BIOLOGY

SCIENCE
Ocampo, Kirztine Shane, V. | Sir Noli Byuno | Quarter 3 2024

Lesson 1: Nervous System

NERVOUS SYSTEM
● Coordinates various body processes by transmitting signals among the different parts of the
body.
● Control and communication among the organs of the body.
● complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to and from the brain and spinal
cord to various parts of the body.

Major Divisions and Parts of the Nervous System

I. Central Nervous System - Processing area of the nervous system.

1. Brain
● Organ found inside the cranial cavity.
● Organizer and distributor of information for the body.
● Left Hemisphere; right side of the body; spoken language, number skills, scientific functions,
written language, reasoning.
● Right Hemisphere; left side of the body; music, spatial orientation, art awareness, insight,
reading, creativity.
A. Cerebrum
- large, upper part of the brain that controls activity and thought.
- Has lobes:
● Frontal lobe
○ Controls some voluntary motor functions, different moods, and sense of
smell.
○ Motor activity, personality, and speech.
● Parietal lobe
○ Touch and taste.
○ Controls pain, body temperature, and balance.
○ Language, temperature, pressure, and touch are interpreted.
● Occipital lobe
○ Sense of sight
● Temporal lobe
○ Sense of smell and hearing
○ Hearing, smell, and language input.
B. Cerebellum
- Smooth coordination of skeletal muscle contractions
- Body posture and balance and coordination.
- part under the cerebrum.

C. Brainstem
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Ocampo, Kirztine Shane, V. | Sir Noli Byuno | Quarter 3 2024

- Connects the brain and spinal cord

- Controls automatic functions such as breathing, digestion, heart rate, and blood
pressure.
- 3 regions:
A. Midbrain - contributes to motor control, vision, and hearing, as well as vision
vision-and hearing hearing-related reflexes reflexes.
B. Medulla Oblongata - respiration, digestion, and circulation, and reflexes such
as swallowing, coughing, and sneezing.
C. Pons - helps control breathing rhythms.
1. Spinal Cord
● Contains long, thin masses of bundled neurons.
● Brings impulses to and from the brain.
● Channel for signals between the brain and the majority of the body parts, and controls some
simple musculoskeletal reflexes even without the processing of the brain.

II. Peripheral Nervous System - The nerve cell connects the central nervous system to the organs
and limbs.

1. Somatic Nervous System - voluntary control of body movements.

a. Spinal Nerves carry motor and sensory signals between the spinal cord and the body.
b. Cranial Nerves are nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain stem.
2. Autonomic Nervous System - involuntary control of body movements.
a. Sympathetic Nervous System is activated when the body is in a dynamic role or under
stress. (e.g., increased heart rate and breathing, dilation of the pupil, sweating
b. Parasympathetic Nervous System maintains body functions and restores the body to
normal or relaxed mode.

NEURONS
● Ability to change a stimulus into an impulse or an electric signal that travels in it
● The basic unit of the nervous system

Parts of a Neuron
1. Nucleus
- Reservoir of biological instructions
- Which are required to synthesize proteins in a neuron.
2. Dendrites
- Receiving parts
- Carry impulses toward the cell body
3. Cell body
- Contains the nucleus and other cell organelles.
4. Axon
- Transmits impulses to another neuron.
- Carry impulses away from the cell body.
5. Terminal
- Release neurotransmitter when stimulated by an electrical signal carried by the axon.
6. Synapse
- Gap between neurons.
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Ocampo, Kirztine Shane, V. | Sir Noli Byuno | Quarter 3 2024

How Nervous System coordinate and regulate feedback mechanisms to

maintain homeostasis?
● Homeostasis is maintained in the body by regulating the body temperature, blood pressure,
pH, and glucose concentration.
● Homeostasis is the state reached when each part of the body functions in equilibrium with
other parts.

