Unit 01 paper 04

Language teaching
https://www.rsisinternational.org/
journals/ijriss/Digital-Library/volume-3-
issue-8/513-515.pdf
Newer model: Language learning is a process of construction conducted mainly by
the learner but facilitated by the instructor. Learner develops ability to use the
language for specific communication purposes. The teacher models language use
and facilitates students' development of language skills. In this learner-centered
model, both student and teacher are active participants who share responsibility for
the student's learning. Instructor and students work together to identify how
students expect to use the language. The instructor models correct and appropriate
language use, and students then use the language themselves in practice activities
that simulate real communication situations. The active, joint engagement of
students and teacher leads to a dynamic classroom environment in which teaching
and learning become rewarding and enjoyable. Language instructors who have
never experienced learner-centered instruction can find it daunting in several ways.

 It requires more preparation time: Instructors must consider students'

language learning goals, identify classroom activities that will connect
those with the material presented in the textbook, and find appropriate
real-world materials to accompany them.

 It is mysterious: It's not clear what, exactly, an instructor does to make

a classroom learner centered.

 It feels like it isn't going to work: When students first are invited to
participate actively, they may be slow to get started as they assess the
tasks and figure out classroom dynamics.

 It feels chaotic: Once student start working in small groups, the

classroom becomes noisy and the instructor must be comfortable with
the idea that students may make mistakes that are not heard and
corrected.
  It sounds like a bad idea: The phrase "learner centered" makes it sound
as though the instructor is not in control of the classroom.

This final point is an important one. In fact, in an effective learner-centered

classroom, the instructor has planned the content of all activities, has set time
limits on them, and has set them in the context of instructor-modeled language use.
The instructor is not always the center of attention, but is still in control of
students' learning activities.

I. ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE IN TEACHING We can identify five elements

ingredients or components of language in communication.  Sender  Massage
 Medium  Receiver  Feedback The Massage This refers to what the sender
intended to pass or send to the receiver it could be a concept through skill or
problem the massage is transmitted in to a language the receiver can understand
such a language could be verbal or non-verbal (gesture) important for the
following reason:  It makes the receiver to be aware of something and  It
make the receiver focus upon a given thing when we relate this to the classroom
situation massage is usually derived from the lesson topic therefore massage in
the classroom must have the following characteristics:  It must be
understandable  It must be relevant to students need and  It must be useful
Sender The sender is the source or the originator of the massage. He is also
referred to as the speaker or initiator to communication in this situation the
sender who creates the massage determines the topic of the conversation while
the receiver interprets the massage. When we relate this to the classroom
situation the teacher who is the sender here determines the topic of
communication while the student who is the receiver interprets and determines
how the communication will proceed. It should be noted here that the massage
sent in by the teacher is affected by factors like the level of knowledge,
experience, attitude, values, and emotional disposition of both the sender and
the receiver. Medium This is referred to as the channel symbol language gesture
at through which the massage is sent which ever medium the teacher choose to
use must be understandable to the students. Receiver This is destination the
receiver the massage from the sender decodes the massage and interprets what
the massage contains the sender needs a feedback from the receiver to confirm
that the massage sent was in received and understood the receiver here is the
student in the classroom. Feedback This is referred as the response give by the
receiver in the classroom it is the response student make to the teacher about
the topic thought the teacher can stimulate feedback through questions,
assignments, etc. To confirm that learning has taken place.
II. VI
III. VII. LESSON DELIVERY
IV. The teaching and learning process is organized in the form of lessons thought
and learnt systematically vocal communication is mostly use gestures and
materials described as teaching aids such as maps, atlas, pictures, recorder, ciscs
or CDS etc are used to enhance understanding it is suggested that teachers. 
Ensure that they are suitable enough during lesson delivery i.e. they should be
heard from every part the classroom.  Ensure that they are lively and articulate
during lesson delivery (the teacher can also move around the classroom during
lesson delivery) bearing in mind that the distance between the teacher and the
 class influences rapport between them; and  Use gestures animation and they
contact where necessary (teaching aids such as chalkboard, textbooks, still
pictures motion pictures and other graphic materials should be use as
appropriate. Teachers should bear in mind some facts in order to assist their
students to learn fast teachers show not that: 1. Students intellectual abilities
differ. 2. Student respond to stimuli and learning situations differently; and 3.
Presentation methods differ.

