Appendix A

Simultaneous Equations
and Matrix Inversion
In circuit analysis, we often encounter a set of simultaneous equations
having the form
a x a x p a x b
a x a x p a x b (A.1)
o o o
a x a x p a x b
where there are n unknown x , x , p , x to be determined. Equation
(A.1) can be written in matrix form as
a a p a x b
a a p a x b
≥ p ¥ ≥ ¥ ≥ ¥ (A.2)
o o o o o
a a p a x b
This matrix equation can be put in a compact form as
AX B (A.3)
where
a a p a x b
a a p a x b
A ≥ ¥, X ≥ ¥, B ≥ ¥ (A.4)
o o p o o o
a a p a x b
A is a square (n n) matrix while X and B are column matrices.
There are several methods for solving Eq. (A.1) or (A.3). These
include substitution, Gaussian elimination, Cramer’s rule, matrix inver-
sion, and numerical analysis.

A.1 Cramer’s Rule

In many cases, Cramer’s rule can be used to solve the simultaneous equa-
tions we encounter in circuit analysis. Cramer’s rule states that the solution
to Eq. (A.1) or (A.3) is

¢
x
¢
¢
x (A.5)
¢
o
¢
x
¢

A
 Appendix A Simultaneous Equations and Matrix Inversion A-1

where the ¢ ’s are the determinants given by

a a p a b a p a
a a p a b a p a
¢ p o , ¢ p o
o o o o
a a p a b a p a
o o
a b p a a a p b
a b p a a a p b
¢ p o ,p,¢ p o
o o o o
a b p a a a p b
(A.6)
Notice that ¢ is the determinant of matrix A and ¢ is the determi-
nant of the matrix formed by replacing the kth column of A by B. It
is evident from Eq. (A.5) that Cramer’s rule applies only when ¢ 0.
When ¢ 0, the set of equations has no unique solution, because the
equations are linearly dependent.
The value of the determinant ¢ , for example, can be obtained by
expanding along the first row:
a a a p a
a a a p a
¢ a a a p a (A.7)
o o o p o
a a a p a
a M a M a M p ( 1) a M

where the minor M is an (n 1) (n 1) determinant of

the matrix formed by striking out the ith row and jth column. The
value of ¢ may also be obtained by expanding along the first
column:

¢ a M a M a M p ( 1) a M (A.8)

We now specifically develop the formulas for calculating the deter-

minants of 2 2 and 3 3 matrices, because of their frequent occur-
rence in this text. For a 2 2 matrix,
a a
¢ a a a a (A.9)
a a
For a 3 3 matrix,
a a a
a a a a
¢ a a a a ( 1) a ( 1)
a a a a
a a a
a a
a ( 1)
a a
a (a a a a ) a (a a a a )
a (a a a a )
(A.10)
A-2 Appendix A Simultaneous Equations and Matrix Inversion

An alternative method of obtaining the determinant of a 3 3 matrix

is by repeating the first two rows and multiplying the terms diagonally
as follows.
a a a
a a a
¢ a a a
a a a
a a a

a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a a (A.11)
In summary:

The solution of linear simultaneous equations by Cramer’s rule boils

down to finding

¢
x , k 1, 2, . . . , n (A.12)
¢

where ¢ is the determinant of matrix A and ¢ is the determinant of

the matrix formed by replacing the th column of A by B.

One may use other methods, such
as matrix inversion and elimination.
Only Cramer’s method is covered
here, because of its simplicity and
also because of the availability of
powerful calculators.
You may not find much need to use Cramer’s method described in
this appendix, in view of the availability of calculators, computers, and
software packages such as MATLAB, which can be used easily to solve
a set of linear equations. But in case you need to solve the equations
by hand, the material covered in this appendix becomes useful. At any
rate, it is important to know the mathematical basis of those calcula-
tors and software packages.

Example A.1 Solve the simultaneous equations

4x 3x 17, 3x 5x 21

Solution:
The given set of equations is cast in matrix form as
4 3 x 17
c d c d c d
3 5 x 21
The determinants are evaluated as
4 3
¢ 4 5 ( 3)( 3) 11
3 5
17 3
¢ 17 5 ( 3)( 21) 22
21 5
4 17
¢ 4 ( 21) 17 ( 3) 33
3 21
 Appendix A Simultaneous Equations and Matrix Inversion A-3

Hence,
¢ 22 ¢ 33
x 2, x 3
¢ 11 ¢ 11

Find the solution to the following simultaneous equations: Practice Problem A.1
3x x 4, 6x 18x 16

Answer: x 1.833, x 1.5.