● This is attained through the regulation of bodily functions by the endocrine and nervous
systems.
● Feedback mechanisms are used to maintain homeostasis.
● When the brain receives messages from the body about an internal change in one of its
systems, it works to restore the system to its normal state.
● The hypothalamus affects the pituitary gland, or the master gland, to secrete the right
hormones.
● The hormones will flow with the blood and reach the specific organs to restore the body's
normal state or homeostasis.
● Molecules of hormones are received by receptors of cells making this event a neuroendocrine
coordination.
● The nerves found all over the body allow the nervous system to monitor the body's
homeostasis.
● The endocrine system helps by secreting hormones into the bloodstream and sending them to
specific organs.
● The levels of hormones in the body are controlled by feedback. The amount of hormones in
our body must be kept at the right level.
● To achieve homeostasis, the nervous and endocrine systems work with each other to maintain
a normal range of many processes and substances in the body such as

Lesson 2: Endocrine System

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
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Ocampo, Kirztine Shane, V. | Sir Noli Byuno | Quarter 3 2024

- The endocrine system is made up of glands and the hormones they secrete.
- It is the primary hormone product, the Brain, heart lungs, liver, skin, thymus, gastrointestinal
mucosa, and placenta also produce and release hormones.
- The primary endocrine glands are the pituitary (the master gland), pineal, thyroid, parathyroid,
islets of Langerhans, adrenals, ovaries in the female, and testes in the male.
- The function of the endocrine system is the production and regulation of chemical substances
called hormones.

HORMONES
- is a chemical transmitter. It is released in small amounts from glands and is transported in the
bloodstream to target organs or other cells. Hormones are chemical messengers, transferring
information and instructions from one set of cells to another.
- Hormones regulate growth, development, mood, tissue function, metabolism, and sexual
function.
- Hyposecretion or hypersecretion of any hormone can be harmful to the body. Controlling the
production of hormones can treat many hormonal disorders in the body.
- The endocrine system and nervous system work together to help maintain homeostasis
balance. The hypothalamus is a collection of specialized cells located in the brain and is the
primary link between the two systems. It produces chemicals that either stimulate or suppress
hormone secretions of the pituitary gland.
HYPERSECRETION: Excessive production of hormones
HYPOSECRETION: Not enough production of Hormones

PITUITARY GLAND
- Part of a brain that tells other glands how to act or function.

2 PARTS OF PITUITARY GLAND

● ANTERIOR PITUITARY
- HANDLE: adrenal cortex, bone, muscle, skin, thyroid testes/testis, ovary
● POSTERIOR PIYUITARY
- HANDLE: Kidney, breast

HORMONES FROM ANTERIOR PITUITARY

● ADRENOCORTICOTROPIN (ACTH)
- essential for the growth of the adrenal cortex.
● THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH)
- essential for the growth of the adrenal cortex.
● FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH)
- is a gonadotropic hormone.
- It stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles in the female and the production of sperm in
the male.
● LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH)
- is a gonadotropic hormone stimulating the development of corpus luteum in the female
ovarian follicles and the production of testosterone in the male.
● PROLACTIN (PRL)
- stimulates the development and growth of the mammary glands and milk production
during pregnancy.
- The sucking motion of the baby stimulates prolactin secretion.
● MELANOCYTE - STIMULATING HORMONE (MSH)
- regulates skin pigmentation and promotes the deposit of melanin in the skin after
exposure to sunlight

HORMONES FROM PSOTERIOR PITUITARY

● ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH)
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Ocampo, Kirztine Shane, V. | Sir Noli Byuno | Quarter 3 2024

-
stimulates the reabsorption of water by the renal tubules. Hyposecretion of this
hormone can result in diabetes insipidus.
● OXYTOCIN
- stimulates the uterus to contract during labor, delivery, and parturition. A synthetic
version of this hormone, used to induce labor, is called Pitocin. It also stimulates the
mammary glands to release milk.
● MELATONIN
- communicates information about environmental lighting to various parts of the body.
Has some effect on sleep/awake cycles and other biological events connected to them,
such as a lower production of gastric secretions at night.
● SEROTONIN
- a neurotransmitter that regulates intestinal movements and affects appetite, mood,
sleep, anger, and metabolism.

