Cap 5

5.1. A set of biopotential electrodes made of silver are attached to the chest
of a patient to detect the ECG. When current passes through the anode, it
causes silver to be oxidized, producing silver ions in solution. There is a 10 μ
Aleakagecurrentbetweentheseelectrodes.Determinethenumberofsilver
ions per second entering the solution at the electrode–electrolyte interface.
Step 1.

Write the chemical reaction of silver (Ag) atoms on the electrode-electrolyte

interface.

From the chemical reaction of silver atom, the silver provides one silver ion per one
electron.

Write the expression for leakage current between electrodes .

…… (1)

Here,

is number silver ions entering to the solution,

is the charge of electron, which is , and

is the time.

Step 2.
Rearrange the expression in equation (1) to find the number silver ions entering to

the solution per second .

…… (2)

Write the conversion factor for Ampere (A) to convert the unit of leakage current in

terms of .
Therefore, the leakage current between the electrodes is .

Step 3.

Substitute for and for in equation (2) to find the

number silver ions entering to the solution per second .

Thus, the number of silver ions entering to the solution at the electrode-electrolyte

interface is .

5.2. Design a system for electrolytically forming Ag/AgCl electrodes. Give the chemical
reactions that occur at both electrodes.
Step 1.
The Ag/AgCl electrodes are formed electrolytically by putting two Ag (silver)
electrodes in an NaCl solution.

The electrode circuit is driven by a 1.5 V battery (energy source). The battery is
connected between two electrodes.

From the description, draw the electrode circuit as shown in Figure 1.

Step 2.

At the anode side of the electrode, the Ag (silver) is oxidized and forms ions.

The ions are immediately combined with the ions in the solution and form
AgCl.

Write the chemical reaction for the formation of AgCl occurring at the anode side of
the electrode.

At the cathode side of the electrode, the H (hydrogen) is oxidized and forms
ions. The ions are immediately combined with the ions in the solution and

form .

Write the chemical reaction for the formation of occurring at the cathode side of
the electrode.
Thus, the system for electrically forming Ag/AgCl electrodes is designed.

The chemical reactions occurring at the anode and cathode sides of the electrodes

are and respectively.

5.3. Design an Ag/AgCl electrode that will pass 150mC (millicoulombs) of

charge without removing all the AgCl. Calculate the mass of AgCl required.
Show the electrode in cross section and give the active area.
Step 1.
Write the expression to find number of atoms required to design (silver-silver

chloride) Ag/AgClelectrode .

Here,

is the charge that allows by Ag/AgCl electrode, which is and

is the charge per atom, which is considered as .

Substitute for and for .

Step 2.

Write the expression to find molar mass (weight) of AgCl .

Here,

is the number of atoms required to design Ag/AgCl, which is and

is the Avogadro’s number, which is .

Substitute for and for .

Step 3.

Write the expression to find mass of AgCl required in grams .

Here,

is the molar mass of AgCl, which is .

Substitute for and for .

Thus, the mass of AgCl required to design Ag/AgCl electrode is .

Step 4.
The Ag/AgCl electrode consists of a silver (Ag) metal with attached lead wire. The
lead wire is coated with an insulation layer with adequate insulation material.

The electrode is used to immerse in an electrolyte. The electrolyte has chloride ions
as its prime anion.

Draw the Ag/AgCl electrode in cross section view as shown in Figure 1.

Thus, the cross section view of Ag/AgCl electrode is drawn.

5.4. Whenelectrodes are used to record the ECG, an electrolyte gel is usu
ally put between them and the surface of the skin. This makes it possible for
the metaloftheelectrode toformmetallic ionsthat moveintotheelectrolyte
gel. Often, after prolonged use, this electrolyte gel begins to dry out and
changes the characteristic of the electrodes. Draw an equivalent circuit for
the electrode while the electrolyte gel is fresh. Then, discuss and illustrate
the way you expect this equivalent circuit to change as the electrolyte gel
dries out. In the extremecasewherethereisnoelectrolyte gelleft, whatdoes
the equivalent circuit of theelectrode look like?Howcanthisaffect thequal
ity of the recorded ECG?
Step 1.
The equivalent circuit of the system consists of half cell potential , distributed

resistance , source resistance , and distributed capacitance .