Differences between l1 and l2 language

acquisition
2. Similarities between First and Second
Language Acquisition
2.1 Developmental Sequences Researchers have carried out numerous studies
to understand the nature of first and second language acquisition. These
studies have revealed that both first and second language learners follow a
pattern of development, which is mainly followed despite exceptions. Rod Ellis
(1984) covers the idea of developmental sequences in detail and outlines three
developmental stages: the silent period, formulaic speech, and structural and
semantic simplification. Research in natural settings where unplanned
language, such as the learner language that results from attempts by learners
to express meaning more or less spontaneously, is used to show that both first
and second language learners pass through a similar initial stage, the silent
period. Children acquiring their first language go through a period of listening
to the language they are exposed to. During this period the child tries to
discover what language is. In the case of second language acquisition, learners
opt for a silent period when immediate production is not required from them.
In general, however, many second language learners - especially classroom
learners- are urged to speak. The fact that there is a silent period in both first
and second language learners (when given the opportunity) is widely accepted.
However, there is disagreement on what contribution the silent period has in
second language acquisition. While Krashen (1982) Vol. 2, No. 2 English
Language Teaching 156 argues that it builds competence in the learner via
listening, Gibbons (1985, cited in Ellis, 1994) argues that it is a stage of
incomprehension. The second developmental stage is termed formulaic
speech. Formulaic speech is defined as expressions which are learnt as
unanalysable wholes and employed on particular occasions (Lyons, 1968, cited
in Ellis, 1994). Krashen (1982) suggests that these expressions can have the
form of routines (whole utterances learned as memorized chunks - e.g. I don't
know.), patterns (partially unanalyzed utterances with one or more slots - e.g.
Can I have a ____?), and Ellis (1994) suggests that these expressions can consist
of entire scripts such as greetings. The literature points out that formulaic
speech is not only present in both first and second language acquisition but
also present in the speech of adult native speakers. In the third stage the first
and second language learners apply structural and semantic simplifications to
their language. Structural simplifications take the form of omitting grammatical
functors (e.g. articles, auxiliary verbs) and semantic simplifications take the
form of omitting content words (e. g. nouns, verbs). There are two suggested
reasons why such simplifications occur. The first reason is that learners may not
have yet acquired the necessary linguistic forms. The second reason is that they
are unable to access linguistic forms during production. These three stages
show us that L1 and L2 learners go through similar stages of development with
the exception that L2 learners are urged to skip the silent period. However,
learners do not only show a pattern in developmental sequences, but also in
the order in which they acquire certain grammatical morphemes.