Determine x , x , and x for this set of simultaneous equations: Example A.2

25x 5x 20x 50
5x 10x 4x 0
5x 4x 9x 0

Solution:
In matrix form, the given set of equations becomes
25 5 20 x 50
£ 5 10 4§ £x § £ 0§
5 4 9 x 0
We apply Eq. (A.11) to find the determinants. This requires that we
repeat the first two rows of the matrix. Thus,
25 5 20
25 5 20 5 10 4
¢ 5 10 4 5 4 9
5 4 9 25 5 20
5 10 4

25(10)9 ( 5)( 4)( 20) ( 5)( 5)( 4)

( 20)(10)( 5) ( 4)( 4)25 9( 5)( 5)
2250 400 100 1000 400 225 125
Similarly,
50 5 20
50 5 20 0 10 4
¢ 0 10 4 0 4 9
0 4 9 50 5 20
0 10 4

4500 0 0 0 800 0 3700

A-4 Appendix A Simultaneous Equations and Matrix Inversion

25 50 20
25 50 20 5 0 4
¢ 5 0 4 5 0 9
5 0 9 25 50 20
5 0 4

0 0 1000 0 0 2250 3250

25 5 50
25 5 50 5 10 0
¢ 5 10 0 5 4 0
5 4 0 25 5 50
5 10 0

0 1000 0 2500 0 0 3500

Hence, we now find
¢ 3700
x 29.6
¢ 125
¢ 3250
x 26
¢ 125
¢ 3500
x 28
¢ 125

Practice Problem A.2 Obtain the solution of this set of simultaneous equations:
3x x 2x 1
x 6x 3x 0
2x 3x 6x 6

Answer: x 3 x ,x 2.

A.2 Matrix Inversion

The linear system of equations in Eq. (A.3) can be solved by matrix
inversion. In the matrix equation AX B, we may invert A to get X,
i.e.,

X A B (A.13)
where A is the inverse of A. Matrix inversion is needed in other
applications apart from using it to solve a set of equations.
By definition, the inverse of matrix A satisfies
A A AA I (A.14)
 Appendix A Simultaneous Equations and Matrix Inversion A-5

where I is an identity matrix. A is given by

adj A
A (A.15)
det A
where adj A is the adjoint of A and det A 0 A 0 is the determinant of
A. The adjoint of A is the transpose of the cofactors of A. Suppose we
are given an n n matrix A as
a a p a
a a p a
A ≥ ¥ (A.16)
o
a a p a

The cofactors of A are defined as

c c p c
c c p c
C cof (A) ≥ ¥ (A.17)
o
c c p c

where the cofactor c is the product of ( 1) and the determinant

of the 1 n 1 2 1 n 1 2 submatrix is obtained by deleting the
ith row and jth column from A. For example, by deleting the first
row and the first column of A in Eq. (A.16), we obtain the cofactor
c as
a a p a
a a p a
c ( 1) (A.18)
o
a a p a

Once the cofactors are found, the adjoint of A is obtained as

c c p c
c c p c
adj (A) ≥ ¥ C (A.19)
o
c c p c
where T denotes transpose.
In addition to using the cofactors to find the adjoint of A, they are
also used in finding the determinant of A which is given by

0A 0 a a c (A.20)

where i is any value from 1 to n. By substituting Eqs. (A.19) and (A.20)

into Eq. (A.15), we obtain the inverse of A as

C
A (A.21)
0A 0

For a 2 2 matrix, if
a b
A c d (A.22)
c d
A-6 Appendix A Simultaneous Equations and Matrix Inversion

its inverse is
1 d b 1 d b
A c d c d (A.23)
0 0
A c a ad bc c a
For a 3 3 matrix, if
a a a
A £a a a § (A.24)
a a a
we first obtain the cofactors as
c c c
C £c c c § (A.25)
c c c
where
a a a a a a
c , c , c ,
a a a a a a
a a a a a a
c , c , c ,
a a a a a a
a a a a a a
c , c , c
a a a a a a
(A.26)
The determinant of the 3 3 matrix can be found using Eq. (A.11).
Here, we want to use Eq. (A.20), i.e.,
0A0 a c a c a c (A.27)
The idea can be extended n 7 3, but we deal mainly with 2 2 and
3 3 matrices in this book.

