
mellbaLkan penghancuran darl hlppocampus dl kedua belahan oLak SeLelah operasl PM Lldak blsa lagl
menylmpan lnformasl baru dalam L1M (dengan pengecuallan LerLenLu unLuk dlbahas dl LempaL laln)
mesklpun la maslh blsa mengambll lnformasl yang Lelah dlslmpan dl sana pada LahunLahun sebelum
operasl S1Mnya Lldak Lerpengaruh ula Lelah men[adl seperLl Lape recorder yang maslh blsa bermaln
kemball kaseL lama Lapl Lldak blsa lagl caLaLan yang baru lakLa bahwa L1M nya mengalaml dampak
yang parah Lanpa merusak S1M nya menun[ukkan bahwa lnl adalah dua slsLem yang berbeda secara
fungslonal

Ada [uga bukLl bahwa L1M mellbaLkan proses agak lambaL membuLuhkan ber[am[am unLuk
menyelesalkan yang dlsebuL konsolldasl !lka seorang lndlvldu yang dlberlkan Lldak sadar (seperLl pada
kecelakaan) kenangan baru mulal konsolldasl pada saaL lLu Lldak dapaL membenLuk 1enLu sa[a S1M
Lldak mellbaLkan proses konsolldasl LersebuL