3. Differences in First and Second Language

Acquisition 3.1 The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis Krashen (1982)
claims that there are two ways for an adult to approach a second language:
"adults can (1) 'acquire,' which is the way children 'get' their first language,
subconsciously, through informal, implicit learning. Once you have acquired
something you're not always aware you have done it. It just feels natural; it
feels as if it has always been there. Quite distinct from acquisition is (2)
conscious learning. This is knowing about language, explicit, formal linguistic
knowledge of the language." (p.17) Krashen continues to argue that learning
does not turn into acquisition. He obviously sees first language acquisition and
second language acquisition as two different phenomena. Yet, he suggests that
acquisition may occur in the classroom when communication is emphasized
through dialogues, role playing, and other meaningful interaction. As a
language teacher, one should be careful when evaluating the claims related to
acquisition and learning. Through focused input and focused practice learning
may turn into acquisition. 3.2 The Critical Period Hypothesis The Critical Period
Hypothesis holds that there is "a biologically determined period of life when
language can be acquired more easily and beyond which time language is
increasingly difficult to acquire” (Brown 1994, p. 52). This hypothesis is based
on the ideas of the psychologist Eric Lenneberg. His argument was that various
capacities mature according to a fairly fixed schedule during which language
emerges in children when anatomical, physiological, motor, neural, and
cognitive development allow it to emerge. He added that there is a critical,
biologically determined period of language acquisition between the ages of 2
and 12 (McLaughlin, 1987). Originally the notion of critical period was
connected only to first language acquisition but later it was applied to second
language acquisition as well. Consequently, it is argued that a critical period for
second language acquisition is due until puberty. In order to explain the validity
of the critical period in second language acquisition neurological, psychomotor,
and cognitive arguments were examined (Brown, 1994). These have mostly
tried to explain why adult language learners are not able to reach full
competence and native like pronunciation in the second language. English
Language Teaching June, 2009 159 Neurological Considerations: There is an
attempt to explain the difference between first and second language
acquisition through lateralization in the brain. Steinberg (1997) explains
lateralization as follows, "the brain assigns, as it were, certain structures and
functions to certain hemispheres of the brain. Language, logical and analytical
operations, and higher mathematics, for example, generally occur in the left
hemisphere of the brain, while the right hemisphere is superior at recognizing
emotions, recognizing faces and taking in the structures of things globally
without analysis. This separation of structure and function in the hemispheres
is technically referred to as lateralization". (p. 179) Thomas Scovel (1969, in
Brown, 1994) put forward that there is a relationship between lateralization
and second language acquisition. Scovel suggests that the plasticity of the brain
before puberty enables first and second language acquisition to take place
easily. After puberty, the brain looses its plasticity and lateralization is
accomplished. He argues that lateralization makes it difficult for people to be
able ever again to easily acquire fluent control of the second language or
native-like pronunciation. There is a counter argument related to the cognitive
development of the brain. Cognitively, this lateralization enables the person to
reach the capability of abstraction, of formal thinking, and of direct perception
which start from puberty on. This shows that adults posses superior cognitive
capacity due to left hemisphere dominance. Then, the following question
arises: How come that adults who have a cognitive superiority are not able to
learn a second language successfully? Researchers are still trying to find an
answer to this question. A tentative answer to this question is that the
dominance of the left hemisphere leads the adult to tend to overanalyze and to
be too intellectually centered on the task of second language learning (Brown,
1994). Again, there are adults who are able to learn a second language
successfully, but factors like affective variables seem to play an important role
in such cases. Psychomotor Consideration: These considerations try to explain
the reason why adult second language learners cannot obtain native-like
pronunciation in the second language. Starting from birth, speech muscles
gradually develop until after the age of 5. Then, until puberty the speech
muscles maintain their flexibility. Scientists argue that the flexibility of
children's speech muscles is the reason for why they can easily acquire native-
like pronunciation both in the first and in the second language. The decline of
the flexibility in the speech muscles, however, prevents adult second language
learners to reach native-like pronunciation in the second language (Brown,
1994). Affective Considerations: Although the affective domain includes many
factors such as inhibition, attitudes, anxiety, and motivation, this paper will
examine only the first two. While anxiety and motivation are mainly related to
adult second language learning, child first language learners have not
developed or are just in the process of developing such affective factors. While
inhibitions pose no difficulty for children acquiring their first or second
language, they propose to be intervening in adult second language acquisition.
Inhibitions can be defined as ego boundaries the person builds in order to
protect his or her ego. As the child matures it develops a sense of self-identity
and towards puberty it acquires the feeling to protect this self-identity and
develop inhibitions which are heightened during puberty. Alexander Guiora
(cited in Brown, 1994) proposed the idea of the language ego to account for
the identity a person develops in reference to the language he/she speaks.
Through puberty the child's ego is flexible and dynamic but as the child reaches
puberty the language ego becomes protective due to physical, cognitive, and
emotional changes at this stage. The language ego tries to protect the ego of
the young adult by clinging to the security of the native language. Acquiring a
second language means also acquiring a new language ego which can be very
difficult for adults who have built up inhibitions to protect their ego. Mistakes
can be seen as threats to one's ego. With the fear to make mistakes the adult
language learner can resist to speak in the classroom.