HORMONES FROM THYROID GLAND

The thyroid gland plays a vital role in metabolism and regulates the body’s metabolic processes.
● CALCITONIN
- influences bone and calcium metabolism; maintains homeostasis of calcium in the
blood plasma
● THYROXINE (T4) AND TRIIODOTHYRONINE (T3)
- influences bone and calcium metabolism; maintains homeostasis of calcium in the
blood plasma
- The two pairs of parathyroid glands are located on the dorsal or back side of the thyroid
gland. They secrete parathyroid (PTH) which plays a role in the metabolism of
phosphorus. Too little results in cramping; too much results in osteoporosis or kidney
stones.

Hyposecretion of T3 and T4 = cretinism, myxedema, Hashimoto’s disease

Hypersecretion of T3 and T4 = Grave’s disease, goiter, Basedow’s disease

HORMONES FROM ADRENAL CORTEX

● CORTISOL
- regulates carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism; has an anti-inflammatory effect;
helps the body cope during times of stress
Hyposecretion results in Addison’s disease;
hypersecretion results in Cushing’s disease

● CORTICOSTERONE
- like cortisol, it is a steroid; influences potassium and sodium metabolism

● ALDOSTERONE
- essential in regulating electrolyte and water balance by promoting sodium and chloride
retention and potassium excretion.
● ANDROGENS
- several hormones including testosterone; promote the development of secondary sex
characteristics in the male.

HORMONES FROM ADRENAL MEDULLA

● DOPAMINE
- is used to treat shock. It dilates the arteries, elevates systolic blood pressure, increases
cardiac output, and increases urinary output.
● EPINEPHRINE
- is also called adrenalin. It elevates systolic blood pressure, increases heart rate and
cardiac output, speeds up the release of glucose from the liver… giving a spurt of
BIOLOGY
SCIENCE
Ocampo, Kirztine Shane, V. | Sir Noli Byuno | Quarter 3 2024

energy, dilates the bronchial tubes and relaxes airways, and dilates the pupils to see
more clearly. It is often used to counteract an allergic reaction.
● NOREPINEPHRINE
- like epinephrine, is released when the body is under stress. It creates the underlying
influence in the fight or flight response. As a drug, however, it triggers a drop in heart
rate.
-
HORMONES FROM THE OVAR
- The ovaries produce several estrogen hormones and progesterone. These hormones prepare
the uterus for pregnancy, promote the development of mammary glands, play a role in sex
drive, and develop secondary sex characteristics in the female.
- Estrogen is essential for the growth, development, and maintenance of female sex organs.

HORMONES OF TESTIS
- The testes produce the male sex hormone called testosterone. It is essential for normal
growth and development of the male sex organs. Testosterone is responsible for the erection
of the penis.

HORMONES OF PLACENTA
- During pregnancy, the placenta serves as an endocrine gland.
- It produces chorionic gonadotropin hormone, estrogen, and progesterone.

HORMONES OF GASTROINTESTINAL MUCOSA

- The mucosa of the pyloric area of the stomach secretes the hormone gastrin, which stimulates
the production of gastric acid for digestion.
- The mucosa of the duodenum and jejunum secretes the hormone secretin, which stimulates
pancreatic juice, bile, and intestinal secretion.

HORMONES OF THYMUS
- The thymus gland has two lobes, and is part of the lymphatic system. It is a ductless gland
and secretes thymosin. This is necessary for the Thymus’ normal production of T cells for the
immune system.

Lesson 3: Reproductive System

Zygote - Fertilized egg
Reproduction
- Process by which new species or organisms are produced.
- Essential for the continuation of similar kinds of individuals.

Functions of the Reproductive System

- Production of gametes.
- Nourishment of a developing offspring.
- Transportation and sustenance of the sex cells.
- Production of hormones on coordination with the endocrine system.

Male Reproductive System

- Produce, maintain, and transport sperm.
- Discharge sperm into the female reproductive system.
- Produce and secrete male sex hormones.
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Ocampo, Kirztine Shane, V. | Sir Noli Byuno | Quarter 3 2024

PARTS OF MALE
1. Scrotum
- loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind and below the penis.
- Temperature regulation for the testes.