Example A.3 Use matrix inversion to solve the simultaneous equations

2x 10x 2, x 3x 7

Solution:
We first express the two equations in matrix form as
2 10 x 2
c d c d c d
1 3 x 7
or
AX B ¡ X A B
where
2 10 x 2
A c d, X c d, B c d
1 3 x 7
The determinant of A is 0 A 0 2 3 10( 1) 16, so the inverse
of A is
1 3 10
A c d
16 1 2
 Appendix A Simultaneous Equations and Matrix Inversion A-7

Hence,
1 3 10 2 1 64 4
X A B c d c d c d c d
16 1 2 7 16 16 1
i.e., x 4 and x 1.

Solve the following two equations by matrix inversion. Practice Problem A.3
2y y 4, y 3y 9

Answer: y 3, y 2.

Determine x , x , and x for the following simultaneous equations using Example A.4
matrix inversion.
x x x 5
x 2x 9
4x x x 2

Solution:
In matrix form, the equations become
1 1 1 x 5
£ 1 2 0§ £x § £ 9§
4 1 1 x 2
or
AX B ¡ X A B
where
1 1 1 x 5
A £ 1 2 0§, X £x §, B £ 9§
4 1 1 x 2
We now find the cofactors
2 0 1 0 1 2
c 2, c 1, c 9
1 1 4 1 4 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
c 2, c 5, c 3
1 1 4 1 4 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
c 2, c 1, c 3
2 0 1 0 1 2
A-8 Appendix A Simultaneous Equations and Matrix Inversion

The adjoint of matrix A is

2 1 9 2 2 2
adj A £ 2 5 3§ £ 1 5 1§
2 1 3 9 3 3
We can find the determinant of A using any row or column of A. Since
one element of the second row is 0, we can take advantage of this to
find the determinant as
0A 0 1c 2c (0)c 1(2) 2( 5) 12
Hence, the inverse of A is
2 2 2
1
A £ 1 5 1§
12
9 3 3
2 2 2 5 1
1
X A B £ 1 5 1§ £ 9§ £ 4§
12
9 3 3 2 2
i.e., x 1, x 4, x 2.

Practice Problem A.4 Solve the following equations using matrix inversion.
y y 1
2y 3y y 1
y y y 3

Answer: y 6, y 2, y 5.
Appendix B
Complex Numbers

The ability to manipulate complex numbers is very handy in circuit

analysis and in electrical engineering in general. Complex numbers are
particularly useful in the analysis of ac circuits. Again, although cal-
culators and computer software packages are now available to manip-
ulate complex numbers, it is still advisable for a student to be familiar
with how to handle them by hand.

B.1 Representations of Complex

Numbers
A complex number z may be written in rectangular form as
z x jy (B.1)
where j 1 1; x is the real part of z while y is the imaginary part
of z; that is,
x Re(z), y Im(z) (B.2) The complex plane looks like the
The complex number z is shown plotted in the complex plane in two-dimensional curvilinear coordinate
space, but it is not.
Fig. B.1. Since j 1 1,
1 Im
j z
j jy
j 1 r
y
j j j j (B.3)
j j j 1 0 x Re
j j j j Figure B.1
o Graphical representation of a
complex number.
j j
A second way of representing the complex number z is by speci-
fying its magnitude r and the angle u it makes with the real axis, as
Fig. B.1 shows. This is known as the polar form. It is given by
z 0z 0 u r u (B.4)
where
y
r 2x y, u tan (B.5a)
x
or
x r cos u, y r sin u (B.5b)
that is,
z x jy r u r cos u jr sin u (B.6)

A-9
A-10 Appendix B Complex Numbers

In converting from rectangular to polar form using Eq. (B.5), we must

exercise care in determining the correct value of u. These are the four
possibilities:
y
z x jy, u tan (1st Quadrant)
x
y
z x jy, u 180 tan (2nd Quadrant)
x
(B.7)
y
z x jy, u 180 tan (3rd Quadrant)
x
y
z x jy, u 360 tan (4th Quadrant)
x
assuming that x and y are positive.
In the exponential form, so The third way of representing the complex z is the exponential
that u form:
z re (B.8)
This is almost the same as the polar form, because we use the same
magnitude r and the angle u.
The three forms of representing a complex number are summa-
rized as follows.

z x jy, (x r cos u, y r sin u) Rectangular form

y
z r u, ar 2x y ,u tan b Polar form
x
y
z re , ar 2x y ,u tan b Exponential form
x

(B.9)
The first two forms are related by Eqs. (B.5) and (B.6). In Section B.3
we will derive Euler’s formula, which proves that the third form is also
equivalent to the first two.

