CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Welcome to Chapter One of this module on General psychology. It is our hope that you would
enjoy going through this module and benefit from it by making use of the materials in the
module

1.0 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives in this chapter are tailored to highlight what is expected after you have
gone through each unit in the module. The Learning Objectives of this chapter are that by the end
of this chapter you (students) would be able to:

i. Define Psychology.
ii. State the different schools of Psychology.
iii. Identify the different branches of Psychology.
iv. Identify the benefits of Psychology to man.

1.1 Meaning and Definition of Psychology

General psychology is a branch of Psychology. What is then Psychology? The word psychology
comes from the Greek word “psyche” (mind) and ‘logo’ (study). These two words taken, mean
the science of the mind/mental processes. From this statement, we can then deduce that
psychology is the study of mental processes. As an independent area of study, it only acquired
the status very recently. Early psychology was a Christian study of the soul, but it has evolved
into an applied and academic discipline studying the human mind and behavior. It uses the
scientific method, which involves systematic observation, measurement, experiments, and
hypothesis formulation, to arrive at factual conclusions, collected as data.

Psychology focuses on understanding thoughts, emotions, and behaviour, with applications in

mental health treatment, performance enhancement, and self-help. However, the definition
remains valid irrespective of controversies surrounding the mind's processes. Humans engage in
purposeful activities, and environmental influences may make psychology a discipline studying
consciousness or immediate experiences. It is important to examine the origin, development, and
status of psychology as a scientific discipline.
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 1.2 Origins of Psychology

Psychology has a rich history, originating from the Greeks and influenced by philosophical,
physiological, structural, and functional thinkers. In the 17th century, French philosopher
Descartes introduced dualism, stating the body and mind interact to form human experience,
leading to its separation from philosophy. Psychology emerged as a separate discipline in the
mid-1800s, using scientific methods to study human thoughts and behavior. German physiologist
Wilhelm Wundt established a laboratory in Leipzig in 1879, establishing psychology as a distinct
field from philosophy. This led to a focus on internal mental processes and the term
"introspection" in psychology. Wundt's introspection method paved the way for future
experimental studies, influencing Edwards Titchener, the father of Structuralism, and leading to
the emergence of various psychology schools in Germany and the United States of America.

Table 1 gives a quick trace of psychology

Table 1. Origin of Psychology

Psychological Description Focus Contributors
Perspectives
Philosophical Mainly focused on the distinction between Role of nature and Plato (428-347 BC)
and ‘nature and nurture’, free will in life, and nurture in life and Aristotle (384–322
Physiological development. Plato favoured nature, development BC)
believing knowledge is innate, while
Aristotle believed knowledge is acquired
through learning and experience. He also
believed children are born as blank slates.
Structuralism Wundt and his associates proposed Structures/elements Wundt (1832—
structuralism, a school of psychology that of the mind, 1920)
aimed to analyze the basic elements of the psychological Titchener (1867–
mind and psychological experience through experience, their 1927)
introspection, establishing a scientific classification, and
classification of conscious experiences, introspection
similar to the periodic table in chemistry.
The approach marked the beginning of
psychology as a science, as it demonstrated
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 that mental events could be quantified
Functionalism Functionalism (with focus on function and The function of the William James
usefulness), influenced by Darwin's natural mind, rather than a Darwins (1809–
selection theory, aimed to understand why description of its 1882)
animals and humans developed specific elements
psychological aspects and physical
characteristics.
Psychodynamic Sigmund Freud's psychodynamic Focuses on the role of Freud (1856–1939)
perspective, based on psychoanalysis, our unconscious Carl Jung
focuses on early childhood experiences and thoughts, feelings, Alfred Adler
unconscious thoughts, feelings, and and memories, and Erik Erickson
memories. It suggests that an individual's early childhood Karen Horney
worldview is influenced by family and experiences in
psychological problems. He categorised determining
levels of awareness into conscious, behaviour
preconscious, unconscious, and the psyche
as id, ego, and superego
Behaviourism Watson, influenced by Pavlov's work, Based on the premise John B. Watson
advocated for the study of behaviour, that it is not possible (1878–1958)
arguing that it could be learned, predicted, to objectively study Burrhus Frederick
and studied through stimuli, response, the mind, and (B. F.) Skinner
conditioning, and modelling. therefore that (1904–1990)
psychologists should
limit their attention to
the study of
behaviour itself

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Biological The biological perspective posits that Focuses on the role of Michael Gazzaniga
human and animal behavior is influenced by biology (genetics, James Olds
physical/physiological factors. neurotransmitters, Roger Sperry
Neuroscientists (scientists who study this hormones, and the David Hubel
field) study the nervous system's functions, brain) on human Torsten Wiesel
neurotransmitter effects, brain trauma, and behaviour and mental
disease on individual behaviour. processes
Humanistic The humanistic perspective emphasizes Emphasis is placed Carl Rogers
self-concept, self-esteem, self-actualization, on the individual’s Abraham Maslow
and free will, contrasting deterministic and potential for personal
pessimistic perspectives. It believes growth.
individuals can strive for higher versions of
themselves, with Maslow's hierarchy of
needs (physiological, safety, love, esteem,
and self-actualization needs) proving useful.
Cognitive Cognitivists study mental processes like The study of mental Hermann
perception, thinking, memory, and processes, including Ebbinghaus (1850–
judgment, arguing that thinking influences perception, thinking, 1909)
behavior. They believe the mind interprets memory, and Frederic Bartlett
and responds to stimuli, and agree with the judgments (1886–1969),
information-processing theory. This Jean Piaget (1896–
movement has contributed to advances in 1980).
neuroimaging techniques, allowing us to see
the brain in action and understand its
structure and function.
Socio-Cultural Socio-cultural thinking suggests that social The study of how the Fritz Heider
situations and cultures influence people's social situations and Leon Festinger
thinking and behavior, with individuals cultures in Stanley Schachter
developing beliefs and attitudes by which people find
comparing their opinions to others. Social themselves
norms, including customs, traditions, and influenced thinking
values, play a crucial role in shaping these and
norms. Some societies favor individualism,
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 while others uphold collectivism, with behaviour
Western cultures being individualistic and
East Asian cultures being collectivist.
Evolutionary The evolutionary perspective, influenced by Focuses on Charles Darwin,
functionalists, posits that human adaptation and David
psychological systems, such as memory, survival as the basis Buss, Richard
emotion, and personality, serve adaptive of behaviour and Dawkins,
functions. Fitness is a key component of mental processes Steven Pinker
this perspective. Although predictions are
difficult to test, it has been useful in
explaining motivation, emotion, instincts,
reflexes, language, and other psychological
traits..

Source: Lally & Valentine-French (2014), Feist & Rosenberg (2012), Weiten (2007)

1.3 Sub-disciplines of Psychology

Welcome to this section of the reading that introduces you to what is commonly known as the
Sub-disciplines of Psychology. Some sub-disciplines have been described in the historical trace
of psychology. Others are:

Developmental Psychology: Examines the stability and evolution of thought and behavior in
humans and animals over their lifespan, focusing on changes in reasoning, emotions, and
behaviour.

Personality Psychology: This field explores the distinctiveness and similarities of individuals,
aiming to understand their differences and similarities with others and identify potential factors
contributing to this.

Social Psychology: The study examines how the presence of others, whether real or imagined,
influences an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviour, thereby determining their self-
expression.

Clinical Psychology: Psychological disorders are studied, diagnosed, and treated by

psychologists, focusing on prevention and improvement. Related fields include counselling,
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psychiatry, and social work, which treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders due to
genetic or environmental causes.

Educational Psychology: Educational psychology studies psychology's influence on teaching

and learning in schools, examining techniques, learning styles, gifted students, and special needs
students to improve teaching and learning.

Industrial or Organizational Psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology are two-

dimensional fields that focus on matching individuals to appropriate workspaces and improving
work environments and leadership styles to enhance productivity and satisfaction.

Forensic Psychology: Forensic psychology examines the relationship between psychology and
law and criminal justice, involving assessing an accused person's mental state, preparing for trial,
and sometimes developing a criminal profile.

Health Psychology: This field studies psychological factors influencing health and illness,
including interactions between mental and emotional states like happiness, stress, and
depression. It also focuses on disease prevention, health promotion, and rehabilitation.

Sports Psychology: The study investigates the impact of psychological factors on the
participation and performance of athletes in sports and exercise.

1.4 Goals of Psychology

Psychologists aim to achieve the following objectives through their studies and practice:

i. Describe: Psychologists use scientific studies to accurately describe behaviour and

mental processes through systematic data collection methods like natural observation,
surveys, case studies, and self-reporting tests.
ii. Understand: Psychologists aim to understand phenomena by explaining what they can
describe from data. They explain why and how phenomena like behaviour and mental
processes are observed, broadening our understanding of ourselves, animals, and the
environment. Their explanations often form theories explaining behaviour.
iii. Predict: By analyzing past behavior, psychologists form patterns and understand the
underlying causes of people's actions, forming a better understanding of their actions.
Using that understanding and patterns formed, psychologists can predict future behaviour

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 based on empirical research findings. An example of application is matching individuals
with careers based on personalities.
iv. Change: Psychologists aim to influence, control, and change behavior in beneficial ways,
using techniques to change negative trends when phenomena or behaviour can be
successfully predicted (Bouchrika, 2022).

1.5 Ways of thinking about Mind, Body, and Experience

Discussion of topics of interest to psychology falls under three main categories: nature-nurture,
the mind-body, and evolutionary theory.
The nature-nurture perspective argues that personality is primarily attributed to biological,
inborn tendencies and genetic traits, while nurture advocates believe that the total personality is
influenced by experiences and environmental factors. However, neither perspective alone is
responsible for a person's personality; the interaction between these perspectives is what
ultimately constitutes the personality.

Rene Descartes' mind-body dualism perspective suggests the mind and body are separate entities,
with the mind controlling the body and vice versa. Again as applies to the nature-nurture stance,
they are intertwined and complement each other in function.

The evolutionary theory in science focuses on understanding species' evolution over time,
transferring traits for survival and reproduction. Evolutionary psychology studies human
adaptations for survival and problem-solving, identifying inherited solutions that contribute to
reproductive success (Feist & Rosenberg, 2012).

1.6 No One Perspective Tells the Whole Story

Psychology promotes critical thinking and research, allowing individuals to approach issues
rationally. It provides a holistic view of life and decision-making through multiple perspectives
and findings. Studying psychology encourages individuals to examine different perspectives to
develop a better understanding of life and themselves.

1.7 Concluding Remarks

In summary, the chapter provides an overview of psychology as a discipline, including its origin,
historical development, and current status.

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 Psychology is a scientific field that uses methods and principles similar to other physical
sciences to conduct experiments and generate scientifically valid, reliable, and variable
solutions to human problems.
 Psychology aims to understand, measure, and improve human behavior and mental
processes, focusing on understanding, explanation, and improvement of societal conduct.
 Psychology studies and encompasses knowledge-generating activities, emotional issues,
interpersonal relationships, personality differences, human resource management,
normal/abnormal behavior, guidance and counseling services, and behavior measurement
and evaluation. It also covers human resource management, motivation, personnel
selection, normal/abnormal behavior, and evaluation.

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 CHAPTER 2

HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

2.0 Overview
Welcome to the second chapter of the course which introduces you to human growth and
development, a crucial aspect of Developmental Psychology.
The concept of human growth and development is explored in this chapter focusing on the
physical, cognitive, and moral stages of a child's development. It also delves into the factors that
influence this growth, highlighting the importance of understanding the progression of a child's
development.
Learning objectives

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

 differentiate between the concepts of growth and development

 give at least four psychological principles of human development
 explain the stages of the cognitive development of the child
 list the stages of physical development of the individual.
 explain the moral development process of the human person.
 give the factors that affect growth and development

2.1 Definition and difference between growth and development

Humans go through various stages across their lifespans from conception to death. These stages
are often referred to as growth and or development. Although both terms seem similar and are
often interchangeably used, each is unique.

2.1.1 Growth
Growth refers to the biological/physical changes that are observed as people grow from babies to
adults. This process results in young organisms growing larger in appearance. It involves the
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increase in height, weight, and body size of a person as well as unobservable patterns of growth,
such as the growth of internal structures and organs, like the brain and lungs. These types of
physical growth are generally thought of as cellular product production that is influenced by
genetics.

2.1.2 Development
Development, on the other hand, is an all-encompassing word that refers to the overall changes
in the structure and shape of an individual. It describes how people change over time
(biologically, socially, mentally, morally etc). Development is influenced by both biological and
environmental factors. For example, some body parts have to form before their function can be
attained.
2.1.3 Differences between Growth and Development
SN GROWTH DEVELOPMENT
1 Growth can be quantified e.g., growth in Development is both quantitative and qualitative
height e.g., language development
2 Growth refers to biological/physical Development refers to functional or behavioural
changes. changes
3 Growth stops when the organism reaches Development happens across the lifespan
the stage of maturity
4 Growth is structural Development is considered a functional
5 Development is an internal process.
Growth is an external process

6 Growth focuses only on one aspect i.e.
increase in a child’s body size
7 Changes produced by growth can be
observed and measured directly
8 Growth is limited to a certain age it
stops when maturity has been attained
9 The term ‘Growth’ refers to physical
changes in an individual like an increase
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Development focuses on various aspects like
interpersonal skills, and intelligence.
Developmental changes that result in improved
behaviour or functioning cannot be measured
directly
Development is a continuous process starting from
the time of conception and continuing until the end
of life (Womb to Tomb)
Development refers to overall changes in a physical
organ or the structure that results in improved
functioning of the physical organ
 in height, size, length, weight, etc.
(EducereCentre, (2023) & Shriva (2023).

2.1.4 Maturation
Another phenomenon that influences human growth and development is maturation. Maturation,
a related concept to growth, refers to the biological growth processes that enable changes in
behaviour in an orderly fashion. For example, all humans stand before walking.

2.2 Principles of Human Growth and Development

Growth and development are sequential, predictable, and follow complex processes regulated by
principles such as continuity, integration, lack of uniformity, and interrelation. These principles
ensure continuous growth, integrate learning into a whole, and recognize that developmental
rates vary between body and mind as well as among individuals. Interrelation reveals that
development in one area can impact development in another.

2.2.1 Cephalocaudal Principle

The cephalocaudal principle, also known as the "head-to-toe" development principle, explains
the directional progression of physical growth and motor skills in infants from birth to early
childhood. It suggests that development starts at the head and ends at the toes, with physical
control moving downward to the arms and legs. This principle is crucial for infants to develop
their physical and functional skills.

2.2.2 Development is Sequential

Development is sequential, orderly, and definite for all species, including humans and animals.
For example, growth from head to toe, and movement stages of crawling, standing, and walking
among humans.

