Theories of

Behaviorism

PEDAGOGY

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Theories of Behaviorism
 According to behaviorism, learning is the product of a stimulus-response bond or association that takes
place due to the presentation of a series of discrete stimuli and the resulting responses.

 Learners’ response is linked to a particular stimulus through mere trial and error. Insight plays no role in
the learning process.

 The behaviorist perspective was later on criticized by many theorists, who believed that individuals
perceive the situation as a whole, and their learning is based on this perception.

 The behaviorist view defines learning as stimulus-response (S-R) relationships, and hence it is
an associative process. According to them, in learning, a new association or connection is formed
between a stimulus and response.

 Behaviorism is a pedagogical theory that defines learning as a process of knowledge acquisition that takes
place through observation (i.e., based on objectively quantifiable events rather than introspective
psychology).

 Pavlovian conditioning, named after the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, is when a particular stimulus is
used to elicit a predictable response.

 Educational theorists such as B.F. Skinner revised Pavlov’s theory of ‘learning by association’ by putting
forward a theory of operant conditioning, that demonstrated that behaviors of learners could be
influenced by positive or negative reinforcements.

Strength of behaviorism
 It allows the learner to focus on one goal.

 It provides clear predictions about the behavior of learners under certain conditions like reinforcement
or punishment.

 It sates the specific and objective outcomes for learning.

 It allows the educator to use the time more effectively by generalizing the behavior of the learner

 It emphasizes objective measurement.

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 It guarantees specific learning and the objectives are predetermined by the educator.

 It is relatively simple and quick to administer.

 Behavioral psychology of learning car. effectively be used in instruction and behavioral therapy.

 Incorporated the behavior approaches to help individuals guide and control their behavior.

 Information gathered for learning theories is based upon real-life examples and represented by statistics
and facts, rather than theoretical concepts and ideas.

Conditioning
 Conditioning is the process of modifying one’s behavior with the help of some preparation or training.
Behaviorism theory is an idea which states that learning takes place owing to conditioning. There are two
types of conditioning:

 Classical conditioning

 Operant conditioning.

Operant Conditioning or Instrumental Conditioning

B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist, propounded the "Theory of Operant Conditioning" which is also
known as "Instrumental Conditioning Theory". This theory refers to the learning process where learning takes
place through rewarding a certain behavior or withholding reward for undesirable behavior.

SKINNER’S EXPERIMENT WITH RAT

 Skinner developed a special apparatus known as a skinner’s box.

 This box has a grid floor, a system of light, or sound produced at the time of delivery of a pellet of food, in
the food cup, on the pressing of the lever.

 Skinner placed a hungry rat in the box.

 In this experiment, pressure on the bar in a certain way, by the rat could result in the production of a click
and emergence of a food pellet.

 The rat was rewarded for each proper pressing of the lever.

 The rat repeated this process and ultimately learned to press the lever desired by the experimenter.
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 Conditioning is complete when the rat presses the lever immediately after it is placed in the chamber. It
is obvious that lever pressing is an operant response and getting food is its consequence.

 It can be defined as a principle of learning in which behavior is maintained or changed through its positive
or negative consequences.

 According to the principles of operant conditioning, positive consequences lead to the repetition of the
behavior, whereas, negative consequences will lead to avoidance of behavior.

 Factors that increase the probability of repetition of behavior have been termed
as reinforcement. Whereas, factors that weaken or suppress the targeted behavior have been termed
as punishment.

 Skinner gave the theory of operant conditioning. This theory advocates that a learner’s response is
instrumental in producing a reinforcing stimulus.

 This means that the response which produces the reinforcement becomes stronger and the response
which does not produce reinforcement becomes weaker.

Three Types of Responses According to Skinner:

 Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior: Natural operants,
Reinforcement, and Punishment.

 Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a
behavior being repeated.

Reinforcement: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated.
Whenever you see a behavior persisting or increasing over time, you can assume the consequences of that
behavior are reinforcers for the individual involved. The reinforcement process can be diagrammed as
follows:

1 Reinforcers can be either positive or negative. The process of reinforcement (positive or

negative) always involves strengthening behavior.

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1
2 Positive Reinforcement: When the consequence that strengthens a behavior is the
presentation (addition) of a new stimulus, the situation is defined as positive reinforcement. It
occurs when the behavior or response produces a new stimulus, so positive reinforcement is
the contingent presentation of a stimulus following a response. behavior and response mean
the same thing. Examples of positive reinforcement include the occurrence of food pellets
when a pigeon pecks on the red key, compliments when you wear a new outfit, or cheers and
laughter from classmates when a student falls out of his chair.