Example B.1 Express the following complex numbers in polar and exponential form:
(a) z 6 j8, (b) z 6 j8, (c) z 6 j8, (d) z 6 j8.

Solution:
Notice that we have deliberately chosen these complex numbers to fall
in the four quadrants, as shown in Fig. B.2.
(a) For z 6 j8 (1st quadrant),
8
r 26 8 10, u tan 53.13
6
Hence, the polar form is 10 53.13 and the exponential form is 10e .
(b) For z 6 j8 (4th quadrant),
8
r 26 ( 8) 10, u 360 tan 306.87
6
 Appendix B Complex Numbers A-11

so that the polar form is 10 306.87 and the exponential form is Im

z3 j8 z1
10e . The angle u may also be taken as 53.13 , as shown in
Fig. B.2, so that the polar form becomes 10 53.13 and the j6
exponential form becomes 10e . r3 j4 r1
3
(c) For z 6 j8 (2nd quadrant),
j2 1
4
8
r 2( 6) 8 10, u 180 tan 126.87
6 −8 −6 − 4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 Re
−j2
2
Hence, the polar form is 10 126.87 and the exponential form −j4
r4 r2
is 10e .
−j6
(d) For z 6 j8 (3rd quadrant),
z4 −j8 z2
8
r 2( 6) ( 8) 10, u 180 tan 233.13 Figure B.2
6
For Example B.1.
so that the polar form is 10 233.13 and the exponential form
is 10e .

Convert the following complex numbers to polar and exponential forms: Practice Problem B.1
(a) z 3 j4, (b) z 5 j12, (c) z 3 j9, (d) z 7 j.

Answer: (a) 5 306.9 , 5e , (b) 13 67.38 , 13e ,

(c) 9.487 251.6 , 9.487e , (d) 7.071 171.9 , 7.071e .

Convert the following complex numbers into rectangular form: Example B.2
(a) 12 60 , (b) 50 285 , (c) 8e , (d) 20e .

Solution:
(a) Using Eq. (B.6),
12 60 12 cos( 60 ) j12 sin( 60 ) 6 j10.39
Note that u 60 is the same as u 360 60 300 .
(b) We can write
50 285 50 cos 285 j50 sin 285 12.94 j48.3
(c) Similarly,
8e 8 cos 10 j8 sin 10 7.878 j1.389
(d) Finally,
20e 20 cos( p 3) j20 sin( p 3) 10 j17.32

Find the rectangular form of the following complex numbers: Practice Problem B.2
(a) 8 210 , (b) 40 305 , (c) 10e , (d) 50e .

Answer: (a) 6.928 j4, (b) 22.94 j32.77, (c) 8.66 j5, (d) j50.
A-12 Appendix B Complex Numbers

B.2 Mathematical Operations

We have used lightface notation for
complex numbers—since they are Two complex numbers z x jy and z x jy are equal if
not time- or frequency-dependent— and only if their real parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal,
whereas we use boldface notation
x x, y y (B.10)
for phasors.
The complex conjugate of the complex number z x jy is
z* x jy r u re (B.11)
Thus, the complex conjugate of a complex number is found by replac-
ing every j by j.
Given two complex numbers z x jy r u and z x
jy r u , their sum is
z z (x x) j( y y) (B.12)
and their difference is
z z (x x) j( y y) (B.13)
While it is more convenient to perform addition and subtraction of
complex numbers in rectangular form, the product and quotient of the
two complex numbers are best done in polar or exponential form. For
their product,
zz rr u u (B.14)
Alternatively, using the rectangular form,
zz (x jy )(x jy )
(B.15)
(x x yy) j(x y xy)
For their quotient,
z r
u u (B.16)
z r
Alternatively, using the rectangular form,
z x jy
(B.17)
z x jy
We rationalize the denominator by multiplying both the numerator and
denominator by z*.
z (x jy )(x jy ) xx yy x y xy
j (B.18)
z (x jy )(x jy ) x y x y

Example B.3 If A 2 j5, B 4 j6, find: (a) A*(A B), (b) (A B) (A B).

Solution:
(a) If A 2 j5, then A* 2 j5 and
A B (2 4) j(5 6) 6 j
so that
A*(A B) (2 j5)(6 j) 12 j2 j30 5 7 j32
 Appendix B Complex Numbers A-13

(b) Similarly,
A B (2 4) j(5 6) 2 j11
Hence,
A B 6 j (6 j)( 2 j11)
A B 2 j11 ( 2 j11)( 2 j11)
12 j66 j2 11 23 j64
0.184 j0.512
( 2) 11 125

Given that C 3 j 7 and D 8 j, calculate: Practice Problem B.3

(a) (C D*)(C D*), (b) D C*, (c) 2CD (C D).