2.2.4 Proximodistal Principle

Development proceeds from the centre of the body outward. That is, it begins along the
innermost parts of the body and continues towards the outermost parts. The cells of a fertilized

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egg for example divide and expand outward to become an embryo. The process results in the
formation of other parts of the body.

2.2.5 Development is Predictable

Growth follows predictable and orderly processes that are universal due to the uniformity of
pattern and sequence of development. Infancy and childhood are marked by the rapid
development of bodies and motor skills, which follow predictable, orderly processes, allowing
for the prediction of physiological and psychological potentials through observation and tests.

2.2.6 Development Proceeds from General to Specific

Development progresses from general to specific. This is seen in infants grasping objects with
their whole hand before using only their thumb and finger.

2.2.7 Growth is asynchronous

Asynchronous development refers to the variation in growth rates and functions within
individuals, such as intellectual development progressing faster than emotional or social
development, and sex differences in development rates.

2.2.8 Orthogenic Principle

The principle suggests that development progresses from simple to complex tasks, with mastery
of simpler tasks occurring before more complex ones, such as grasping a crayon or learning basic
sounds (Answers, 2023; Shriva, 2023; Levitas & Kamiya, 2022).

2.3 Stages of Human Development

Humans go through several types and stages of development. The various types and stages
cumulatively make us grow holistically. This section discusses the types and stages of
development.

2.3.1 Physical Development

Development is a continuous process from neonatal to adulthood, with each stage characterised
by changes, challenges, and opportunities for the physical body. The various stages and their
characteristics are discussed below:

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2.3.1.1 Prenatal Growth: Conception typically takes 9 months or 40 weeks and involves three
major developmental states: ovum, embryo, and foetus, each lasting three months.

The Zygote: Conception involves fertilization of the ovum by the father's sperm, forming a
zygote. The germinal period, comprising the first 2 weeks, involves self-duplication and
multiplication of cells, forming a cluster of cells resembling a raspberry. The cells which
resemble a hollow disk from the second week implants in the uterus, allowing cellular
differentiation into the embryo.

The Embryo: The embryonic stage, lasting from the second week to the 8th week, involves
rapid cell growth and differentiation into various tissues, organs, and bodily systems. By the end
of this period, basic physical and functional features have been refined, but factors like genetic
abnormalities, environmental conditions, and disease can affect growth leading to defects.

The Foetus: Week 9 marks the end of differentiation and specialization into tissues, organs, and
bodily systems. Rapid growth, resulting in 90% of body weight at birth, leads to significant
changes in body proportions. The foetus's large head and rapid growth of the back and limbs,
together with the development of bodily systems e.g blood circulation, breathing, and digestion,
prepare them for life outside the mother's uterus.

2.3.1.2 Postnatal Growth and Development (Phases)

Human growth patterns are similar, but individual differences exist in rate and timing across life.
For instance, mastery of a motor skill varies significantly among one-year-olds. The following
are the sub-stages under the postnatal stage (the period from birth).

2.3.1.3 Infancy: The neonatal period, beginning at birth and ending when the infant transitions
from lactation to solid food, is influenced by socio-cultural trends eg time of weaning an infant.
It is characterized by rapid growth in physical dimensions and bodily systems, with the head
being relatively large representing 25% of the total body length and almost 70% of its eventual
adult size. The period is characterized by the development of the musculoskeletal frame and
nervous system, particularly the brain, which facilitates cognitive and movement achievements.

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Infants master motor skills in this period, regardless of social, cultural, or ethnic boundaries e.g
moving side to back, sitting upright with support, sitting without support, standing and walking

2.3.1.4 Childhood: This sub-stage is divided into two phases; early and late childhood. Early
childhood, between ages 3 to7, is characterized by rapid physical growth and reliance on adult
support. Children develop basic movement skills and are tested in various environments.
Movements are classified into fine motor activities requiring precision and dexterity, and gross
motor activities involving the whole body or major segments, such as running, jumping, and
throwing.

2.3.1.5 Later Childhood

Growth in velocity, called the mid-growth spurt, is a major characteristic of this second phase.
The rate of growth then declines between age 7 and the onset of puberty as witnessed in height,
weight, body tissues and systems. Whereas in early childhood differences in body size between
boys and girls is insignificant, late childhood witnesses marked differences as girls enter puberty
earlier than boys. Later childhood ends at about age 10 for girls and about 12 years for boys.

2.3.1.6 Adolescence

Adolescence is a period of rapid growth in body parts, typically greater in boys, leading to height
and weight differences. Sexual maturation occurs during adolescence, with visible signs like
pubic hair density and breast bud development in girls. Secondary sexual characteristics include
external genitalia changes and body size and composition differences.

2.3.1.7 Adulthood and Senescence

The transition from adolescence to adulthood involves the end of increases in height and
attainment of full reproductive maturity. High socioeconomic societies typically reach adult
height at 18 to 20 years, while poor societies reach it later due to factors such as poverty and
poor health. Later adulthood is characterized by senescence, a decline in reproduction and
adaptation to stress, and death, which can be caused by natural or environmental causes.

2.4 Cognitive Development

Cognitive refers to mental processes related to thinking. Cognitive development therefore refers
to acquisition and or mastery of certain mental abilities that enable the individual perform certain
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tasks. Jean Piaget's (1896-1980) theory on cognitive development and its stages, arguing that
humans are inherently rational and seek to understand their environment, would be examined.

Table 3: Stages of Cognitive Development

2.5 Moral Development

Moral development, influenced by psychological perspectives like learning theory and

psychoanalysis, is studied through the cognitive-developmental approach of Jean Piaget and
Lawrence Kohlberg. Kohlberg argued that morality is universal, with its content varying with
culture. He proposed that all individuals use a set of thirty basic categories of morality, including
life, law, property, authority, and trust. Kohlberg's stages of moral development include pre-
conventional, conventional, and post-conventional stages.

2.5.1 Pre-conventional Level

Moral judgments at this level are based on cultural rules and external authority, involving two
stages: heteronomous morality and individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange.

Heteronymous Morality is limited to egocentric levels, influenced by fear of punishment and

authority. Behavior is determined by obeying rules, with family and society playing a significant
role in teaching desirable behaviors.

Individualism, Instrumental Purpose, and Exchange stage involves people taking individual
perspectives without integrating them. Moral rightness is based on following values and
resolving conflicts through equality and bargaining. Cultural differences exist, with some
cultures prioritizing individual needs, while others are relativistic in nature with a focus on
common or shared feelings and values.

2.5.2 Conventional Level

Moral values at this level are described in terms of the maintenance of interpersonal relations,
groups, societies, or nations. In some cases, the system can be described as religious codes. The

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conventional level includes two stages: mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and
interpersonal conformity (Stage 3); and social system and conscience (Stage 4).

Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity is a stage where

individuals adopt more complex role-taking. Typically, people are understanding and welcome
shared expectations as well as third-person perspectives. This stage is influenced by cultural
provisions, making experiences across cultures different.

At the Social System and Conscience stage, individuals adopt a leader's point of view and
integrate interpersonal relations and individual perspectives in organizations. Moral rightness
involves behavior maintaining the social system. Stage 4 levels vary depending on social
systems, cultural variations, and societal mobility and openness. Levels of social systems could
include families, communities, countries, and so on.

2.5.3 Post-conventional Level

Post-conventional morality involves self-chosen abstract principles based on a "prior-to-society"

perspective, bringing impartial judgments in moral conflict situations for all societies or cultures.
The post-conventional level further comprises two stages, social contract and individual rights
(Stage 5); and moral reasoning based on abstract reasoning using universal ethics (Stage 6).

Social Contract, Utility and Individual Rights, involves adopting perspectives from outside
society, openesss to different value systems existing in one society, and recognizing universal
values like freedom and life as preconditions for contracting with societies, based on moral
reasoning.

Universal Ethical Principles is a stage where individuals adopt moral perspectives based on
universal ethical principles, including equality of human rights, respect for human dignity, and
commitment to justice. This is the basis for some individuals who disobey unjust laws (Naito,
2013).

2.6 Factors that Affect Growth and Development

Several factors influence and or affect human growth and development. While some positively
impact the process, others do so negatively.

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2.6.1 Heredity
Heredity is the transmission of physical characteristics from parents to children, influencing
height, weight, body structure, eye color, hair texture, intelligence, and aptitudes. It can also pass
diseases like heart disease, diabetes, and obesity.

2.6.2 Environmental factors

The environment significantly influences a child's development, providing physical and
psychological stimulation. Physical surroundings, geographical conditions, and social
relationships are crucial. A well-nurtured child from a loving family and good school builds
strong social skills whereas a deprived child may lack such qualities. Geographical conditions
also influence health.

2.6.3 Nutrition
Adequate nutrition is crucial for physical growth and development, as it determines rate and
measure of growth as well as other characteristics in the individual. Physical growth is a widely
used metric for nutritional status. Poor nutrition affects growth rates and proportions at prenatal,
infancy, early childhood, and adolescence stages, ultimately affecting adult sizes.

2.6.4 Social and Economic Status

Poorer children are shorter, lighter, and consume less food. Wealthier individuals experience
earlier growth, puberty onset, and height, weight, and musculature. However, by adulthood,
some differences diminish.

2.6.5 Psychological Stress

Extreme stress can slow physical growth and development, negatively impacting growth
hormone secretion. Factors like maternal care, social isolation, substance abuse, and sexual abuse
contribute to psychological and emotional health issues in children.

2.6.6 Pollutants

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Physical growth is influenced by pollutants like lead, air pollution, organic compounds, and
tobacco smoke, with certain levels considered dangerous. Also, smoking during pregnancy
affects birth weight and infant's subsequent growth.

2.7 Conclusion: The interaction of biological and environmental factors affect growth and
development and accounts for great variation in growth that is evident among both individuals
and whole populations. It also influences the development of other physical characteristics, such
as movement skills. Growth is an important aspect of human development. Its centrality is most
evident during the periods of infancy childhood, and adolescence when there are physical,
psychological, behavioural, and experiential changes occur. Physical growth and development
affect the way individuals perceive themselves and how others perceive them, thus affecting their
quality of life. As such, it warrants the attention of all of those interested in human development
(Awadhiya, 2021)

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 CHAPTER 3

PERSONALITY

Outline

3.1 Defining personality

3.1.1 Introduction

3.1.2 Temperament

3.1.3 Character

3.1.4 Personality

3.2 The A, B, C, and D Personality Types

3.2.1 Type A personality

3.2.2 Type B personality

3.2.3 Type C personality

3.2.4 Type D personality

3.3 The five-factor models of personality

3.4 Theories of Personality

3.5 Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality

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3.5.1 Freud's Theory of the Mind

3.5.2 The Structure of Personality.

3.5.3 Defence Mechanisms

3.5.4 The Psychosexual Development of Personality

3.6 The Nature and Nurture Controversy

3.0 Overview
Welcome to this section of the reading. It introduces you to personality development. We
frequently say or hear statements like, "He/she has a decent personality," "I don't like his/her
personality," "I have my father's personality," and things of that nature. In what ways do these
depictions of personality align with the way psychologists define personality? These pictures
imply that a person's personality is a trait that is connected to how they behave in the outside
world. These are some of the questions we will explore in this session: What is personality?
What are the theories of personality? What is personality according to Sigmund Freud? What is
the nature and nurture controversy?

Goals and objectives

At the end of the session, the learner will:

• Explain the concept of personality

• Distinguish among personality, temperament, and character
• Give the application of Freud’s notion of personality in real-life contexts.
• Explain why different individuals respond to the same situation in different ways.
• Explain the implications of the Nature-nurture debate in real-life contexts.

3.1 Personality Defined

3.1.1 Introduction
The idea of personality is rather slippery. It is connected to ideas like temperament and character.
It will be useful to expand on the related terms (temperament and character) to gain a better
understanding of the notion of personality.

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3.1.2 Temperament

Temperament is the natural part of your personality that comes from your genes. It is
considered the primary foundation of personality and it is those aspects of your personality
that you are born with. It is part of the personality that always shows up first (Exploring
Your Mind, 2023). It shows up among babies. For example, some babies are more likely to
show and feel positive emotions or negative ones. Some babies are more likely to have a
good mood or a bad mood.

Because temperament is genetic and comes from inherited traits, it is hard to modify, manipulate,
or change. In some way or another, that tendency will always be there (Exploring Your Mind,
2023). But, that does not mean you cannot make an effort to encourage it or stop yourself from
doing it. If you were an iceberg, it would be part of the bit that is underwater. And that would
mean that you can still take some control over how it comes up in the bit that sticks out of the
water.

Temperament has an interesting history. Hippocrates was an Ancient Greek doctor. His theory of
the four senses of humour was one of the first that tried to explain the idea of temperament. He
thought a person’s personality and health depended on a balance of four different substances:
yellow bile, black bile, phlegm, and blood. He called them the bodily senses of humour.
Centuries later, Galen of Pergamon took Hippocrates’ idea further to categorize people according
to their temperaments and came up with four types of people. They are

• Choleric (yellow bile): passionate and energetic people who get angry quickly.

• Melancholic (black bile): sad people who get upset easily and have a great artistic sensibility.
• Phlegmatic (phlegm): cold and rational people.

• Sanguine (blood): happy and optimistic people who express affection towards other people
and are sure of themselves (Exploring Your Mind, 2023).
.

3.1.3 Character

This is the aspect of personality that includes temperament (inherited traits) and the social and
educational habits that people have learned. That is, a character is both a natural component of

21
personality and one you learn. It is also a result of the experiences and social interactions in your
life, the ones you learn lessons from. Consequently, a character is rooted in culture.

• Character is not as stable as temperament. Because it is not genetic, it does not show up
fully in the early stages of development. It goes through different stages and takes its
fullest form during adolescence. Therefore, one can modify it and make changes to it, for
example, through social education (Exploring Your Mind, 2023).

3.1.4 Personality

Personality comes from adding up character (temperament and learned habits) and behaviour.
This means it includes both of these things at the same time. And that connection is also what
makes it easier to clear up the differences between personality, temperament, and character.

Personality is not just a product of genetic inheritance. It is also a result of the environmental
influences around a person. Personality is something that distinguishes individuals, which
means it is characteristic of each person (Exploring Your Mind, 2023). And according to
many studies, it is stable over time and through different situations. Most times, how a
person goes about the character depends on the personality.
Defining personality

In psychology, personality is the group of emotions, perceptions, and actions that form a
person’s behavioural patterns. It is the way you feel, think, or act. It is a group of processes that
interact with each other, regulate themselves, and shape a dynamic system. The two most widely
used definitions in psychology are:

• “Personality is the total sum of an organism’s behavioural patterns (current or potential)

determined by genetics and environment.”- Hans Eysenck.
• “Personality is the typical behavioural patterns (including emotions and thoughts) that
characterize a person’s adaptation to the events of life.” -Walter Mischel (Exploring Your
Mind, 2023).