Second language learning

Second language refers to any language learned in addition to a
person's first language; although the concept is named second-language
acquisition, it can also incorporate the learning of third, fourth, or
subsequent languages.[3] Second-language acquisition refers to what
learners do; it does not refer to practices in language teaching, although
teaching can affect acquisition. The term acquisition was originally used
to emphasize the non-conscious nature of the learning process,[note 1] but
in recent years learning and acquisition have become largely
synonymous.

A central theme in SLA research is that of interlanguage: the idea that

the language that learners use is not simply the result of differences
between the languages that they already know and the language that
they are learning, but a complete language system in its own right, with
its own systematic rules. This interlanguage gradually develops as
learners are exposed to the targeted language. The order in which
learners acquire features of their new language stays remarkably
constant, even for learners with different native languages and
regardless of whether they have had language instruction. However,
languages that learners already know can have a significant influence on
the process of learning a new one. This influence is known as language
transfer.
The primary factor driving SLA appears to be the language input that
learners receive. Learners become more advanced the longer they are
immersed in the language they are learning and the more time they
spend voluntarily reading. The input hypothesis developed by
linguist Stephen Krashen theorizes that comprehensible input alone is
necessary for second language acquisition. Krashen makes a distinction
between language acquisition and language learning (the acquisition–
learning distinction),[1] claiming that acquisition is a subconscious
process, whereas learning is a conscious one. According to this
hypothesis, the acquisition process in L2 (Language 2) is the same as
L1 (Language 1) acquisition. Learning, on the other hand, refers to
conscious learning and analysis of the language being learned.
[2]
Krashen argues that consciously learned language rules play a limited
role in language use, serving as a monitor that could check second
language output for form—assuming the learner has time, sufficient
knowledge, and inclination (the monitor hypothesis). Subsequent work,
by other researchers, on the interaction hypothesis and
the comprehensible output hypothesis, has suggested that opportunities
for output and interaction may also be necessary for learners to reach
more advanced levels.
Research on how exactly learners acquire a new language spans
several different areas. Focus is directed toward providing proof of
whether basic linguistic skills are innate (nature), acquired (nurture), or a
combination of the two attributes. Cognitive approaches to SLA research
deal with the processes in the brain that underpin language acquisition,
for example how paying attention to language affects the ability to learn
it, or how language acquisition is related to short-term memory and long-
term memory. Sociocultural approaches reject the notion that SLA is a
purely psychological phenomenon and attempt to explain it in a social
context. Some key social factors that influence SLA are the level of
immersion, connection to the L2 community, and gender. Linguistic
approaches consider language separately from other kinds of knowledge
and attempt to use findings from the wider study of linguistics to explain
SLA. There is also a considerable body of research about how SLA can
be affected by individual factors such as age and learning strategies. A
commonly discussed topic regarding age in SLA is the critical period
hypothesis, which suggests that individuals lose the ability to fully learn a
language after a particular age in childhood. Another topic of interest in
SLA is the differences between adult and child learners. Learning
strategies are commonly categorized as learning or communicative
strategies and are developed to improve their respective acquisition
skills. Affective factors are emotional factors that influence an individual's
ability to learn a new language. Common affective factors that influence
acquisition are anxiety, personality, social attitudes, and motivation. In
the domain of personality, introversion and extroversion in particular can
affect learning.
Individuals may also lose a language through a process called second-
language attrition. This is often caused by a lack of use or exposure to a
language over time. The severity of attrition depends on a variety of
factors including level of proficiency, age, social factors, and motivation
at the time of acquisition. Finally, classroom research deals with the
effect that language instruction has on acquisition.