3 Negative Reinforcement: When the consequence that strengthens a behavior is the removal
(subtraction) of a stimulus, the process is called negative reinforcement. Negative
reinforcement is the contingent removal of an aversive (unpleasant)stimulus right after a
response that increases the future rate of the response.

4 If a particular action leads to avoiding or escaping an aversive situation, the action is likely to
be repeated in a similar situation. A common example is the car seatbelt buzzer. As soon as
you put on your seatbelt, the irritating buzzer stops. You are likely to repeat this “buckling up”
action in the future (so the process is reinforcement) because the response removed an
aversive buzzing stimulus (so the kind of reinforcement is negative).

Punishment: Punishment, on the other hand, involves decreasing or suppressing behavior. A behavior
followed by a punisher is less likely to be repeated in similar situations in the future. Again, it is the effect
that defines a consequence as punishment, and different people have different perceptions of what is
punishing. One student may find suspension from school punishing, whereas another student wouldn’t mind
the break at all. The process of punishment is diagrammed as follows:

Classical conditioning
 This type of learning was first investigated by Ivan P. Pavlov.

 He was primarily interested in the physiology of digestion. During his studies, he noticed that dogs, on
whom he was doing his experiments, started secreting saliva as soon as they saw the empty plate in
which food was served.

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 Pavlov designed an experiment to understand this process in detail in which dogs were used once again.

 Pavlov identified three stages of classical conditioning. At each stage the stimuli and responses are given
special scientific terms:

 Stage 1: Before Conditioning

 Stage 2: During Conditioning

 Stage 3: After Conditioning

 Relationship of stages of conditioning and operations:

Stages of Conditioning Nature of Stimulus Nature of response

Food (Unconditioned Stimulus) Salivation (Unconditioned response)
Before
Sound of the bell Alertness (No specific Response)
Sound of the Bell (Conditioned stimulus) + Food
During Salivation (Unconditioned response)
(Unconditioned response)
After Sound of the bell (Conditioned stimulus) Salivation (Conditioned response)
Table 1: S-R Relationship

Fig1: Classical conditioning by Pavlov

Difference Between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical conditioning Operant conditioning

The neutral stimulus is conditioned to elicit a particular response; A response (pressing of the lever in Skinner's
the learner acquires a new stimulus(S) - response(R) bond. Here, experiment) gets strengthened by a stimulus (food
the direction is S-R. pellet). Here the direction is R-S.
In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus CS is presented The stimulus (either reinforcement or punishment)
before the unconditioned stimulus (US). occurs soon after the response.
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Significant point= Response modification (the rat in

Significant point= stimulus substitution (sight or smell of food
Skinner's experiment presses the lever more rapidly
is substituted by the sound of a bell in evoking salivation)
to get food pellets).
the word 'reinforcement' means pairing (i.e. simultaneous the word 'reinforcement' means rewarding the
presentation) of an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned learner (food pellets) for a particular response
stimulus. (pressing of the lever).
It is based on the feedback principle; satisfactory
It is based on the adhesive principle; a previously neutral
feedback (pellet of food) of the response strengthens
conditioned stimulus is glued to a particular response.
the response.
Table 2: Difference between classical and operant conditioning

Stimulus-Response Theory
 Thorndike's Stimulus-Response theory (S-R Theory) is the principle of conditioning. Thorndike’s theory of
trial and error explains the process of learning among animals and human beings on the basis of actual
experiments. He stressed the importance of mental readiness (motive), meaningful practice (drive) and
incentive (stimulus) in the learning process. In developing this theory. Thorndike proposed three
laws: the law of effect, the law of exercise, and the law of readiness.

1. Law of readiness:

 according to him, the first primary law of learning is the law or Readiness’ or the ‘Law of
Action'. Readiness means preparation for action. If someone is not prepared to learn, learning cannot be
automatically inclined in them, for example, unless the learner, prepares himself to start studying
books, he would not make much progress in a lethargic and unprepared manner.

2. Law of Exercise:

 The second law of learning is the ‘Law of Exercise’ according to Thorndike’s S-R Bond Theory, which
means that drill or practice helps in increasing efficiency and durability of learning and, the connections
are strengthened with trial or practice and the connections are weakened when trial or practice is
discontinued.

 The ‘law of exercise’, therefore, is also understood as the law of use and disuse’ in which case
connections or bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or loosened. this needs exercise and
repetition of various movements and actions May times.

 Many examples of this are found in the case of human learning. Learning to drive a motor-car,
typewriting, singing or memorizing a poem or a mathematical table, and music, etc.

3. Law of Effect:

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 The third law is according to which the trial or steps leading to satisfaction stamps in the bond or
connection is the law of Effect’,. Satisfying states lead to consolidation and strengthening of the
connection, whereas dissatisfaction, annoyance, or pain leads to the weakening or stamping out of the
connections.