It can also be defined as enduring and distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviours that
characterize the way an individual adapts to the world.

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Personality is not something that has a single, distinct definition. There are as many definitions
of it as there are theorists and trends, and it is a complex system. Every theory has a distinct
vision and concept, which are always somewhat similar but also distinctive. They all agree on
one thing, though: they believe that everyone exhibits a particular pattern that causes them to act
the same way in comparable circumstances.

3.2 The A, B, C, and D Personality Types

The history of personality type theory development is extensive. Understanding a person's

personality has long stimulated the interest of many in the fields of psychology and social
sciences, from the writings of Sigmund Freud (in his works on the Psychoanalytic Theory of
personality) to Carl Jung and beyond. The four different personality types—A, B, C, and D—
have been identified by psychologists as a result of technological advancements combined with
critical thought and analysis. Anyone can be categorized into one of the four personality types.
They are not, however, solely classified into a single category or type. This is so because each
person will display more personality traits from one type than the others, but they will also have
qualities from the other types (Thomas International Ltd, 2002-2022).

3.2.1 Type A Personality

The Type A personality is the “go-getter” type. The Type A personality can also be known as a
director.

Type A personality likes to be in control of their environment and their lives. They are normally
not very detail-oriented, choosing to delegate details to others. They are usually very goal-
oriented and practical in their solutions. They arrive at solutions and goals with a no-nonsense,
bottom-line approach.

Characteristics: While some Type A personality traits vary from person to person, certain traits
are common. The best example of a Type A personality is someone who: Takes charge and is
highly competitive, works well independently, is fast-paced and impatient, demands maximum
freedom, is entrepreneurial, workaholic, dominant and stubborn, embraces change,
multitasking, and is ambitious.

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At work, Type A personalities can typically be identified by the following traits: Goal-oriented,
direct management style, risk-taking, good delegation skills, good under stress,
good administrative skills, working well independently, and workaholic.

Type A personalities do not like a lot of restraints or restrictions placed on them. Instead, they
prefer to work independently and set their schedules. Since they tend to be workaholics, it is
quite normal to see them put in whatever time and effort it takes to accomplish their goals. They
may seem impatient at times, especially if they believe someone is spending too much time
going over details with them or impeding their stride.

A Type A personality may not be very good at recognizing coworkers’ feelings and needs. They
are extremely focused on achieving their goals and may not notice. If you are looking for
someone who works well under pressure and seems to excel in high-stress situations, the Type A
personality is the best pick.

Type A personalities are motivated by: Money, opportunity, freedom, favorable risk-reward
ratio, challenges, urgency, success, and leadership

The best careers for Type A personalities include president/ CEO, general contractor,
salesperson or sales manager, business owner, politician, entrepreneur, police/military officer,
manager, and executive (Hire Success, 1998-2023).

3.2.2 Type B Personality

The Type B personality is the laid-back one. The Type B personality can also be known as a
socializer. The Type B personality is a very outgoing, energetic, and fast-paced individual who
likes to be around people and enjoys being the center of attention. They are good relationship
builders and most people like them right away. Their driving need is for approval, so they try to
like everyone in hopes everyone will like them too. Compliments, acknowledgment of their
achievements, words of admiration, and even applause from these groups are the most important
things you can do for them.

Type B personality traits: Type B personality characteristics can also vary by individual. The
best example of a Type B personality is someone who is: enthusiastic and fun-loving, persuasive,
friendly, charismatic and confident, an Idea person, a dreamer, with a short attention span, a
motivator, spontaneous and impulsive, and a procrastinator.

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At work, Type B personalities can typically be identified by the following traits: Relationship-
oriented, outgoing, enthusiastic, does not finish what was started, may try to do too much at
once, easily liked by most people

Type B personalities love to talk about themselves. Some may view that as self-centered, but a
Type B's real motivation is to be liked.

Type B personalities' biggest fear is being humiliated in public since that might make many
people disapprove of them. It could be traumatic for them. Type B personalities do not want to
appear unattractive or unsuccessful either, so they hide any weakness.

Type B personalities are motivated by: Public recognition, awards, plaques, certificates, having
pictures taken with celebrities, succeeding, especially beyond peers, being the centre of attention,
public speaker, director, etc., acceptance, and the latest styles and/or trends.

The best careers for Type B personalities include public relations, salesperson, entertainment,
personnel interviewer, politician, recreation director, party planner, and customer
service/relations (Hire Success, 1998-2023).

3.2.3 Type C Personality

The Type C personality is the detailed one. The Type C personality can also be known as the
Thinker.

The Type C personality is a very detail-oriented individual who likes to be involved in things
that are controlled and stable. They are interested in accuracy, rationality, and logic. People who
cannot seem to control their emotions will bother them because Type C personalities believe
being emotional makes objectivity difficult. They also dislike being around people who are full
of hype, since they desire facts, accuracy, and logic. Other people's emotions may not be a
priority for them, as they tend to strive for the facts and let the chips fall where they may.

Characteristically, Type C personalities come with considerable variations. However, the best
example of a Type C personality is someone who is:

Accuracy and detail-oriented, creative, dependable, skeptical, and independent. They can appear
anti-social, lawful, organized, analytical and critical, worried about progress, and detached and
disengaged

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At work, people with Type C personalities can typically be identified by the following traits:
detail-oriented, logical, prepared, likes to do things their way, worry about progress, may never
have personal expectations met, and quality control.

Type C personalities tend to be quite controlling, of both themselves and others. They do not like
things to get out of hand and may appear stoic because they do not want to display a lot of
emotion. They are very outcome-driven and will be sticklers for following protocols.

They are careful, resourceful, and, above all, excellent thinkers who will look at all aspects of an
issue before taking a stand. Once they take a stand on an issue, though, they will have the facts to
back it up, so anyone who challenges them better is prepared.

Type C personalities are motivated by: Control, opportunities to be independent and analytical,
challenges, and problem-solving.

The best careers for Type C personality include forecaster, troubleshooter, critic, investigator
(police, crime scene, private, etc.), engineer, technical support, research scientist, game designer,
data analyst, Pilot, programmer/analyst, artist, musician, accountant/auditor, inventor (Hire
Success, 1998-2023).

3.2.4 Type D Personality

The Type D personality is the existentialist one. The Type D personality can also be known as
the Supporter.

A Type D personality takes a slower, easier pace toward their work and life in general. They
seek security and longevity on the job and are very happy doing repetitive tasks day in and day
out. The repetition allows them to become very skilled. Likewise, they would not like it if the
rules changed a lot. That is contrary to their desire to minimize change and stick with what they
know works. For the Type D personality, even though the current way may be unpleasant, they
worry that the unknown may be even worse.

The best example of a Type D personality is someone who is: Shy, low-key and observant,
caring, sincere consistent, dependable, calm and stable, fair and equitable, looks approachable,
avoids confrontation, resistant to change, and self-confident.

At work, people with Type D personalities can typically be identified by the following traits:
Task-oriented, stabilizing, cautious, going along when they do not agree, easily used by others,
uncomfortable with constant change, and good at routines or repetitive tasks.
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Type D personalities seek the respect, sincere admiration, and acceptance of others. They will
gladly work hard to please the people they work for as long as they feel appreciated and receive
plenty of reassurance that they are needed. They need that sense of security. Type D personalities
often think the Type A personality is crazy for taking so many risks and not showing much
concern for security and longevity.

Stability, benefits, security, low risk, routine, team/group opportunities, and a calm work
atmosphere motivate them

The best careers for Type D personality include secure team positions, administrator, financial
services, HR manager, social worker, mechanic, teacher, counselor, personal assistant/secretary,
minister, supervisor, librarian, security guard, and customer service representative (Hire Success,
1998-2023).

3.3 The Five-Factor Models of Personality

The work of numerous separate researchers contributed to the development of the Five–Factor
theory. In 1936, Gordon Allport and Henry Odbert created the first list of 4,500 words denoting
various aspects of personality (Vinney, 2018). Their research laid the groundwork for later
psychologists to start identifying the fundamental elements of personality. Lewis Goldberg
afterward strongly supported the five main personality factors. McCrae and Costa built on his
work by extending it, validating the model, and providing the current model (Ackerman, 2017).
The Five-Factor Model, sometimes referred to as the Big Five Model, is currently the most
widely recognized personality theory among psychologists (Lim, 2020). According to the idea,
personality may be reduced to five essential components, abbreviated as OCEAN or CANOE.

• Openness is characterized by open-mindedness and willingness to try new things.

• Conscientiousness is characterized by being organized and hard-working.

• Extraversion is characterized by being outgoing and affectionate.

• Agreeableness is characterized by kindness, and a desire to please others.

• Neuroticism is characterized by being nervous, worried, and emotionally unstable.

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3.4 Theories of Personality
There have been several perspectives on why different individuals respond to the same situation
in different ways. These are the theories of personality. They explain why persons exhibit one
personality type or the other. Some are:

 Trait Personality Theory: personalities are made up of innate characteristics that endure
across time. For instance, if a person exhibits a given set of characteristics at age twenty-
five (extroversion, stubbornness), trait theory predicts that they would still exhibit those
characteristics at age eighty-five.
 Humanistic Personality Theory: people are inherently decent and have the desire to
improve themselves. People are driven by a desire for self-actualization, which is defined
as becoming their ideal version of themselves from their current state.
 Biological Theory of Personality: People’s genes play a role in determining your
personality. Genes play a role in the development of the brain's architecture, and
personality is mediated by neural structure.
 Behaviorist Personality Theory: people are born with "blank slates," and their
environments have a profound impact on how they develop their personalities.
 Social Cognitive Theory of Personality: the interactions between social, cognitive, and
behavioural elements shape personality. Social influences are those that one picks up
from observation. Cognitive interpretations of the observed social context give rise to
cognitive influences. Both of the aforementioned elements contribute to personality,
which is expressed in behaviour.

3.5 Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality

Freud’s Psychoanalysis is one of the theories of personality. Psychoanalysts view personality as
primarily unconscious and as occurring in stages. Most psychoanalytic perspectives emphasize
the importance of early experiences with parents in sculpting personality.

3.5.1 Freud's Theory of the Mind

One impactful idea put forth by Freud was his model of the human mind. His model divides the
mind into three layers, or regions:

1. Conscious: This is where our current thoughts, feelings, and focus live;

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 2. Preconscious/subconscious: This is the home of everything we can recall or retrieve from
our memory;
3. Unconscious: At the deepest level of our minds resides a repository of the processes that
drive our behaviour, including primitive and instinctual desires (McLeod, 2013).

According to him, our mind is considerably more unconscious than conscious. He pictured our
mind as a huge iceberg, with a sizable portion beneath the water's surface representing our
unconscious. According to Freud, each of us experiences stress and conflict throughout our lives,
and to lessen this tension and conflict, we store knowledge in our unconscious minds. He
believed that the key to understanding behaviour lay in the unconscious mind. He also thought
that our behaviour can be greatly predicted by our dreams. According to him, dreams are
unconsciously held reflections of the stress and struggle in our daily lives. Conflict and stress
manifest in our dreams because they are too painful to handle consciously. A significant portion
of the dream's content is covered in symbolism, necessitating careful examination and probing to
fully comprehend.

3.5.2 The Structure of Personality. He believed that personality has three structures.

The id is a psychic energy reserve that strives to meet our most fundamental wants. It works
based on the pleasure principle and is unconscious. According to the pleasure principle, the id
always seeks pleasure and shuns pain.

Children develop a new personality structure called the ego as they encounter the demands and
limitations of reality. By acting within the confines of reality, the ego seeks to give us pleasure.
The reality principle is upheld. It enables us to put reality to the test and determine our safety
margins.

The Freudian structure of personality known as the superego is the moral wing of the psyche. It
thinks about what is right and bad. It is frequently known as our conscience. The superego, like
the id, does not take reality into account; it is solely concerned with whether the id's sexual and
aggressive desires can be satisfied morally (McLeod, 2013).

3.5.3 Defence Mechanisms

Freud believed these three parts of the mind are in constant conflict because each part has a
different primary goal. Sometimes, when the conflict is too much for a person to handle, his or

29
her ego may engage in one or many defense mechanisms to protect the individual. Among these
defense mechanisms are:

• Denial: The ego conceals distressing or overwhelming sensations from awareness, leading the
person to refuse to recognise or believe what is happening;

• Repression: The ego drives unsettling or frightening thoughts out of one's mind;

• Projection: The ego makes an effort to alleviate discomfort by impermissibly assigning the
person's thoughts, feelings, and motivations to another person;

• Displacement: The person satisfies an impulse by acting inappropriately on a substitute item or

person (such as venting displeasure toward your spouse instead of your employer);

• Regression: An individual's defense mechanism for coping with stress is to regress in

development (for example, a stressed-out adult acting childlike);
• Sublimation: Comparable to displacement, this defense mechanism is quelling a need by acting
on a substitute but in a manner that is acceptable to society (for example, putting energy into
productive work or a pastime) (McLeod, 2013).

3.5.4 The Psychosexual Development of Personality

According to Freud, we go through five phases of psychosexual development and are more likely
to experience pleasure in one part of the body than another at each level. According to Freud,
erogenous zones are areas of the body that, at particular phases of development, have particularly
potent pleasure-giving capabilities.

The oral stage is the first 18 months of life. Here, the infant’s pleasure centres on the mouth.
Chewing, sucking, and biting are chief sources of pleasure. These actions reduce the tension in
the infant.

The anal stage occurs between 1.5 -3 years of age. The child's greatest pleasure involves the
anus or the eliminative functions associated with it. The exercise of anal muscles reduces
tension.

The phallic stage occurs between the ages of 3 and 6. Its name comes from the Latin 'phallus',
which means penis. At this stage, pleasure focuses on the genitals as the child discovers that self-
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stimulation is enjoyable. This stage triggers the Oedipus complex- the young child's development
of an intense desire to replace the parent of the same sex and enjoy the affection of the opposite
sex parent.

The latency stage occurs approximately between 6 years of age and puberty. Here, the child
represses all interest in sexuality and develops social and intellectual skills.

The genital stage occurs from puberty on. The genital stage is the time of sexual reawakening;
the source of sexual pleasure now becomes someone outside of the family.

Freud believed that how we reconcile conflicts between these sources of pleasure—the mouth,
anus, and genitals—and the requirements of reality determines our adult personalities. If these
conflicts aren't resolved, the person could become obsessed at a certain developmental stage.
Fixation occurs when wants are not met adequately or excessively, keeping the person stuck in
an earlier developmental stage.