Answer: (a) 103 j26, (b) 5.19 j 6.776, (c) 6.045 j11.53.

Evaluate: Example B.4

(2 j5)(8e ) j(3 j4)*
(a) (b)
2 j4 2 40 ( 1 j6)(2 j)

Solution:
(a) Since there are terms in polar and exponential forms, it may be best
to express all terms in polar form:
2 j5 22 5 tan 5 2 5.385 68.2
(2 j5)(8e ) (5.385 68.2 )(8 10 ) 43.08 78.2
2 j4 2 40 2 j4 2 cos( 40 ) j2 sin( 40 )
3.532 j2.714 4.454 37.54
Thus,
(2 j5)(8e ) 43.08 78.2
9.672 40.66
2 j4 2 40 4.454 37.54
(b) We can evaluate this in rectangular form, since all terms are in that
form. But
j(3 j4)* j(3 j4) 4 j3
(2 j) 4 j4 1 3 j4
( 1 j6)(2 j) ( 1 j6)(3 j4) 3 4j j18 24
27 j14
Hence,
j(3 j4)* 4 j3 ( 4 j3)( 27 j14)
( 1 j6)(2 j) 27 j14 27 14
108 j56 j81 42
0.1622 j0.027
925
A-14 Appendix B Complex Numbers

Practice Problem B.4 Evaluate these complex fractions:

6 30 j5 3 (15 j7)(3 j2)* *
(a) (b)
1 j 2e (4 j6)*(3 70 )

Answer: (a) 3.387 5.615 , (b) 2.759 287.6 .

B.3 Euler’s Formula

Euler’s formula is an important result in complex variables. We derive
it from the series expansion of e , cos u, and sin u. We know that
x x x p
e 1 x (B.19)
2! 3! 4!
Replacing x by ju gives
u u u p
e 1 ju j (B.20)
2! 3! 4!
Also,
u u u p
cos u 1
2! 4! 6!
(B.21)
u u u p
sin u u
3! 5! 7!
so that
u u u u p
cos u j sin u 1 ju j j (B.22)
2! 3! 4! 5!
Comparing Eqs. (B.20) and (B.22), we conclude that

e cos u j sin u (B.23)

This is known as Euler’s formula. The exponential form of represent-

ing a complex number as in Eq. (B.8) is based on Euler’s formula.
From Eq. (B.23), notice that

cos u Re(e ), sin u Im(e ) (B.24)

and that
0e 0 2 cos u sin u 1
Replacing u by u in Eq. (B.23) gives
e cos u j sin u (B.25)
Adding Eqs. (B.23) and (B.25) yields

1
cos u (e e ) (B.26)
2
 Appendix B Complex Numbers A-15

Subtracting Eq. (B.25) from Eq. (B.23) yields

1
sin u (e e ) (B.27)
2j

Useful Identities
The following identities are useful in dealing with complex numbers.
If z x jy r u, then
zz* x y r (B.28)
2z 2x jy 2re 2r u 2 (B.29)
z (x jy) r nu r e r (cos nu j sin nu) (B.30)
z (x jy) r u n 2pk n
(B.31)
k 0, 1, 2, p , n 1
ln(re ) ln r ln e ln r ju j2k p
(B.32)
(k integer)
1
j
j
e 1
(B.33)
e 1
e j
e j
Re(e ) Re(e e ) e cos t
(B.34)
Im(e ) Im(e e ) e sin t

If A 6 j8, find: (a) 1A, (b) A . Example B.5

Solution:
(a) First, convert A to polar form:
8
r 26 8 10, u tan 53.13 , A 10 53.13
6
Then
1A 110 53.13 2 3.162 26.56

(b) Since A 10 53.13 ,

A r 4u 10 4 53.13 10,000 212.52

If A 3 j4, find: (a) A (3 roots), and (b) ln A. Practice Problem B.5

Answer: (a) 1.71 102.3 , 1.71 222.3 , 1.71 342.3 ,
(b) 1.609 j5.356 j2n p (n 0, 1, 2, . . . ).
 Appendix C
Mathematical Formulas

This appendix—by no means exhaustive—serves as a handy reference. It

does contain all the formulas needed to solve circuit problems in this
book.