2. Testes
- Male gonads
- Testicles
- Produces testosterone and sperm cells

3. Epididymis
- Nourish the sperm to maturity.

4. Vas Deferens
- Transports mature sperm to the urethra

5. Seminal Vesicle
- Sac-like pouches that attach to the vas deferens.
- Produce a sugar-rich fluid (fructose) that provides sperm with a source of energy to help them
move.

6. Prostate gland
- Walnut-sized structure that is located below the urinary bladder.
- Contributes additional fluid to ejaculate.

7. Urethra
- Tube which carries the urine from the bladder.
- Carries sperm out of the body.

8. Penis
- Male organ used in sexual intercourse.
- Root, shaft, glans

Male Hormones and Their Functions

- Luteinizing hormone (LH) - stimulates the secretion of the sex hormone testosterone
- Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) - along with testosterone, stimulates sperm production in
the Seminiferous tubules

Mature Sperms in Epididymis

- After being produced in the Seminiferous tubules, the sperms mature and travel
through a series of tubes
● Epididymis - A long coiled tube where sperms mature until they are capable of swimming and
moving
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SCIENCE
Ocampo, Kirztine Shane, V. | Sir Noli Byuno | Quarter 3 2024

● Vas deferens - Another long tube where mature sperm cells travel through from the
epididymis.
● Urethra - A larger tube where sperms exit, the same tube where urine passes through and
exits the body

Parts of the Sperm Cell

1. Head - contains the chromosomes

2. Midpiece - contains mitochondria
3. Tail - responsible for the movement of the sperm
4. Acrosome - stores enzymes needed to penetrate an egg cell during fertilization

Journey of the Sperm

Testis
Epididymis
Vas deferens
Seminal vesicle
Prostate gland
Urethra
Penis

Female Reproductive System

- Produces the female egg cells.
- Implant fertilized egg into the walls of the uterus.
- Menstruate (if fertilization does not take place)
- Produce female sex hormones

PARTS OF FEMALE REPRO

1. Ovary
- Female gonad
- Produces egg cells and female hormones.

2. Fallopian Tube
- Site of conception
- Where fertilization takes place.

3. Uterus
- Womb
- A hollow, pear-shaped organ that is the home of a developing fetus.

4. Vagina
- Birth canal
- Recipient of the penis and the semen during penetrative sexual intercourse.

The vaginal opening is covered by a thin mucous membrane called the hymen (not a reliable
indicator of virginity)

Journey of the egg cell

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Ocampo, Kirztine Shane, V. | Sir Noli Byuno | Quarter 3 2024

Ovary
Fallopian tube
Uterus
Vagina

The Menstrual Cycle

Menstruation - monthly shedding of the endometrial lining of the uterus due to the influence of
hormones.

Stages of Menstrual Cycle / The Ovarian Cycle

1. Follicular Phase
Follicles house immature eggs.
Begins on the 1st day you menstruate and lasts until ovulation.
2. Ovulation Phase
Ovary releases an egg (ovum).
3. Luteal Phase
After you ovulate.
The dominant follicle changes into a structure called the corpus luteum (which produces
progesterone and estrogen).

Stages of Reproduction

Fertilization to Implantation
1. The egg leaves the ovary and enters the fallopian tube.
2. Sperm cell enters the egg and fertilizes it.
3. The cell in the fertilized egg divides.
4. Fertilized egg attaches to the uterus.

Embryonic and Fetal Development

1. First Trimester
- Fertilization to end of 3rd month.
- Most critical stage.
- Organogenesis (formation and development of body organs).

2. Second Trimester
- 4th to 6th month
- Major organs have been formed.
- Facial muscles produce frowns.
- Sucking reflex
- Movements of the arms and legs.

3. Third Trimester
- 7th month to birth
- Fetus can survive on its own if born prematurely or removed surgically.

4. Birth / Parturition
- 39 weeks after fertilization
- Uterus starts to contract
- Occurs less than an hour after full dilation.
- Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions during labor.
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SCIENCE
Ocampo, Kirztine Shane, V. | Sir Noli Byuno | Quarter 3 2024