The inability to test the fundamental ideas, the absence of an empirical database, and the
excessive dependence on old reports are among the flaws in Freud's theory. Additionally, there
was a bias against men, an overemphasis on sexuality and the unconscious mind, a pejorative
view of human nature, and an overemphasis on early experience.

3.6 The Nature and Nurture Controversy

The different perspectives of personality lead to the long-standing nature and nurture debate. It is
the argument over what determines our personality and behaviour: innate biology or life
experience.
According to the nature-only view, “what we are” comes from inborn tendencies and genetically
based traits. Conversely, the nurture-only view is that we are essentially the same at birth and we
are the product of our experiences.

John Locke explained this by positing that the human mind of a person at birth is a blank slate
(tabula rasa) on which experiences of life are written. The accumulation of experiences makes
the person who he/she is.

The debate about nature against nurture is ongoing. The new way of thinking about this
argument is the idea of soft wiring. It means that biological systems involved in thought and
behaviour- genes, brain structures, brain cells, etc- are inherited and are still open to modification
31
from the environment (Ottersen, 2010). Therefore, the broader view of human behaviour is that
all creatures are born with genetic instructions but from the beginning, even before birth,
environmental factors change how genes are expressed. The conclusion is that human behaviour
is essentially nature through nurture-the environment interacts continuously with biology to
shape who we are and what we do. The story of Victor, the wild boy of Aveyron aptly
demonstrates the conclusion of the debate.

CHAPTER 4

LEARNING

Outline

4.0 Overview

4.0.1 Goals and Objectives

4.0.2 Introduction

4.1 Classical Conditioning

4.1.1 Classical Conditioning Terminologies

4.1.2 How Classical Conditioning Works

4.1.3 Some Key Principles of Conditioning

4.1.4 Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life

4.2 Operant Conditioning

4.2.0 Components of Operant Conditioning

4.2.1 Reinforcement

4.2.2 Punishment

4.2.3 Reinforcement Schedules

4.2.4 Examples of Operant Conditioning

4.2.5 The difference between operant and classical conditioning

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4.3.0 Observational Learning/Social Learning Theory

4.3.1 The Application of the Theory

4.3.2 The Concept of Modelling and Observational Learning

4.0 Overview

Welcome to Psychology of Learning. Almost every branch of psychology addresses issues

related to learning. It is an extremely unique, intricate, and indescribable procedure. We just do it
automatically, never giving it enough thought. It is a sophisticated social activity as well.
Learners will be introduced to the ideas behind learning in this lesson. The following topics will
be discussed: the meaning of learning, the conditioning models of learning, and their respective
significance in real-life contexts.

4.0.1 Goals and Objectives

At the end of the session, the learner will be able to:

 Describe Pavlov’s demonstration of classical conditioning.

 Explain the key elements of classical conditioning.
 Explain Skinner’s principle of reinforcement, and describe the terminology and
procedures in operant research.
 Discuss the various types of schedules of reinforcement.
 Distinguish between positive and negative reinforcements.
 Explain the nature, importance, and basic processes of observational learning.
 Discuss Bandura’s research on TV models and aggression.

4.0.2 Introduction

When most people think of learning, they picture students reading textbooks or novices gaining
proficiency in a skill, such as playing the guitar. To a psychologist, however, learning is any
relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge that is due to experience. Human
33
beings aren’t born with the habit of washing their wares or operating gadgets. These behaviours
are the product of experience; that is, they represent learning. Learning shapes personal habits,
such as nail-biting; personality traits, such as shyness; personal preferences, such as a taste for
formal clothes; and emotional responses, such as reactions to positive news. We will focus most
of our attention on a specific kind of learning: conditioning. Conditioning involves learning
associations between events that occur in an organism’s environment.

4.1 Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a
response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. The process was first described in 1903
by Ivan Pavlov. In his famous dog experiment, the sound of the tone could induce salivation by
linking the unconditioned stimulus (food) with the neutral stimulus (sound). That is, dogs learn
to salivate to the sound of a tone that has been paired with meat powder.

4.1.1 Classical Conditioning Terminologies

Classical conditioning has a few different terms to help explain the learning process.

• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - a stimulus or trigger that leads to an automatic response.

• A neutral stimulus (NS) - a stimulus that doesn't initially trigger a response on its own.

• Conditioned stimulus (CS) - a once neutral stimulus (didn't trigger a response) but now leads to
a response.

• Unconditioned Response (UCR) - an automatic response or a response that occurs without

thought when an unconditioned stimulus is present.

• Conditioned Response (CR) - a learned response or a response that is created where no

response existed before.

4.1.2 How Classical Conditioning Works

The first step in the classical conditioning procedure is the introduction of a naturally occurring
stimulus (UCS) that will prompt a response (UCR) without any further instruction. A salivation

34
reaction is brought on by the natural and automatic presentation of food. There is also a neutral
stimulus present at this time that has no effect.

Secondly, the previously neutral stimulus (NS) is matched repeatedly with the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS). Due to this matching, a link is created between the UCS and the previously
neutral stimuli. The once-neutral stimulus is now referred to as the conditioned stimulus (CS).
The conditioned stimulus (CS) eventually causes a conditioned response (CR) after coming to be
connected with the unconditioned stimulus.

Lastly, once the UCS and CS are associated, presenting the CS alone will eventually elicit a
response— even in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. The outcome is referred to as the
"conditioned response" (CR).

4.1.3 Some Key Principles of Conditioning

There have been several phenomena associated with classical conditioning. Some of these
elements involve the initial establishment of the response while others describe the
disappearance of a response.

 Acquisition-- it is the earliest phase of learning. It is when a response is first created and
then enhanced steadily. A neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus are repeatedly
paired throughout the acquisition phase of classical conditioning. Following the
establishment of an association, the subject will start to exhibit a behaviour in response to
the once-neutral stimulus, which is now referred to as a conditioned stimulus.
 Extinction-- This is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or
disappear. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no
longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
 Spontaneous Recovery—this is when a learned response can suddenly reemerge, with the
reintroduction of the UCS, even after a period of extinction.
 Generalization—it is the tendency for a conditioned stimulus to elicit similar reactions
after the response has been conditioned. For instance, an animal may react similarly to a
sound that is similar to a bell, if it has been trained to salivate in response to the sound of
a bell.
 Discrimination—it is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other
stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

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4.1.4 Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life

 Conditioned Fear and Anxiety. Classical conditioning often plays a key role in shaping
emotional responses, such as fear and anxiety. Phobias are a good example of such
responses. Case studies of patients suffering from phobias suggest that many irrational
fears can be traced back to experiences that involve classical conditioning (Field &
Purkis, 2012). For instance, if you cringe when you hear the sound of a dentist’s drill, this
response is the result of classical conditioning. In this case, the pain you have
experienced from dental drilling is the US. This pain has been paired with the sound of
the drill, which became a CS eliciting your cringing behavior.
 Other Conditioned responses Classical conditioning affects not only overt behaviors but
physiological processes, as well. According to Ader and Cohen (1993), classical
conditioning procedures can lead to immune suppression. In a study, animals were
injected with a drug (the US) that chemically causes immune suppression, while they
were simultaneously given an unusual-tasting liquid to drink (the CS). Days later, after
the chemically induced immune suppression had ended, some of the animals were re-
exposed to the CS by giving them the unusual-tasting solution. Measurements of
antibody production indicated that animals exposed to the CS showed a reduced immune
response.
 Evaluative Conditioning of Attitudes. Pavlovian conditioning can also influence
people’s attitudes through evaluative conditioning. This is changes in the liking of a
stimulus that result from pairing that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli. In
other words, evaluative conditioning involves the acquisition of likes and dislikes, or
preferences, through classical conditioning (De Houwer, 2011). For example, funny
cartoons paired with two types of energy drinks increased participants’ liking of the
drinks (Strick et al., 2009). Also, pairing pictures of high-calorie snacks with images of
adverse health effects (obesity and cardiovascular disease) fostered more negative
attitudes about unhealthy snacks, and subsequently led subjects to choose fruit over
highly caloric snacks (Hollands, Prestwich, & Marteau, 2011).

4.2 Operant Conditioning

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Operant conditioning was discovered by B. F. Skinner. The term was derived from his belief
that in this type of response, an organism “operates” on the environment instead of simply
reacting to stimuli. Thus, operant conditioning is a form of learning in which voluntary responses
come to be controlled by their consequences.

Skinner demonstrated that organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by
favorable consequences. For instance, lab rats are rewarded with food pellets when they press a
lever while the green light is on. They get a slight electric jolt when they pull the lever with the
red light on. They, therefore, learn to pull the lever when the green light is on and to stay away
from the red light. This fundamental principle is embodied in Skinner’s concept of
reinforcement. Operant responses, such as lever pressing and disk pecking, are said to be emitted
rather than elicited. To emit means to send forth. This word was chosen because, as already
noted, operant conditioning mainly governs voluntary responses instead of reflex responses.

4.2.0 Components of Operant Conditioning

4.2.1 Reinforcement

Reinforcement occurs when an event following a response increases an organism’s tendency to

make that response. In other words, a response is strengthened because it leads to rewarding
consequences.

 Primary reinforcers are events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy
biological needs. In humans, primary reinforcers include food, water, warmth, sex, and
perhaps affection expressed through hugging and close bodily contact.
 Secondary, or conditioned, reinforcers are events that acquire reinforcing qualities by
being associated with primary reinforcers. Examples of common secondary reinforcers in
humans include money, good grades, attention, flattery, praise, and applause.
 Positive reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by
the presentation of a rewarding stimulus. Good grades, paychecks, scholarships,
promotions, nice clothes, and attention are all positive reinforcers.
 Negative reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by
the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus. Like all reinforcement, it involves a
favourable outcome that strengthens a response tendency. However, this strengthening

37
 takes place because a response leads to the removal of an aversive stimulus rather than
the arrival of a pleasant stimulus. For instance, if your child begins to cry in a restaurant
but stops when you give them a treat, your activity causes the unpleasant condition to
disappear, negatively reinforcing your behaviour (not your child's).

4.2.2 Punishment

It is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behaviour it
follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both cases, the behaviour decreases.

• Positive punishment, also known as punishment by application, involves presenting a negative

occurrence or result to diminish the response that follows. An illustration of punishment through
an application is a spanking for misbehaviour.

• Negative punishment, often referred to as punishment by removal, happens when an

advantageous event or result is taken away after a behaviour occurs. Negative punishment, such
as taking away a child's video game after misbehaviour, is an example.

4.2.3 Reinforcement Schedules

How quickly and effectively new information is learned can depend on some circumstances, and
reinforcement is not always an easy process. According to Skinner, the frequency and timing of
reinforcement had an impact on how quickly and well behaviours were picked up.

i. Continuous reinforcement schedules deliver a reinforcement each time a response takes place.
Although learning usually happens quite rapidly, the response rate is rather low. Extinction
happens also very fast when reinforcing is stopped.

ii. Fixed-ratio schedules are a type of partial reinforcement. Responses are reinforced only after
a specific number of responses have occurred. This typically leads to a fairly steady response
rate.

iii. Fixed-interval schedules are another form of partial reinforcement. Reinforcement occurs
only after a certain interval of time has elapsed. Response rates remain fairly steady and start to
increase as the reinforcement time draws near, but slow immediately after the reinforcement has
been delivered.

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 iv. Variable-ratio schedules are also a type of partial reinforcement that involve reinforcing
behaviour after a varied number of responses. This leads to both a high response rate and slow
extinction rates.

v. Variable-interval schedules are the final form of partial reinforcement Skinner described. This
schedule involves delivering reinforcement after a variable amount of time has elapsed. This also
tends to lead to a fast response rate and a slow extinction rate.

Skinner emphasized that reinforcement is a much more effective way of modifying behaviour
than punishment. Punishment, as it focuses on decreasing or eliminating behaviours does not tell
kids what they should be doing, only what they should not be doing. Reinforcement offers them
an alternative.

Negative reinforcement and punishment both involve aversive stimuli, but the similarity ends
there. Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus, thereby
strengthening a response. Punishment involves the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus,
thereby weakening a response. Thus, they are opposite procedures that yield opposite effects on
behavior.

4.2.4 Examples of Operant Conditioning

• When you finish acting in a community theater production, the crowd applauds. This serves as
a motivator for you to apply for more performing positions because it serves as a reinforcer.

• You teach your dog to fetch by giving him a pat on the head and praise whenever he exhibits
the desired behavior. This serves as another reinforcer.

• Students are informed by their professor that they are exempt from taking the final
comprehensive test provided they maintain perfect attendance throughout the whole semester.
Students are negatively encouraged to frequently attend class by removing an unpleasant
stimulus (the final exam).

• If you don't turn in a project by the deadline, your boss gets upset and criticizes your work in
front of your coworkers. This serves as a constructive punishment, decreasing your propensity to
complete tasks late in the future.

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• A teen girl's parents take away her phone for the remainder of the day because she didn't clean
up her room as requested. This is an illustration of a negative punishment where a rewarding
stimulus is removed.

4.2.5 The difference between operant and classical conditioning

Operant conditioning is a type of teaching where a certain behavior is linked to either a good or
bad outcome. The goal of this type of learning is to increase or weaken voluntary behaviors by
connecting those behaviours' voluntary actions with rewards or punishments. Conversely,
classical conditioning uses associations with neutral stimuli to elicit a certain involuntary
reaction. It is a learning approach that is more focused on involuntary behaviors.

4.3.0 Observational Learning/Social Learning Theory

Observational learning is another name for the social learning theory. The main advocate is
Albert Bandura. It states that people can pick up behaviours by watching other people. Early
learning theories placed a strong emphasis on how people react to environmental cues like
physical rewards or punishment. Social learning, on the other hand, emphasizes the reciprocal
relationship between social environment traits, how people perceive them, and how driven and
capable a person is to imitate behaviors they observe occurring around them. The world around
us has an impact on people, and the reverse is also true.

According to Social Learning Theory, people learn by observing what other people do,
considering the apparent consequences experienced by those people, rehearsing (at first
mentally) what might happen in their own lives if they followed other peoples’ behaviour, taking
action by trying the behaviour themselves, comparing their experiences with what happened to
the other people, and Confirming their belief in the new behaviour.

The Bobo Doll Investigations, two well-known studies of learning and aggression, serve as the
foundation for the idea. In the first study, kids who saw an adult model acting violently toward a
Bobo doll tended to act violently themselves when given the chance to play with the doll.
Children saw one of four films in the second experiment: one with no model, one with
nonaggressive adult models, and one or two with an aggressive adult model who is either
punished or rewarded for being aggressive. Children who witnessed the violent adults receiving
40
rewards for their hostility exhibited more aggressive behaviors, such as punching or hammering
the Bobo doll, than did children in the other three categories.