 The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggested that: "responses that produce a
satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and
responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation.

 In fact, the law of effect’ says if the responses satisfy the subject, they are learned and selected.

 While those which are not satisfying are eliminated. Teaching, therefore, must be pleasing. The educator
must obey the tastes and interests of his pupils. In other words, greater the satisfaction stronger will be
the motive to learn. Thus, the intensity is an important condition of the law of effect’.

 Thorndike gave the following Secondary laws also:

 Law of primacy: ‘Learning that takes place, in the beginning, is the best and lasting’. Usually, we
say, the first impression is the best. Hence, the pupils should make the right start, and be most
serious even from the first day. The learning on the first day is most vivid and strong.

 Law of Recency: As per this law, people often remember the most recent things they have
learned.

 Law of Intensity of Stimulus: If a stimulus is strong, the response will be strong, and vice-versa.’
The student who has enthusiasm makes greater progress and achievement. The weak-willed
student achieves less. The more serious a student, the greater his achievement.

 Law of Multiple Response: Confronted with a new situation the organism responds in a variety
of ways arriving at the correct response.

 Law of Set Attitude: The learner performs the task well if he has his attitude set in the task.

 Law of Analogy and Assimilation: In this, a person accepts knowledge becomes part of his
foreknowledge and uses that knowledge in future learning.

 Law of Associative Shifting: According to this law, we can get any response, from the learner of
which s/he is capable, associated with any situation to which s/he is sensitive.

 Law of Partial Activity: This law states that teaching should be done in parts. It is more true in
the case of children’s education.

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Social Learning Theory

 Social learning is the process of adapting one's conduct in social situations through observing others.
People don't usually embrace views of the world that make the greatest logical sense, rather we are
motivated to act in ways that attract the least amount of criticism in our particular context.

 This theory was proposed by Albert Bandura.

 This theory states the fact that learning takes place by observing behaviors and imitating what others
do.

 It is based on observation of other’s behavior to situations and then using them as a guide by the
learner.

 Bandura emphasized that Observation and Modeling of other human behavior, emotions, and attitudes
helps a lot in learning.

 According to Bandura, human behavior can be learned by observation through the Modeling Process.

 The behavioral theory seeks to explain human behavior by analyzing the antecedents and
consequences present in the individual's environment and the learned associations he or she has
acquired through previous experience.

 There are four mediational processes that are essential for a new behaviour to be learnt. These are,

 Attention – A behaviour needs to be attended from a wide range of stimuli.

 Retention – The attended behaviour form needs to be retained in one’s memory

 Reproduction – One needs to have the required skills and abilities to reproduce the behaviour.

 Motivation – also explained as ‘vicarious observation’ by Bandura, means that a behaviour is

enacted only if the individual has observed his consequences as rewarding.

 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (also known as Social Cognitive theory) of Personality is based on the
premise that human behaviour is largely acquired and that the principles of learning are sufficient to
account for the development and maintenance of behaviour.

 Bandura theory of social learning can be explained under the following three headings:

 Reciprocal determinism

 Self-system

 Principles of observational learning

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 Reciprocal Determinism- Reciprocal causation reflects the interaction between thought, affect, and
action. Expectations, beliefs, self-perceptions, goals, and intentions give shape and direction to
behaviour. What people think, believe, and feel, affects how they behave.

 Self-System- Bandura found that an individual’s self-efficacy plays a major role in how goals, tasks, and
challenges are approached.

 Principles of observational learning- Children learn most of the social behaviours by observing and
emulating adults. The way to put on clothes, dress one’s hair, and conduct oneself in society are learned
through observing others. It has also been shown that children learn and develop various personality
characteristics through observational learning. Aggressiveness, prosocial behaviour, courtesy, politeness,
diligence, and indolence are acquired by this method of learning. These points reflect the factors like
environment, culture, society, etc. nurture the development of a child.

Points to Remember
 E. L. Thorndike, an American psychologist has propounded the Stimulus-Response Theory (S-R Theory).
In his theory, he emphasizes that learning is the result of associations forming between stimulus and re-
sponses.

 B. F. Skinner has propounded the Operant Conditioning Theory. According to this theory, learning takes
place through rewarding a certain behaviour or withholding reward for undesirable behaviour.

 J.B.Watson has propounded Behavioral Theory. This theory emphasizes that the environment is the
prime factor in shaping an individual's behavior.

 Kohler is associated with the insight theory of learning

 Operant Conditioning theory is called Response - Stimulus (R - S) theory because in the experiment of
this theory random responses activate the stimuli. For example, The hungry rat is placed in the chamber
and it starts doing random activities in it. Then he presses the lever (lever is a response to be learned) and
then he sees food drops on a plate( food drops is stimuli).

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