Bilingualism, Ability to speak two languages. It may be acquired early by

children in regions where most adults speak two languages (e.g., French
and dialectal German in Alsace). Children may also become bilingual by
learning languages in two different social settings; for example, British
children in British India learned an Indian language from their nurses and
family servants. A second language can also be acquired in
school. Bilingualism can also refer to the use of two languages in teaching,
especially to foster learning in students trying to learn a new language.
Advocates of bilingual education in the U.S. argue that it speeds learning in
all subjects for children who speak a foreign language at home and prevents
them from being marginalized in English-language schools. Detractors
counter that it hinders such children from mastering the language of the
larger society and limits their opportunities for employment and higher
education.
Code-switching, process of shifting from one linguistic code (a language or dialect)
to another, depending on the social context or conversational
setting. Sociolinguists, social psychologists, and identity researchers are interested in
the ways in which code-switching, particularly by members of minority ethnic
groups, is used to shape and maintain a sense of identity and a sense of belonging to
a larger community.

In the United States, code-switching was originally studied in the context of second-
language acquisition as the process whereby native speakers of Spanish shifted from
Spanish to English and vice versa. Sociolinguists such as John J. Gumperz were
interested more generally in the circumstances that prompted members of
a speech community to alternate between their native language and that of the
majority population.

Types of bilingualism
Now that we know for sure what bilingualism is, let's dive into the
different types! There are several criteria linguists use to define
bilingualism, so we'll look at these in turn.

When looking at bilingualism in the context of 'who it is that's able to

speak more than one language?' there are different definitions to refer to
one bilingual person versus a bilingual community:

 Individual Bilingualism - refers to one individual being able to use

two languages proficiently.
 Societal Bilingualism - refers to a whole community or
country being able to use two languages proficiently.
In terms of how people develop bilingualism, there are three key types of
bilingualism:
 Compound Bilingualism - when an individual develops an
understanding of and proficiency in two languages simultaneously
in a single context. For example, a child that has been brought up
learning and speaking two different languages from infancy will
have acquired these two languages simultaneously. They would
therefore use both languages for everyday interaction with their
parents.
 Coordinate Bilingualism - when an individual learns two different
languages in distinctly different contexts, often by different means.
For example, if an English speaking child begins learning French at
 a young age in school and goes on to become quite proficient in it,
this child would be considered a coordinate bilingual, as they have
learned English from their parents, and French through lessons at
school (two distinctly different contexts).
 Sub-coordinate Bilingualism - when an individual learns a second
language by filtering information through their native language.
For example, when a Spanish person hears the English word 'book',
they will begin to associate it with the equivalent word in Spanish,
'libro'. This process of association requires the Spanish speaker to
filter the English word through their knowledge of Spanish in order
to understand the meaning of the word 'book'.

Benefits of being bilingual

As we said in the beginning of this article, being bilingual is like a
superpower! There are so many benefits to being bilingual, so let's take a
closer look:

 wider communicative ability - the most obvious advantage to being

bilingual is the increased ability to communicate with more people
and in more countries. Speaking two or more languages opens up
many opportunities for people, whether those opportunities be
professional, educational, creative, or explorative.
 privacy - people who are bilingual have the ability to code-switch. If
two bilingual friends found themselves in a situation where they
didn't want the people around them to understand what they were
talking about, they could code-switch from one language to the other
in order to keep their conversation private.
Code-switching is the ability to switch between different languages or
language varieties within a single speech exchange.
 increased cultural awareness - because culture and language are
often so closely linked, being able to speak more than one language
could give the speaker greater cultural insight and understanding.
For example, if a child is born to Spanish parents, has grown up in
England, but speaks both Spanish and English fluently, their
understanding and awareness of their Spanish heritage may be a lot
stronger than if they only spoke English. This child would likely
have solid cultural awareness of both their Spanish roots and British
culture, as a result of being bilingual.
  competitiveness in the job market - as we've now seen, languages
play an important role in business and professional settings. Being
bilingual presents people with an advantage over their monolingual
competitors and sets them apart as being able to reach more
colleagues and clients.
 ease of learning a third language - as with anything, practice
makes perfect. If you already have a firm grasp of two languages,
learning a third is made much easier.
 creative expression - bilingual people have the unique ability to mix
the best parts of the languages they speak. With a bit of creative
code-switching, bilingual people are able to pack more punch into
their discourse by adding impactful words in different languages.
Sometimes idiomatic language and other kinds of phrases in one
language do not translate well into others. Being bilingual enables
the speaker to still use these evocative words and phrases without
having to dilute their meaning by translating.