4.3.1 The Application of the Theory

Almost every program that seeks to change social behaviors, especially those that are
complicated or involve interactions with others, can benefit from applying the principle of social
learning. When a specific behavior is challenging to describe but can be conveyed by
demonstration or modeling, it may be extremely helpful. Additionally, social learning concepts
can be applied to show how a person can succeed in overcoming obstacles or problems to adopt
or practice a certain behavior. Last but not least, social learning principles can be used to alter
perceptions of the social environment, making behaviors seem more prevalent and offering
social support to people who are considering a behavior change. This is because people tend to
adopt and practice behaviors they see others performing.

4.3.2 The Concept of Modelling and Observational Learning

Modeling refers to the use of messages that show someone (a real person or an actor)
performing a desirable behaviour. Observational learning from a model requires four cognitive
stages:

❖ Attention: Individuals must be paying attention to the model in learning something new. The
implications for learning are that programmes and messages with models must be engaging,
tailored to the local context, understandable, and interesting for the intended audience(s).

❖ Retention: Individuals must be able to “store” new information about the modeled behaviour
and review it later. This can be done by ensuring that the model is memorable or by handing out
materials that people can review after an event is over. It also might organise discussions that
would reinforce the desired behaviours.

❖ Reproduction: Individuals have to re-enact the new behaviour to practice and master it
themselves. Repeated performance of the behaviour will lead to sustained change.

❖ Motivation: For the reproduction of the behaviour to be successful, individuals need to be

properly motivated to perform it themselves. Motivation can be enhanced by showing the

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characters in a message being successful or by encouraging members of the community to share
their experiences so that others can learn from their success.

Models may be positive (exemplifying doing the right thing and getting rewarded) or negative
(doing the wrong thing and suffering the consequences). However, studies demonstrate that
positive models are more likely to promote behaviour change than negative ones. Modeling a
positive outcome (getting assistance from friends) for someone who learns they have HIV is
more inspiring than modeling a negative outcome (becoming unwell) for someone who refuses
to be tested.

CHAPTER 5

MOTIVATION

5.0 Introduction
Welcome to this section of the reading that is introducing you to what is commonly known as
motivation in Psychology.

Motivation is a drive (a condition within the organism, which is capable of moving the organism
towards a goal) which directs people to do the purposed job. Nobody moves a yard or an inch
without any reason or drive. We eat three times a day due to hunger. We drink several times a
day of thirst. We go to the market for shopping, we go to the cinema to watch and enjoy a movie.
We move to play for pleasure. Even we talk with others about our necessities and so on.

5.1 Meaning of motivation

The term motivation is derived from the Latin word “movers” which means to move.
Accordingly, it is concerned with the question “what moves man”. Johnstone (1999), considers
motivation as a stimulant for achieving a specific target. Motivation generates goal-directed

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behaviour. In other words, motivation encourages one to direct his or her effort to achieve a
particular goal.
‘Motivation’ is the process of inspiring people to intensify their desire and willingness for
executing their duties effectively and to cooperate to achieve the common objectives of an
enterprise. Here motivation becomes the force that induces, instigate, incite or prompt someone
to a particular course of action for getting the results expected from him.

There are three basic parts of motivation (Lefton, 1994). They are;

1. Motivation is an internal condition because it is within an individual. As a concept it is

invisible.
2. It is an inferred concept because it cannot be observed directly, but its presence be
inferred by its effect on behaviour.
3. Motivation initiates, activates or maintains behaviour. It is a sort of moving force. One
can be motivated to work hard to win an award or display a particular desired behaviour.

5.2 Types of motivation:

1. Intrinsic –. Intrinsic motivation is the desire to do or achieve something because one truly
wants to, takes pleasure or sees value in doing so. It is the desire to do or achieve something,
not for the enjoyment of the thing itself, but because doing so leads to a certain result
(Pintrich, 2003). For example, the desire to get good grades, a competitive drive to
outperform peers, fear of failure, and hope to generally succeed in life, means to be admitted
to a top university or programme to get a certain job. In short, intrinsic motivation is the
promise of concrete rewards that drives one to succeed.
Intrinsic motivation is self-generated factors (responsibility, freedom to act, scope to use and
develop skills and abilities, interesting and challenging work, opportunities for
advancement) and they have a deeper and longer-term effect.
2. Extrinsic–This is the external or environmental factor, which sets the individual’s behaviour
into motion. The incentive/reinforcer drives an individual’s behaviour towards a goal. A
student that is extrinsically motivated will execute an action to obtain some reward or avoid
some sanctions. For example, a student who read hard for the examination did so because of
the desire to obtain a better grade.
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 Extrinsic rewards should be used with caution because they can decrease existing intrinsic
motivation. For example, the extrinsic incentive may spur a student to actively participate in
a task in which the student has no interest but may undermine intrinsic and continuing
motivation in him/her (Deci et al, 1985).

5.3 Theories of motivation

Several theories have been propounded on motivation. They have been categorised into what
motivates theories and how motivates theories

Table 5: Motivates Theories and How Motivates Theories

What motivates Theories How motivates Theories
Content Theory Process Theory
Maslow’s Theory Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Herzberg Two Factor Theory Adam’s Equity Theory
Alderfer’s ERG Theory Goal-Setting Theory

Some of these theories have been briefly explained below:

A. Content Theories: Content theories answer the question “Why I Do It”. It focuses on
factors within the person that energize, direct, sustain, and stop behaviour. They attempt to
determine the specific needs that motivate people (individual needs for job satisfaction,
behaviour, and reward systems). Aware of differences in people.

B. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy: Abraham Maslow hypothesized that within each human being,
there exists a hierarchy of five needs –
• Physiological – hunger, thirst, shelter and all bodily needs.

• Safety – security & protection from physical & emotional harm

• Social – affection, belongingness, acceptance, friendship.

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 • Esteem – internal esteem includes self-respect, autonomy & achievement. External
esteem – status, recognition & attention.
• Self-actualization – drive to become what one is capable of becoming includes growth,
achieving one’s potential & self-fulfilment

The theory states that although no need is ever fully gratified, a substantially satisfied need no
longer motivates. According to Maslow, if you want to motivate someone, you need to
understand what level of the hierarchy that person is currently on and focus on satisfying those
needs at or above that level.

C. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory: The process of why someone chooses one behaviour over
another is explained by Vroom's Expectancy theory. Expectancy, instrumentality, and
valence are three factors taken into consideration when making this deliberate decision.
• Expectancy: the belief that your effort will lead to better performance.

• Instrumentality: trust that if you perform well you'll achieve the outcome you expect.

• Valence: how important you feel the outcome, and any related reward, is to you
personally.

Expectancy theory crucially affects perception. People will consciously choose one activity over
others, and this behaviour will not just be chosen for the joy of earning a reward. Employees
must believe that their efforts will result in a result they want and deserve, and believe that the
compensation for that result aligns with their moral compass. According to expectancy theory,
workers can be inspired to attain their objectives no matter what they are if they think it is likely
that:

• There is a positive correlation between their efforts and their performance (E→P).

• Effective performance will lead to the outcome they expect (P→O).

• The outcome itself, or the reward based on the outcome, is expected to be something that
they value (V(R)).

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D. Adam’s Equity Theory. Equity theory by J. Stacey Adams is a process theory of
motivation. It claims that our motivation is influenced by the amount of compensation we
receive in comparison to how much we believe we have contributed. The theory takes into
account justice, equality, and the value of comparisons with others. Fundamentally, Adams'
theory contends that people favour an equitable distribution of inputs and outputs. This
indicates that they desire the rewards (benefits) from their job to appear fair in comparison to
the inputs (contributions) that they make. In the same vein, they desire that the compensation
others receive for their efforts be comparable to the compensation they themselves would be
entitled
to for a comparable degree of commitment. Simply defined, according to Adams' equity
theory, people favour equal reward for labour across the working population, of which they
are a part. When this is the case, people might continue to be motivated. People could lose
motivation if it stops being the case.

5.4 Importance of Motivation

• It puts human resources into action

• It improves the level of efficiency of employees

• It leads to the achievement of organizational goals

• It leads to the stability of the workforce

5.5 The Need to Belong

Belonging is a vital and lifelong part of the human experience. Most people want to
share life's successes and challenges with others. People are typically happier if they feel
support about goals, dreams, failures, fears, and more. The need to belong appears in
practically every aspect of life, from family, work, school, and sports to military and
religious contexts. Some people need personal space or are inclined to introversion.
However, humans are social beings by nature. This instinctual need goes back at least to
the time when people bonded as clans and tribes. Belonging to a group has provided
people with resources, safety, and companionship.

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What happens when people do not feel a sense of belonging? When people do not feel they
belong, they can experience detrimental effects on their mental health. These effects include
uncomfortable feelings, such as increased sadness, loneliness, anxiety, and depression. The need
to belong is the idea that humans have a fundamental motivation to be accepted into relationships
with others and to be a part of social groups. The fact that belongingness is a need means that
human beings must establish and maintain a minimum quantity of enduring relationships. These
relationships should have more positivity than negativity and be meaningful to the relationship
partners.

The Need to Belong is an important motivator.

Our need to belong is what drives us to seek out stable, long-lasting relationships with other
people. It also motivates us to participate in social activities such as clubs, sports teams, religious
groups, and community organizations.

5.5.1 Why do we need to Belong

People are born with a need to belong for a sense of connection with others and to create a
support system. By having a sense of belonging to others, individuals have better coping
mechanisms for dealing with challenges. These connections allow people to share successes and
experience greater happiness.

Individuals can satisfy the need to belong by interacting with friends, family, or other
connections (school, work, sports, community, etc.) in positive, stable relationships. Forming
trusted relationships with others allows people to share their hopes, fears, and dreams and help
satisfy the sense of belonging.

When humans feel they belong, it tends to create inner harmony and balance. Research has
shown that feeling part of a group can lead to better mental and physical health. For instance,
individuals who feel a sense of belonging experience fewer negative emotions, such as sadness,
loneliness, anger, and grief. When an individual is more involved in their community, their
mental health typically improves. Individuals that enjoy a sense of acceptance and belonging
report greater levels of positivity and satisfaction.

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Finally, a feeling of acceptance positively impacts people's physical well-being. For example,
individuals in happy marriages experience lower mortality rates than single, divorced, or
widowed persons. Immunities are stronger amongst individuals that have strong, supportive
relationships.

5.3.3 The Need to Belong and Human Behavior, Motivation and the Individual

i. The need to belong influences behaviour: In social psychology, the need to

belong is an intrinsic motivation to affiliate with others and be socially
accepted. This need plays a role in several social phenomena such as
selfpresentation and social comparison. This need to belong to a group can
also lead to changes in behaviours, beliefs, and attitudes as people strive to
conform to the standards and norms of the group. For example, people often
present themselves in a particular way to belong to a specific social group. For
example, a new member of the high school football team might adopt the
dress and mannerisms of the other members of the team to fit in with the rest
of the group.

ii. The Need to Belong Is an Important Motivator: In Abraham

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, belongingness is part of his major needs that

motivate human behaviour. The hierarchy is usually portrayed as a pyramid,
with more basic needs at the base and more complex needs near the peak. The
need for love and belonging lie at the centre of the pyramid as part of social
needs. While Maslow suggested that these needs were less important than
physiological and safety needs, he believed that the need for belonging helped
people to experience companionship and acceptance through family, friends,
and other relationships.

iii. Individual Differences in the Need to Belong: People differ in how much they
need to be around others and how badly it hurts not to have other people
accept them. Mark Leary and his colleagues created the Need to Belong Scale
to measure people’s individual needs for acceptance. People who score high
on the Need to Belong Scale want badly to be accepted into social interactions
and react strongly to being excluded. People who score low on the scale desire
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 fewer close relationships, although again a minimum number of close ties are
important for all human beings.

CHAPTER 6

EMOTIONS, STRESS AND HEALTH

Overview

This chapter introduces you to the concepts Emotions, Stress and Health.

6.1 Meaning and definition

Many views have been expressed as to what the meaning of emotion is. The various views
include:

A. Emotion is a strong feeling deriving from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships

with others. "she was attempting to control her emotions"
B. Emotion is a feeling such as happiness, love, fear, anger, or hatred, which can be caused
by the situation that you are in or the people you are with.
C. Emotion is the part of a person's character that consists of their feelings, as opposed to
their thoughts.
D. Emotion is a complex experience of consciousness, bodily sensation, and behaviour that
reflects the personal significance of a thing, an event, or a state of affairs.

6.2 Theories of Emotion

Emotions exert an incredibly powerful force on human behaviour. Strong emotions can cause
you to take actions you might not normally perform or to avoid situations you enjoy. Why
exactly do we have emotions? What causes them? Researchers, philosophers, and psychologists
have proposed various theories of emotion to explain the how and why behind our feelings.

The major theories of emotion can be grouped into three main categories:

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 1. Physiological theories suggest that responses within the body are responsible for
emotions.
2. Neurological theories propose that activity within the brain leads to emotional
responses.

3. Cognitive theories argue that thoughts and other mental activity play an essential role in
forming emotions.

6.3 The variety and complexity of emotions

According to Aristotle (384–322 BCE), “Emotions are all those feelings that so change men as to
affect their judgment’s, and that are also attended by pain or pleasure. Such are anger, pity, fear
and the like, with their opposites.” Emotion is indeed a heterogeneous category that encompasses
a wide variety of important psychological phenomena.

Some emotions are very specific, insofar as they concern a particular person, object, or situation.
Others, such as distress, joy, or depression, are very general. Some emotions are very brief and
barely conscious, such as a sudden flush of embarrassment or a burst of anger. Others, such as
long-lasting love or simmering resentment, are protracted, lasting hours, months, or even years
(in which case they can become a durable feature of an individual’s personality).

Emotion may have pronounced physical accompaniments, such as a facial expression, or it may
be invisible to observers. An emotion may involve conscious experience and reflection, as when
one “wallows” in it, or it may pass virtually unnoticed and unacknowledged by the subject. An
emotion may be profound, in the sense that it is essential to one’s physical survival or mental
health, or it may be trivial or dysfunctional. An emotion may be socially appropriate or
inappropriate. It may even be socially obligatory—e.g., feeling remorse after committing a crime
or feeling grief at a funeral.

Accordingly, there is an enormous range of emotions, and even within the same “emotion
families” there is considerable variation. Panic and fear, for example, are often thought to be
kindred emotions, but there is a significant difference between the panic that is manifested in an
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irrational fear or a phobia and an intelligent fear—such as the fear of nuclear war—which
requires a good deal of information and analysis. The great variety and abundance of emotions
suggest that the category of emotion may not be a single class of psychological phenomena but a
large family of loosely related mental states and processes.