C.1 Quadratic Formula

The roots of the quadratic equation ax bx c 0 are

b 2b 4ac
x ,x
2a

C.2 Trigonometric Identities

sin ( x) sin x
cos( x) cos x
1 1
sec x , csc x
cos x sin x
sin x 1
tan x , cot x
cos x tan x
sin(x 90 ) cos x
cos(x 90 ) sin x
sin(x 180 ) sin x
cos(x 180 ) cos x
cos x sin x 1
a b c
(law of sines)
sin A sin B sin C
a b c 2bc cos A (law of cosines)
tan 12 (A B) a b
(law of tangents)
tan 12 (A B) a b
sin(x y) sin x cos y cos x sin y
cos(x y) cos x cos y sin x sin y
tan x tan y
tan(x y)
1 tan x tan y
2 sin x sin y cos(x y) cos(x y)
2 sin x cos y sin(x y) sin(x y)
2 cos x cos y cos(x y) cos(x y)
sin 2x 2 sin x cos x

A-16
 Appendix C Mathematical Formulas A-17

cos 2x cos x sin x 2 cos x 1 1 2 sin x

2 tan x
tan 2x
1 tan x
1
sin x (1 cos 2x)
2
1
cos x (1 cos 2x)
2
K
K cos x K sin x 2K K cos a x tan b
K
e cos x j sin x (Euler’s formula)
e e
cos x
2
e e
sin x
2j
1 rad 57.296

C.3 Hyperbolic Functions

1
sinh x (e e )
2
1
cosh x (e e )
2
sinh x
tanh x
cosh x
1
coth x
tanh x
1
csch x
sinh x
1
sech x
cosh x
sinh(x y) sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y
cosh(x y) cosh x cosh y sinh x sinh y

C.4 Derivatives
If U U(x), V V(x), and a constant,

d dU
(aU ) a
dx dx
d dV dU
(UV ) U V
dx dx dx
A-18 Appendix C Mathematical Formulas

dU dV
V U
d U dx dx
a b
dx V V
d
(aU ) naU
dx
d dU
(a ) a ln a
dx dx
d dU
(e ) e
dx dx
d dU
(sin U ) cos U
dx dx
d dU
(cos U ) sin U
dx dx

C.5 Indefinite Integrals

If U U(x), V V(x), and a constant,

a dx ax C

U dV UV V dU (integration by parts)

U
U dU C, n 1
n 1
dU
ln U C
U
a
a dU C, a 7 0, a 1
ln a
1
e dx e C
a
e
xe dx (ax 1) C
a
e
x e dx (a x 2ax 2) C
a

ln x dx x ln x x C

1
sin ax dx cos ax C
a
1
cos ax dx sin ax C
a
x sin 2ax
sin ax dx C
2 4a
x sin 2ax
cos ax dx C
2 4a
 Appendix C Mathematical Formulas A-19

1
x sin ax dx (sin ax ax cos ax) C
a
1
x cos ax dx (cos ax ax sin ax) C
a
1
x sin ax dx (2ax sin ax 2 cos ax a x cos ax) C
a
1
x cos ax dx (2ax cos ax 2 sin ax a x sin ax) C
a
e
e sin bx dx (a sin bx b cos bx) C
a b
e
e cos bx dx (a cos bx b sin bx) C
a b
sin(a b)x sin(a b)x
sin ax sin bx dx C, a b
2(a b) 2(a b)
cos(a b)x cos(a b)x
sin ax cos bx dx C, a b
2(a b) 2(a b)
sin(a b)x sin(a b)x
cos ax cos bx dx C, a b
2(a b) 2(a b)
dx 1 x
tan C
a x a a
x dx x
x a tan C
a x a
dx 1 x 1 x
a tan b C
(a x) 2a x a a a

C.6 Definite Integrals

If m and n are integers,

sin ax dx 0

cos ax dx 0

p
sin ax dx cos ax dx
2

sin mx sin nx dx cos mx cos nx dx 0, m n

0, m n even
sin mx cos nx dx 2m
, m n odd
m n
0, m n
sin mx sin nx dx sin mx sin nx dx
p, m n
A-20 Appendix C Mathematical Formulas

p
, a 7 0
2
sin ax
dx 0, a 0
x
p
, a 6 0
2

C.7 L’Hopital’s Rule

If f (0) 0 h(0), then

f (x) f ¿ (x)
lim lim
h(x) h ¿ (x)
where the prime indicates differentiation.