• Horizontal bilingual • Someone who is bilingual in two distinct languages which have a similar or
equal status. • Vertical bilingual • Someone who is bilingual in a standard language and a distinct but
related language or dialect

Difference between second language

learning and bilingualism
The term bilingual refers to individuals who can function in
more than one language. The category of bilinguals is very
broad–encompassing individuals who are sophisticated
speakers, readers, and writers of two or more languages, as
well as those who use a limited knowledge of a second
language (L2) for purposes such as work or schooling, and
who may be literate in only one language (or even
completely illiterate). Because of the consequences of
colonization, migration, nation-formation, traditions of
exogamy, and modernization, some degree of bilingualism is
typical of most people in the world.
Bilingualism is a feature not just of individuals, but also of
societies. Societies in which two languages are used
regularly, or in which more than one language has official
status or a recurrent function, can be called bilingual. For
example, Canada is a bilingual country because French and
English are both official languages, even though many
citizens of Canada are monolingual English speakers. Saudi
Arabia is also a bilingual society, as most Saudis speak both
Arabic and English, though English has no official status.
The nature of individual bilingualism is quite different in
different communities–there are those where bilingualism is
the norm for all educated citizens (as it is, for example, in
relatively small language communities like Scandinavia and
The Netherlands); those where bilingualism is the norm for
the minority language speakers but not those with the
greatest political or economic power in the society (e.g., for
Quechua speakers in Peru, for Turkish speakers in the
Netherlands, for Spanish speakers in the United States); and
those where bilingualism is the norm for the upper classes
and better educated but not the relatively powerless (e.g.,
Colombia). It must be noted that the United States and other
traditionally English-speaking countries observe a norm of
monolingualism (low expectations for second/foreign
language proficiency, low value placed on immigrant
languages, universal emphasis on the need to speak English)
that is possible only for speakers of a 'language of wider
communication' living in an economy that is globally highly
influential.
Bilingualism is often the product of second language (L2)
learning after the first language (L1) has been acquired–
either through nontutored exposure or through instruction.
Individuals can become bilingual at any age, depending on
when the need to learn the L2 emerges or when instruction
becomes available. In some cases, though, bilingualism is a
characteristic of a child's earliest language system. For
example, children growing up in bilingual households–where
both parents speak two languages regularly, or where each
parent speaks a different language–are typically bilingual
from the very beginning of language acquisition. Children
growing up with parents who speak a minority language
(within the larger societal context) may also be natively
bilingual, if visitors, neighbors, television, regular
caretakers, and other sources make the majority language
available.
English as a second language (ESL) refers to the process of
producing bilinguals by teaching English as an L2 to learners
in an English-speaking context. ESL is distinguished from
English as a foreign language (EFL), which is instruction
delivered in a context where English is not used regularly
outside the classroom, using the instructional techniques
and the intensity of instruction required to achieve success.
The term ESOL (English for speakers of other languages) is
meant to encompass both ESL and EFL. Given the
importance of English in the modern, globalized economy,
ESOL is a large field of practice buttressed by considerable
bodies of research and many curricular resources.

Second language learninf vs

foreign language learning

https://
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foreign-language/

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