For the sake of simplicity, researchers and laypeople alike often divide emotions into those that
are “positive” and those that are “negative.” Scientific researchers call those qualities of emotion
its “affective valence.” However, the complexity of emotions renders such oppositions suspect.
Although love and hate, for example, are often conceived of as polar opposites, it is worth noting
that they frequently coexist not as opposites but as complements. Moreover, love is often painful
and destructive, and hatred, sometimes, can be positive.

6.4 Emotions in the Life of the Individual

The proper development and functioning of emotions allow people to live well and be happy.
This is because our emotions define who we are. Love, respect, and compassion, for example,
are the essential emotional ingredients of interpersonal relations and concerns. Emotions
motivate moral (as well as immoral) behaviour, and they play an essential role in creativity and
in scientific curiosity. For many people, emotions are stimulated and provoked by beauty in the
arts and nature, and there is no aesthetic sensibility without emotion.

Emotions as well as the physical senses shape the basic processes of perception and memory and
influence the ways in which people conceive and interpret the world around them. Psychologists
have long known that what one notices and remembers depends to a great extent on what one
cares about. While some emotions can get out of control and damage one’s personal well-being
and social relationships, most emotions are functional and adaptive. Nevertheless, the fact that so
many people suffer from “emotional problems” during their lives makes understanding the
pathology of emotions an abiding social concern.

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6.5 Structure of Emotions
Emotions have different structures that are categorised according to different emotions. This
will be considered under three headings (though it should be borne in mind that the structures of
any emotion are always integrated into an organic whole):

i Physical structures, including overt behaviour, neurology, and physiology. For example,
facial expressions of emotion, such as those of anger, surprise, and fear, are universal in human
beings.
ii Experiential structures, or how emotion is experienced by the subject. The experiential
structures of emotion include, first and foremost, intentionality and what the emotion is about—
a person, an act, an event, or a state of affairs. But intentionality is structured in turn by the
subject’s beliefs and evaluative judgments about the person, act, event, or state of affairs in
question.
iii Social structures, including cultural causes and circumstances, the social meaning and
function of emotional expressions, the social effects of emotional behaviour, the political causes
and effects of emotional behaviour, and the ethical considerations that determine the nature and
appropriateness of emotions.

6.6 Emotions and Rationality

An emotion can be rational or irrational in two more specific senses. It can be more or less
accurate in the perception or understanding of the situation it involves, and it can be more or less
warranted in its evaluation of the situation. For example:

i. Smith is angry at Jones for saying something offensive, when in fact Jones said no such
thing and there is no good reason to think that he did.
ii. Smith is angry at Jones for saying something offensive, but in fact what Jones said was
not offensive because it was not intentional or because it was an accurate and
constructive criticism of Smith, for which Smith should not be offended or angry.

In the first example, the anger is irrational because it is based on a false belief about the
situation; in the second it is irrational because it involves an unjust or unfair evaluation.

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In yet another sense, emotions can be rational insofar as they are functional. Anger may have
been a useful stimulus of aggression in prehistoric times, but it can be deleterious or generally
dysfunctional in a modern urban environment.

Finally, emotions can be rational in the sense that they can be used to achieve certain basic
human goals and aspirations. Getting angry may be an important step in motivating oneself to
face obstacles and overcome them. Falling in love may be an important step in developing the
capacity to form and maintain intimate relationships.

6.7 Emotional Intelligence

For years, a person’s “Intelligence Quotient” or IQ was thought to determine how successful
they’d be on the job and in life, however, over time, researchers began finding that emotional
maturity played a key role in success as well. This is because practical life issues have shown
that while “smarts” can help you land the job; strong “Emotional Intelligence” is, oftentimes,
what helps you keep it.

The term emotional intelligence was first coined in 1990 by researchers John Mayer and Peter
Salovey but was later popularized by psychologist Daniel Goleman. In the tenth anniversary
edition of his bestseller Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ (2005), author
Daniel Goleman quotes a search firm executive who says, “CEOs are hired for their intellect and
business expertise – and fired for a lack of emotional intelligence.” What then is emotional
intelligence?

Emotional Intelligence – often referred to as “EI” or “EQ” (for “Emotional Quotient”). The
researchers defined EQ as the ability to monitor one’s and other’s emotions; discriminate
between different emotions and label them appropriately; and use emotional information to guide
thinking and behaviour. It is the ability to understand and manage your own emotions, as well as
recognize and influence the emotions of those around you. In short, EQ is our ability to manage
our emotions and get along with others.

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EQ has become very important because getting along in the workplace has a direct impact on our
livelihood; it’s highly beneficial to understand our EQ strengths and weaknesses. In his book
Working With Emotional Intelligence – which focuses more specifically on career – Goleman
takes the four fundamentals of EQ – a person’s potential for self-awareness, self-management,
social awareness and their ability to manage relationships – and breaks them down into a
framework of “competencies,” both Personal and Social, to highlight the EQ skills that can lead
to greater success on the job. Goleman’s framework is as follows:

A. Personal Competence

Self-Awareness – Knowing one’s internal states, preferences, resources and intuitions. The
competencies in this category include:
Emotional Awareness – Recognizing one’s emotions and their effects

Accurate Self-Assessment – Knowing one’s strengths and limits

Self-Confidence – A strong sense of one’s self-worth and capabilities

Self-Regulation – Managing one’s internal states, impulses and resources. The competencies in
this category include:

• Self-Control – Keeping disruptive emotions and impulses in check

• Trustworthiness – Maintaining standards of honesty and integrity

• Conscientiousness – Taking responsibility for personal performance

• Adaptability – Flexibility in handling change

• Innovation – Being comfortable with novel ideas and approaches

Motivation – Emotional tendencies that guide or facilitate reaching goals. The competencies in
this category include:

• Achievement Drive – Striving to improve or meet a standard of excellence

• Commitment – Aligning with the goals of the group or organization

• Initiative – Readiness to act on opportunities

• Optimism – Persistence in pursuing goals despite obstacles and setbacks

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B. Social Competence

Empathy – Awareness of others’ feelings, needs and concerns. The competencies in this category
include:

• Understanding Others – Sensing others’ feelings and perspectives

• Developing Others – Sensing others’ development needs and bolstering their abilities

• Service Orientation – Anticipating, recognizing and meeting customers’ needs

• Leveraging Diversity – Cultivating opportunities through different kinds of people

• Political Awareness – Reading a group’s emotional currents and power relationships

Social Skills – Adeptness at inducing desirable responses in others. The competencies in
this category include:
• Influence – Wielding effective tactics for persuasion.

• Communication – Listening openly and sending convincing messages

• Conflict Management – Negotiating and resolving disagreements

• Leadership – Inspiring and guiding individuals and groups

• Change Catalyst – Initiating or managing change

• Building Bonds – Nurturing instrumental relationships

• Collaboration and Cooperation – Working with others toward shared goals•

• Team Capabilities – Creating group synergy in pursuing collective goals

6.8 The significance of Emotional Quotients on the Success of one’s Life and Career It is
important to know how the management of our emotions impacts our careers and determines
overall success in our lives. This can be realized when we take a good look at the seven signs of
strong EQ:

i. Getting along well/interest in others: High EQ individuals can be active listeners

and truly curious about others. They’re often as comfortable talking with strangers as
they are with friends, and are adept at reading people, i.e.: taking cues from body
language, facial expressions, etc.
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ii. Self-Awareness of Strengths and Weaknesses: Goleman explains that “star”
performers at work are successful because they know where they excel and, as a
result, have strong self-confidence. At the same time, they aren’t afraid of negative
evaluations. Since they’re in a continuous process of self-improvement, they seek out
feedback regarding their blind spots/weaknesses.
iii. Operating with integrity: The keywords here are trustworthiness and
conscientiousness. A person with strong EQ in this area is highly ethical in business
and relationships and takes responsibility for her actions. iv. Self-awareness of
feelings: Emotionally intelligent people have self-control when it comes to their
feelings, especially anger or frustration. They’re able to observe their emotions in a
detached manner and pinpoint the reason why they’re upset.
v. Present-focused: Rather than whine or complain about what’s already happened or
what’s to come, an individual with strong EQ is solution-focused – looking for what
they can do, at the moment, to solve problem.
vi. Self-motivated: According to Goleman, top performers in the workplace demonstrate
motivational competencies that include: a strong drive to achieve; a commitment to
reaching goals that benefit the group/organization; and initiative/optimism – which
inspires individuals to seize opportunities as well as take setbacks or obstacles in
stride. vii. Well-placed boundaries: Individuals with high EQ are skilled at assessing
what is realistic in terms of the time and energy required for a task or project. They’re
aware of their limits and they know when to say “No.”

Summary of Emotional Intelligence

One need to be conversant and skilled in these aspects of emotional intelligence to be

able to manage life challenges and succeed

According to Psychologists, there are four types of Intelligence:

1) Intelligence Quotient (IQ) 2) Emotional Quotient (EQ)

3) Social Quotient (SQ) 4) Adversity Quotient (AQ)

5. RQ- Religious Quotient- my own addition

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 i. Intelligence Quotient (IQ): this is the measure of your level of
comprehension. You need IQ to solve maths, memorize things, and recall
lessons.
ii. Emotional Quotient (EQ): this is the measure of your ability to maintain
peace with others, keep to time, be responsible, be honest, respect boundaries,
be humble, genuine and considerate.
iii. Social Quotient (SQ): this is the measure of your ability to build a network of
friends and maintain it over a long period of time. The saying your “social
network is your social wealth” apply here
iv. Adversity Quotient (AQ) : this is the measure of your ability to withstand
difficult and challenging as well as turbulent situations in life without losing
your head and move to the state of depression
v. Religious Quotient (RQ): This is the measure of ones level of religiosity and
personal communion with God. He the individual as naturally religious being,
need to willingly and personally motivate to seek and find the true God so that
no one lead you astray.

People that have higher EQ and SQ tend to go further in life than those with a high IQ
but low EQ, SQ and AQ. Most schools capitalize on improving IQ levels while EQ ,
SQ and AQ are played down.

A man of high IQ can end up being employed by a man of high EQ and SQ even
though he has an average IQ.

Your EQ represents your Character, while your SQ represents your Charisma. Its
good to intentionally develop a habits that will improve these three Qs, especially
your EQ and SQ

6.9 Stress and Your Health

Stress has been explained in many ways by different people and authorities

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  The World Health Organization (WHO) defined stress as any type of change that
causes physical, emotional or psychological strain. Stress is your body's response to
anything that requires attention or action (stressors).
 Stress is your body's reaction to a challenge or demand

 Stress is a feeling of emotional or physical tension. It can come from any event or
thought that makes you feel frustrated, angry, or nervous.
 Stress can be defined as any type of change that causes physical, emotional, or
psychological strain.

Everyone experiences stress to some degree. The way you respond to stress, however, makes a
big difference to your overall well-being. In short bursts, stress can be positive, such as when it
helps you avoid danger or meet a deadline. But when stress lasts for a long time, it may harm
your health.

6.10 Types of Stress

There are two main types of stress:

• Acute stress. This is short-term stress that goes away quickly. You feel it when you slam
on the brakes, have a fight with your partner, or ski down a steep slope. It helps you
manage dangerous situations. It also occurs when you do something new or exciting. All
people have acute stress at one time or another.
• Chronic stress. This is stress that lasts for a longer period of time. You may have
chronic stress if you have money problems, an unhappy marriage, or trouble at work.
Any type of stress that goes on for weeks or months is chronic stress. You can become so
used to chronic stress that you don't realize it is a problem. If you don't find ways to
manage stress, it may lead to health problems.

6.11 Causes of stress

There are many different things in life that can cause stress. Some of the main sources of stress
include work, finances, relationships, parenting, exams, and day-to-day inconveniences.

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Stress can trigger the body’s response to a perceived threat or danger, known as the fight-or-
flight response. During this reaction, certain hormones like adrenaline and cortisol are released.
This speeds the heart rate, slows digestion, shunts blood flow to major muscle groups, and
changes various other autonomic nervous functions, giving the body a burst of energy and
strength.

Originally named for its ability to enable us to physically fight or run away when faced with
danger, the fight-or-flight response is now activated in situations where neither response is
appropriate—like in traffic or during a stressful day at work.

When the perceived threat is gone, systems are designed to return to normal function via the
relaxation response. But in cases of chronic stress, the relaxation response doesn't occur often
enough, and being in a near-constant state of fight-or-flight can cause damage to the body.

Stress can also lead to unhealthy habits that have a negative impact on your health. For example,
many people cope with stress by eating too much or by smoking. These unhealthy habits damage
the body and create bigger problems in the long term.

6.12 Stress and your Body

Your body reacts to stress by releasing hormones. These hormones make your brain more alert,
cause your muscles to tense, and increase your pulse. In the short term, these reactions are good
because they can help you handle the situation causing stress. This is your body's way of
protecting itself.

Stress can manifest in many ways including fear, worry, inability to relax, increased heart rate,
difficulty in breathing, Disturbance in sleeping patterns, change in eating patterns, difficulty in
concentrating worsening of pre-existing health conditions (physical and mental) and increased
use of alcohol, tobacco and other drugs. When you have chronic stress, your body stays alert,
even though there is no danger. Over time, this puts you at risk for health problems, including:

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 • High blood pressure

• Heat disease

• Diabetes

• Obesity

• Depression or anxiety

• Skin problems, such as acne or eczema

• Menstrual problems

6.13 Signs of too much stress

Stress can cause many types of physical and emotional symptoms. Sometimes, you may not
realize these symptoms are caused by stress. Here are some signs that stress may be affecting
you: • Diarrhea or constipation

• Forgetfulness

• Frequent aches and pains

• Headaches

• Lack of energy or focus

• Sexual problems

• Stiff jaw or neck

• Tiredness

• Trouble sleeping or sleeping too much

• Upset stomach

• Use of alcohol or drugs to relax

• Weight loss or gain

6.14 How to manage Stress

Learning to cope with stress will make you become resilient to stress. The new realities of
working from home, temporary unemployment, home-schooling of children, and lack of physical

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contact with other family members, friends and colleagues take time to get used to. Adapting to
lifestyle changes such as these and managing the fear of contracting the virus and worrying about
people close to us who are particularly vulnerable, are challenging for all of us. They can be
particularly difficult for people with mental health conditions.

Maintain a daily routine: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic social restrictions, a lot of people
are forced to stay at home. Having a daily schedule can help us use our time efficiently and not
feel bored. Set time for regular meals, working from home, spending time with family members,
exercise, daily chores and other recreational activities.

Sleep Adequately: Getting enough sleep at least 8 hours, a night is good for both our body and
mind. Sleep repairs, relaxes, rejuvenates our body and reverses the effect of stress.

Good sleep habits (sleep hygiene) can help you improve your sleep:

• Be consistent. Go to bed at the same time each night and get up at the same time each
morning, including on the weekends
• Make sure your bedroom is quiet, dark, relaxing, and at a comfortable temperature

• Remove electronic devices, such as TVs, computers, and smartphones, from the bedroom

• Avoid large meals, caffeine, and alcohol before bedtime

• Get some exercise. Being physically active during the day can help you fall asleep more
easily at night.

Connect with others: The disruption to work, employment, family life, incomes and education
caused by the COVID-19 pandemic is widespread. Different individuals respond to such
situations in different manners. To some, the effects have little impact on their mental well-
being. For, others, it can cause different levels of distress. This is true for all age groups
including adolescents.

There are some mental health conditions that are caused or exacerbated in some individuals in
such circumstances that need immediate action. Two such conditions are anxiety and depression,

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which need psychological or medical support. Therefore, it is important that common symptoms
of such conditions are identified early. We also must understand that some of these symptoms
are similar to symptoms of stress. However, these are more persistent and lead to greater distress
and more commonly affect the day-to-day functioning of a person, including work and
education.

Eat Healthily: What we eat and drink can affect our health. Eating a healthy diet is very
important to prevent or recover from diseases. Eat a balanced diet at regular intervals. Drink
enough fluids.

Take lots of fresh fruits and vegetables.

Exercise Regularly: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions a lot of people cannot do their
usual outdoor physical exercise. However, we can do a lot of physical exercises at home such as
treadmills, skipping, climbing stairs, push up, planks etc.

Minimize news feeds: Spending too much time on television, social media etc. can tire your
brain and confuse you. Limit the time you spend on television and social media. Listen to advice
and recommendations from trusted sources such as local and national TV, radio and the WHO
website.

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 CHAPTER 7

CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND WORK ETHICS

7.1 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS

JOB

A job is a regular and official activity that you do, and receive money (a salary) for your activity.
It is also called a profession or an occupation. You can have a full-time job (40 hours per
week) or a part-time job (around 25 hours per week).
When someone is looking for a job, this is sometimes called the “job hunt” or “job search.”

7.2 WORK (NOUN AND VERB)

The word work is more general than “job” – whereas “job” is a specific occupation/profession,
“work” refers to general efforts and activities done to accomplish a goal. “Work” can be done
both inside an official job and outside a job!
 You can say you work at / for (a company): “I work at UMaT.
 You can say you work with (people / objects): “I work with special needs children” or “I
work with hazardous chemicals.”
The word work also refers to the context of your place of employment – so we can say:
“I start work at 7 AM.” (not “I start my job at 7 AM”)
“I finish / leave work at 4:30.” (not “I finish my job at 4:30”)
– An informal way to say “leave work” is “get off work”
“We go to work by car.” (not “We go to our job by car”)
“I went to the bar with some friends from work.”
“I can’t access Facebook when I’m at work.” (not “at my job”)

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7.3 CAREER

The word is derived from a French word for "road." It eventually evolved to refer to a person's
journey through life or a certain phase of life, like their time in school. Later, the term was
frequently only used to refer to a person's employment, and later still, to describe a career or a
position with room for promotion. On the other hand, "a career" is frequently used to refer to a
series of related professions within a single industry or sector, such as "a career in medicine" or
"a career in the building trade."

According to Buku & Tailor (2010) Career is a job for which you are trained and in which it is
possible to advance during your working life, so that you get greater responsibility and earn more
money.
You can pursue a career in (an area), such as mining, journalism, education, or politics.

Career development is governed by some theories such as:

7.4 CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Overview

Sullivan and Baruch (2009) define a person’s career as "a person's work-related and other
relevant experiences, both inside and outside of organizations that form a unique pattern over the
person's life span." This definition distinguishes between physical movement and the
interpretation of a person's perceptions of the career.

Career is viewed as a sequence of position occupied by a person during the course of his lifetime.
Career may also be viewed as amalgam of changes in value, attitude and motivation that occur,
as a person grows older. The implicit assumption is that an invididual can make a different in his
career over time and can adjust in ways that would help him to enhance and optimize the
potential for his own career development. Career development is important because it would help
the individual to explore, choose and strive to derive satisfaction with one‟s career object.

Through career development, a person evaluates his or her own abilities and interests, considers
alternative career opportunities, establishes career goals, and plans practical developmental
activities.

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Career development seeks to achieve the following objectives:

a) It attracts and retains the right persons in the organisation

b) It maps out careers of employees suitable to their ability, and their willingness to be trained
and developed for higher positions

c) It ensures better use of human resources through more satisfied and productive employees

d) It ensures more stable workforce by reducing labour turnover and absenteeism

e) It utilizes the managerial talent available at all levels within the organisation

f) It improves employee morale and motivation by matching skills to job requirements and by
providing job opportunities for promotion

g) It ensures that promising persons get experience that will equip them to reach responsibility
for which they are capable

h) It provides guidance and encouragement to employees to fulfill their potential

i) It helps in achieving higher productivity and organizational development.

The essence of a progressive career development programme is built on providing support for
employees to continually add to their skills, abilities and knowledge. This support from
organisation includes:

a) Clearly communicating the organisation’s goals and future strategies.

b) Creating growth opportunities

c) Offering financial assistance d) Providing the time for employees to learn.

The planning of one's actions and engagements in the work one takes on in the course of his life
for greater completion, growth, and financial stability is referred to as career development,
according to Juneja (2019). A further definition provided by the Career Development
Association of Alberta (2012) is "the lifetime process of managing learning, work, leisure, and
transitions in order to move toward a personally selected and evolving preferred future."
Opportunity is the main factor in employee engagement, accounting for 39% of all employees,
since they want the ability to advance in their professions. (Dixon, 2017). Career development
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initiatives help retain more individuals who are productive and expand their talents, which
advances the business in addition to increasing engagement.

7.4.1 Factors That Influence Career Choice

 Socio-ecopolitical landscape (Environment).
 Parental background
 Financial strength
 Mentors/Role models
 Strengths and weaknesses in certain subject areas.
 One’s ambition and opportunities available
 A sound mind in a sound body

Reasons for choosing a career/what informs you?

 Social prestige
 Fulfilling ones dream and aspiration
 Recognition
 Job opportunities
 Attracting favour from friends and relatives

7.5 Career Development Process

3.1 Identifying Career Needs

A group of employees is gathered in assessment centers or career development workshops used

by some large firms, where they participate in psychological testing, role-playing activities, and
depth interviews. This method aids the employee in deciding on professional goals and the
actions to be performed in order to make an effort to achieve these goals. The HR manager also
plays a crucial role in informing and assisting the employee in making decisions on their career
needs (Risha, 2019).

3.2 Developing Career Opportunities

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The analysis of jobs identifies career opportunities. The manager needs to determine the
employees' career paths within the company. He should go over the various positions with the
staff members and find out where they would like to move up the organizational ladder in the
future. The staff should be informed about open positions within the company and, for future
reference, what qualifications they must meet to be considered for the promotion they desire
(Risha, 2019).

3.2.1 Career Path

Career paths are means that individuals take from their first foray into the job market through to
their final position before retirement. Commonly, speaking career paths start with the most junior
position and end with the most senior position, this isn’t always the case but is likely the intent of
the individual. It’s important to start thinking of career paths early as the alternatives made early
on in a career can influence the opportunities available in the future (HR Zone, 2015).

3.2.2 Job Analysis

Job analysis is the process of identifying specific position criteria and duties, as well as their
relative relevance for a particular job. Results about data gathered on a job are made through the
process of job analysis. The work, not the employee. An essential tenet of job analysis is that the
job, not the employee, is the subject of the analysis. While data for job analyses of executives
may be gathered through interviews or questionnaires, the analysis's output is a description or set
of requirements for the work, not a description of the individual (HR Guide, 2015).

3.2.3 Succession Planning

Business Jargons defined succession planning as “the systematic process of recognizing and
creating future leaders who are able to take the position of the old ones when they leave the
organization due to retirement, resignation, termination, transfer, promotion or death.” (Business
Jargons, 2014).

Table 1: Succession Planning Process

Step Explanation
Identifying Key Business First, the key business areas are identified, i.e. the areas which are
Areas and Positions significant with respect to the operational activities and strategic

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 objectives. After that, those positions are identified which if
vacant can cause difficulty in achieving business objectives.
Ascertaining You need to determine the required competencies for key
Competencies for Key business areas and position, in order to create the selection
areas and positions criteria, establish performance standards and fill the difference
between what the viable successors know and what they need to
know, through the training and development process. It
determines the knowledge, skills, ability and experience required
to achieve business goals.
Find out the interested and After competency is analyzed, the next step is to identify among
potential candidates and various employees working in the organization, who are
assess them as per the interested as well as they have the capability to fill key business
competencies areas and positions. The Human Resource Manager discusses
future career plans and interests with the candidates and identifies
the potential successors who are ready to replace the old ones and
can be trained and developed for future contingencies.
Develop and Implement Strategies for learning, training, development, knowledge
Succession Strategies transfer, experience sharing is developed and implemented for
potential successors.
Evaluate Effectiveness The last step to the succession planning process is to evaluate the
succession planning and management, to ensure that all the key
business areas and positions are covered under the succession
planning. Further, it also ensures that in case of any sudden
vacancies in future, key positions can be filled as soon as possible
and the successors perform effectively when they hold the
position.

Therefore, Succession Planning is all about developing a leadership substitute, for a perpetual
succession of the organization without any kind of disturbance, when there are changes in the top
management.

5.1. Career Exploration

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To Dixon (2017), Career exploration involves gathering and analyzing data about potential
careers. The employee should be knowledgeable about his or her own skills, interests, and values
as well as the value of work in his or her life and available jobs both inside and outside the
company. Exploring career options increases awareness. Self- and environmental exploration are
the two categories of career exploration. An individual should be able to become more
completely aware of himself and his environment through career exploration.

5.1.1. Self-exploration

A deeper understanding of one's personality traits may result from self-examination. For
instance, a person should learn more about their values, passions, and skills in both their
professional and personal lives. Employees can have a comprehensive grasp of their work,
whether they like it or not, by using self-exploration to learn about their skills, flaws, talents, and
limitations. Identification and comprehension of one's interests, abilities, and values serve as a
foundation for career decision-making, planning, and action. This is known as self-awareness or
self-assessment. Finding the job route that is best for you requires first assessing and
comprehending your interests, abilities, and values. There is a big difference between getting a
job and pursuing a career you love. Research has shown that individuals who choose careers that
are closely aligned with their interests, skills, and values tend to be more satisfied in their jobs
and enjoy greater career success. The self-assessment process is important, not only in pursuing
your first internship or job after college but also throughout your life as you move forward in
your career (iEdu Note, n.d.).

5.1.2. Environmental Exploration

A deeper understanding of one's personality traits may result from self-examination. For
instance, a person should learn more about their values, passions, and skills in both their
professional and personal lives. Exploring the environment also include looking at the many
professions and sectors, the essential skills, potential future employment, experience
requirements for moving from a line role to a staff post, firm alternatives, and the influence of
family on career choices (iEdu Note, n.d.).

5.2. Knowledge

As was previously mentioned, inquiry increases consciousness. Accurate perception of one's own
attributes and those of his immediate environment constitutes awareness. Additionally, a key

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idea in career development is awareness. An exhaustive awareness of the self and the
environment allows a person to set his career goals and strategies of development (iEdu Note,
n.d.).

5.3. Goal Setting

People set career goals to maintain motivation, have something to look forward to and achieve
success. Effective career goals follow the SMART model that is explored previously (iEdu Note,
n.d.).

5.4. Strategy Development

A career strategy is a planned approach to building organizational competencies, resources, and

tools that will help employees successfully traverse their career "journeys." The key tactics
include, for instance, proficiency in the current position, prolonged work involvement, skill
growth through training, opportunity development, connection development (with peers,
sponsors, and mentors), image enhancement, and organizational politics (iEdu Note, n.d.).

5.5. Execution of the Strategy

Simply expressed, strategy implementation is the process of putting plans and strategies into
action in order to achieve goals. Implementing a sound plan can result in progress toward the
specified career objective.

5.6. Feedback: Implementing a career strategy might give the person insightful feedback. This
input can help the individual evaluate his or her profession (iEdu Note, n.d.).

5.7. Career Appraisal/Evaluation

The career strategy implementation offers insightful feedback, regardless of whether the person
is moving forward in his career toward his goal. A person can evaluate his career using this
feedback along with feedback from other work- and non-work sources. "Career appraisal is the
process through which people get and apply feedback relating to their careers to assess the
appropriateness of their goals and plans," (iEdu Note, n.d.).

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6. Indicators of Effective Career Management

Indicators of good career management have been identified by Greenhaus and Callanan as four.
These includes;

a) A thorough understanding of the employee and a precise understanding of the surroundings.

b) Setting achievable goals that are in line with one's beliefs, interests, skills, and desired way of
life;

c) Creating and implementing effective career strategies; and

d) Engaging in a continuous feedback loop that enables adaptability to changing circumstances.

7. Benefits of Career Development

Open communication is encouraged inside an organization via career development. This supports
free communication between employees and supervisors at all organizational levels, including
top managers and managers. It is crucial to understand that the foundation of any company is
open communication.

A better use of staff skills is also encouraged via career development. It benefits the company by
enabling managers to understand their strengths and weaknesses so they may apply them to a job
or position where they can produce better outcomes.

Employees and managers can benefit from career development's helpful advice when making
professional decisions. Additionally, they get the chance to assess their abilities and learn about
their goals and future plans.

Organizations must comprehend their employees' career expectations and requirements from
their organization in order to keep their indispensable assets and prepare them for future top
positions. Career development plans help employers do this.

Plans for career development offer input. This is required to assess the effectiveness of a specific
policy being used and the actions the organization has done. In turn, this makes it easier for
managers to evaluate employees' work performance (Management - Training Guru, 2015).

8. Recommendations

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According to what has been discussed above, here are some recommendations for organizations
and for employees.

8.1. For Organizations

It is recommended for organizations to:

a) Plan and implement for an effective career development strategy

b) Increase budgets for training programs and workshops related to career development

c) Develop a succession plan

d) Implement for job posting systems

e) Communicate all the above recommendations with employees

8.2. For Employees

It is also recommended for employees to:

a) Don’t wait organizations to develop your career path

b) Take the initiative to develop you skills and competencies

c) Stay up-to-date for any new features related to your field

d) Set SMART goals for you career path

7.8 CAREER DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

1. Overview
Career Development is a “continuous lifelong process of developmental experiences that focuses
on seeking, obtaining and processing information about self, occupational and educational
alternatives, life styles and role options” (Hansen, 1976). Put another way, career development is
the process through which people come to understand them as they relate to the world of work
and their role in it.

This career development process is where an individual fashions a work identity. In Ghana, we
are what we do, thus it becomes a person’s identity. It is imperative when educating our young
people that our school systems assist and consider the significance of this responsibility for our
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youth and their future. The influences on and outcomes of career development are one aspect of
socialization as part of a broader process of human development.

Why Study Theory?

Theories and research describing career behavior provide the “conceptual glue” for as well as
describe where, when and for what purpose career counseling, career education, career guidance
and other career interventions should be implemented.
The process of career development theory comes from four disciplines:
i. Differential Psychology- interested in work and occupations
ii. Personality- view individuals as an organizer of their own experiences
iii. Sociology- focus on occupational mobility
iv. Developmental Psychology- concerned with the “life course”

“Theory is a picture, an image, a description, a representation of reality. It is not reality itself. It

is a way we can think about some part of reality so that we can comprehend it”

Career Development Theories for the past 75 years fall into four categories:
i. Trait Factor - Matching personal traits to occupations-Frank Parson’s (1920’s)

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ii. Psychological - Personality types matching work environment- Holland (1980’s)

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i. Developmental - Self Concept over life span-Super (1950’s).
IV. Decision - Situational or Sociological- Bandura ( Self Efficacy-1970’s)

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 A. HOLLAND THEORY OF VOCATIONAL TYPES
This approach gives explicit attention to behavioral style or personality types as the major
influence in career choice development. This is described as structurally interactive.
Common Themes/assumptions:
i. Occupation choice is an expression of personality and not random
ii. Members of an occupational group have similar personalities
iii. People in each group will respond to situations an problems similarly
iv. Occupational achievement, stability and satisfaction depends on congruence between
one’s personality and job environment

Six (6) Holland Types

Realistic - work with hands, machines, tools, active, practical, adventurous
High traits - practical, masculine, stable
Low traits - sensitive, feminine, stable
Occupations - construction, farming, architecture, truck driving, mail carrier

Investigative – thought, analytical approaches, explore, knowledge, ideas, not social

High traits – scholarly, intellectual, critical
Low traits – powerful, ambitious, adventurous
Occupations – biologist, chemist, dentist, veterinarian, programmer

Artistic – literary, musical, artistic activities, emotional, creative, open

High traits – expressive, creative, spontaneous
Low traits – orderly, efficient, conventional, social, masculine
Occupations – artist, musician, poet, interior designer, writer

Social – train, inform, educate, help, supportive, avoid technical skills, empathy, relationships
High traits – cooperative, friendly, humanistic
Low traits – ambitious, creative, strong,
Occupations – social work, counseling, police officer, LPN

Enterprising – verbally skilled, persuasive, direct, leader, dominant

High traits – ambitious, adventurous, energetic
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Low traits – intellectual, creative, feminine
Occupations – lawyer, business executive, politician, TV producer

Conventional – rules and routines, provide order or direct structure, great self-control, respect
power and status, punctual, orderly
High traits – stable, efficient, dependable, controlled
Low traits – intellectual, adventurous, creative
Occupations – bank teller, clerk typist, cashier, data entry 3

Terms:
Differentiation - the amount of spread between one’s first and second code letters; denotes how
clear one’s type is.
Incongruence – lack of fit between one’s type and work environment. People leave jobs because
of too much incongruence or because of a chance to increase their congruence. Best decision
makers are I’s; worst are C’s.
Consistency – closeness on the hexagon of one’s first and second choices. The higher one’s
consistency, the more integrated one’s characteristics (values, interests, traits) and the greater
one’s vocational maturity, persistence and achievement.

Advantages of Holland Types for Career Counseling

Types are intuitively appealing and easily shared with students. Helps students get oriented to the
worlds of work that isn’t overwhelming. Provides helpful way of understanding varied work
environments.

Disadvantages of Holland Types for School Counseling

Theory doesn’t provide insights into how one develops a type or guidance for working with
student.

B. BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

The concept of self-efficacy is the focal point of Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory. By
means of the self-system, individuals exercise control over their thoughts, feelings, and actions.
Among the beliefs with which an individual evaluates the control over his/her actions and

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environment, self-efficacy beliefs are the most influential predictor of human behavior. The level
and strength of self-efficacy will determine:
i. whether coping behavior will be initiated;
ii. how much effort will result;
iii. how long the effort will be sustained in the face of obstacles.

Self-Efficacy - the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action
required to produce given attainments- is constructed on the basis of:
Four most influential sources where self-efficacy is derived:
i. Personal Performance - Accomplishments-previous successes or failures (most
influential)
ii. Vicarious Experience - Watching others, modeling, mentoring
iii. Verbal Persuasion - Verbal encouragement or discouragement
iv. Physiological and Emotional Factors - Perceptions of stress reactions in the body

Self-Efficacy plays the central role in the cognitive regulation of motivation, because people
regulate the level and distribution of effort they will expend in accordance with the effects they
are expecting from their actions.

It is important to understand the distinction between Self Esteem and Self Efficacy.
i. Self-esteem relates to a person’s sense of self-worth.
ii. Self-efficacy relates to a person’s perception of their ability to reach a goal.

How Self Efficacy Affects Human Function

Choices regarding behavior-People will be more inclined to take on a task if they believe they
can succeed. People generally avoid tasks where their self-efficacy is low, but engage when it is
high. Self-efficacy significantly higher than ability can lead to psychological damage.
Significantly low self-efficacy leads to an inability to grow and expand skills. Optimum levels of
self-efficacy are a little above ability, which encourages people to tackle challenging tasks and
gain valuable experience.
Motivation- People with higher self-efficacy in a task are likely to expend more effort and
persist longer than with low efficacy. On the other hand, low self-efficacy may provide an
incentive to learn more and prepare better than a person with higher self-efficacy.
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Thought Patterns and Responses- Low self-efficacy can lead people to believe tasks are harder
than they actually are. This leads to poor planning and stress. A person with higher self-efficacy
will attribute a failure to external factors, whereas a person with lower self-efficacy will attribute
it to low ability. (Example: Math Test)

The Destiny Idea- Bandura successfully showed that people with differing self-efficacy
perceive the world in fundamentally different ways. People with a high self-efficacy are
generally of the opinion that they are in control of their own lives: that their own actions and
decisions shape their lives. On the other hand, people with low self-efficacy may see their lives
as somewhat out of their hands and with fate.

Efficacy vs. Outcome Expectations

Bandura distinguishes between outcome expectancy and efficacy expectancy.
Outcome expectation refers to the person’s estimate that a given behavior will lead to particular
outcomes.
Efficacy expectation is an estimate that one can successfully execute the behavior required to
produce the outcomes sought.

Self-beliefs about abilities play a central role in the career decision-making process. People move
toward those occupations requiring capabilities they think they either have or can develop.
People move away from those occupations requiring capabilities they think they do not possess
or they cannot develop.

Personal goals also influence career behaviors in important ways. Personal goals relate to one’s
determination to engage in certain activities to produce a particular outcome. Goals help to
organize and guide behavior over long periods of time.

The relationship among goals, self-efficacy, and outcome expectations is complex and occurs
within the framework of:
Bandura’s Triadic Reciprocal Model of Causality – these factors are all affecting each other
simultaneously
i. personal attributes,
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 ii. external environmental factors
iii. overt behavior

In essence, a person inputs (e.g. gender, race) interact with contextual factors (e.g. culture,
family geography) and learning experiences to influence self-efficacy beliefs and outcome
expectations. Self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations in turn shape people’s interests,
goals, actions, and eventually their attainments. However, these are also influenced by contextual
factors (e.g. job opportunities, access to training opportunities, financial resources).

In this theory providing opportunities, experiences and significant adults to impact self-efficacy
in all children becomes vital. Strategic career development interventions will positively impact
young people in the context of this theory.

C. DONALD SUPER’S DEVELOPMENTAL SELF-CONCEPT THEORY

Vocational development is the process of developing and implementing a self-concept. As the
self-concept becomes more realistic and stable, so does vocational choice and behavior. People
choose occupations that permit them to express their self-concepts. Work satisfaction is related
to the degree that they’ve been able to implement their self-concepts.

Career Maturity - Similarity between one’s actual vocational behavior and what is expected for
that stage of development. Career maturity includes readiness to cope with developmental tasks
at a given stage. It is both affective and cognitive.
Most career education programs have been affected by Super’s ideas. They provide gradual
exposure to self-concepts and work concepts in curriculum that represents Super’s ideas of
career development/vocational maturity. (National Career Development Guideline Standards)

Stages
Growth (Birth to mid-teens) - Major developmental tasks are to develop a self-concept and to
move from play to work orientation.
Sub stages
i. Fantasy (4-10 years old) - needs dominate career fantasies and little reality orientation.
ii. Interest (11-12 years old) - identifies likes/dislikes as basis for career choices

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 iii. Capacity (13-14 years old) - more reality incorporated; can relate own skills to specific
requirements of jobs. (Vocationalizing the self-concept)

Exploration (Mid-teens through early 20’s) - major tasks are to develop a realistic self-concept
and implement a vocational preference though role tryouts and exploration; there is a gradual
narrowing of choices leading to implementation of a preference. Preferences become CHOICES
when acted upon.

Sub Stages
i. Tentative (15-17 years old) - tentative choices incorporating needs, interests, abilities are
tried out in fantasy, coursework, part time work, volunteer, shadowing. May identify field
and level of work at this sub stage.
ii. Crystallization of Preference (18-21 years old) - General preference is converted into
specific choice. Reality dominates as one enters the job market or training after high
school. Choosing a college major or field of training.
iii. Specifying a Vocational Preference (early 20’s) - trial/little commitment; first job is tried
out as life’s work but the implemented choice is provisional and person may cycle back
through crystallizing and specifying if not appropriate.

Establishment (mid 20’s through mid-40’s) - major tasks are to find secure niche in one’s field
and advance within it.

Sub Stages
i. Trial and Stabilization (25-30 years old) - process of settling down, if unsatisfactory may
make 1-2 more changes before the right job is found.
ii. Advancement (30-40 years old) - efforts directed at securing one’s position, acquiring
seniority, developing skills, demonstrating superior performance, resume building
actions.

Maintenance (40’s through early 60’s) - Major task is to preserve one’s gains and develop non-
occupational roles for things one always wanted to do; Little new ground is broken, one
continues established work patterns. One faces competition from younger workers. Could be a
plateau.
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Disengagement or Decline (Late 60’s through retirement) - Tasks are deceleration of the
career, gradual disengagement from world of work and retirement. One is challenged to find
other sources of satisfaction. May shift to part time to suit declining capacities.

Development Tasks
Crystallization Forming a general vocational goal
Specification Move from tentative to specific preference
Implementation Complete training, enter employment
Stabilization Confirm choice through work experience
Consolidation Advance in career

Implications of Super’s Theory for Career Counseling

i. Identify the career development stage and set goals for mastery of the tasks unique to
each stage.

ii. Help student clarify self-concept because any task that enhances self-knowledge will
increase vocational maturity. Then help them relate their self-knowledge to occupational
information.

iii. Expose students to a wider range of careers because occupational options narrow over
time. Consider lifestyle implications and consider the vocational and avocational
relevance of subjects studied in school.

iv. Direct work experiences are vital. Try on roles in real worlds of work.

Supers developmental view of career development in the context of the self allows for changes
over time. This is very appropriate in the 21st Century workplace.

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 WORKPLACE ETHICS

Workplace ethics are the set of values, moral principles, and standards that need to be followed
by both employers and employees in the workplace. It is the set of rules and regulations that need
to be followed by all staff of the workplace. Work ethic is a value based on hard work and
diligence. It is also a belief in the moral benefit of work and its ability to enhance character. An
example would be the Protestant work ethic. A work ethic may include being reliable, having
initiative, or pursuing new skills (Menzel, 2005).

Aronson (2001) indicated that work ethic is basically the belief that work is a good moral. It’s
also refers to a sets of values that are defined and characterized by diligence and hard work.
Work ethic can as well be defined as the inherent ability of work to strengthen character.

Positive Work Ethics

A work ethic of any kind not only includes how you feel about your place of employment or
position but also how you perform the duties of your job. According to All About Philosophy's
website, a work ethic includes your attitude, communication abilities, behavior toward
coworkers, honesty and accountability. What sets a positive work ethic apart from a negative
work ethic is the focus on confidence and encouraging interactions with coworkers. Your attitude
toward your job and position in a positive work ethic is just that -- positive. You arrive at work
with a smile on your face, focused on the task and committed to performing your duties to the
best of your ability. The ten work ethic traits: appearance, attendance, attitude, character,
communication, cooperation, organizational skills, productivity, respect and teamwork is defined
as essential for student success and are listed below Aronson (2001).

1. Appearance: Displays proper dress, grooming, hygiene, and manners.

2. Attendance: Attends class, arrives and leaves on time, tells instructor in advance of
planned absences, and makes up assignment promptly.

3. Attitude: Shows a positive attitude, appears confident and has true hopes of self.

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 4. Character: Displays loyalty, honesty, dependability, reliability, initiative, and self-control.

5. Communication: Displays proper verbal and non-verbal skills and listens.

6. Cooperation: Displays leadership skills; properly handles criticism, conflicts, and stress;
maintains proper relationships with peers and follows chain of command.

7. Organizational Skill: Shows skills in management, prioritizing, and dealing with change.

8. Productivity: Follows safety practices, conserves resources, and follows instructions.

9. Respect: Deals properly with diversity, shows understanding and tolerance.

10. Teamwork: Respects rights of others, is a team worker, is helpful, is confident, displays a
customer service attitude, and seeks continuous learning.

Importance of ethical behaviors

Aronson (2001) noted that a work ethic, especially a positive work ethic, is important from a
business perspective for the confidence it breeds in clients and consumers. Your positive attitude
and dedication to a client's needs or creation of a product can boost your business' reputation as a
company that deals honestly and fairly. Ethics also work to build a moral compass within a
business and helps discourage attitudes and business models that seek to cut corners in the name
of making a profit.

 Ethical behaviors ensure maximum productivity and output at work.

 Ethics ensure standards, balance, fairness, and success at the workplace.

 Increases the overall morale and enhances the performance of an organization

 You will develop a feeling of loyalty and attachment towards your work.

 Your public Image and self-brand Value Increases

 As ambassadors of the university, you help in branding the UMaT as well.

 It will help you to create broader networking for your career progression.

Conclusion

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Because of the benefits it offers for both people and businesses, we can say that both need career
development strategies. Effectively achieving that is difficult, but it is possible if all career
management factors are taken into account when creating and carrying out the career
development plan.

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