Draw the equivalent circuit of the system when an electrolyte gel is fresh, as shown
in Figure 1.

Step 2.
The electrolyte gel wets the surface when it is put in between the electrodes and the
surface of the skin. Due to the wet surface, the distribution and source resistances
have the minimum value. The wet surface also leads to good conductive behavior of
the electrolyte interface.
As the area of contact between the electrode and electrolyte is large, the distribution
capacitance has a large value.

Step 3.

The electrolyte gel starts becoming dry after some duration. When it starts becoming
dry, the conductivity of the electrolyte surface and the contact area between
electrode and electrolyte is also reduced slowly.

Therefore, the resistivity of distribution and source resistors increase and the
distribution capacitance decreases gradually. The conductivity of an electrolytic
solution is also reduced gradually.
When the electrolyte gel dries completely, the distribution and source resistances
become an almost infinite value. Conversely, the distribution capacitance reaches a
near-zero value.

The equivalent circuit is reduced to a series combination of a new source resistance

and distribution capacitance .

Step 4.

Draw the new equivalent circuit when the electrolyte gel is dried completely as
shown in Figure 2.

Step 5.

The recorded electrocardiogram (ECG) loses its low-frequency component

characteristics due to the complete dryness of the electrolyte solution (extreme
level).

Thus, the equivalent circuits of the system described when the electrolyte gel is fresh
and completely dry are drawn and their respective consequences are explained.

5.5. Design The Electrode Of The Smallest area thathasanimpedanceof10Ω

at 100Hz. State your source of information, describe construction of the
electrode, and calculate its area.
Step 1.

Refer to Figure 5.5 in the textbook for impedance versus frequency of area
of electrodes.
From the referred figure, the lowest impedance (resistance) at 100 Hz of frequency

of area of electrode is about .

Write the general expression for resistance (R).

…… (1)

Here,

is the specific resistance or resistivity of material,

L is the length of the material, and

A is the area of the material.

From equation (1), the resistance of any material is inversely proportional to the area
of the material. Therefore, to achieve the impedance to from , the area of
the material needs to be increased.

Step 2.

From equation (1), write the expression for the relation between resistance and the
area of the electrode.

…… (2)

From the referred Figure 5.5 in the textbook, the area of the electrode is for
impedance at 100 Hz of frequency.

Substitute for , for , and for in equation (2) to find the

area of the electrode to get impedance at 100 Hz of frequency.
The area of the electrode needed to achieve impedance at 100 Hz of
frequency is 16 times the initial area of the electrode. If the initial area is considered

as , the area needed to achieve the required impedance is .

Thus, the area of the electrode to achieve impedance at 100 Hz of frequency is

Step 3.

The electrode is constructed based on the required impedance at the required

frequency since the impedance of an electrode also varies with respect to frequency.
At high frequencies, the impedance is generally a minimum value for any material of
an electrode.

Therefore, the frequency and area of the material are the principal constrains to
construct an electrode.

Thus, the electrode of the smallest area that has impedance is designed, the
value of the area is calculated, and the construction of the electrode is described.

5.6. A pair of biopotential electrodes is used to detect the ECG of an adult

male. It has become necessary to determine the equivalent-source imped
ance of this electrode pair so that a particular experiment can be performed.
Describe an experimental procedure that can be used to determine this
quantity, using a minimum of test equipment.
Step 1.

The following are two significant methods to determine the equivalent-source

impedance of the biopotential electrode pair.

• Oscilloscope and decade resistance box method and

• Chart recorder and decade resistance box method.

These two methods can determine the source impedance of electrode pair
approximately. In both methods, the input impedance of oscilloscope and chart
recorder must be higher than the source impedance of electrode pair.

The indicating device is used to measure the magnitude of source signal from the
electrodes. The indicating device is usually connected to the electrodes.

The circuit conditions should be maintained as open circuit while measuring the
amplitude of electrodes.

The decade variable resistance box is connected in parallel with the source and
indicating device.

Step 2.

After connecting the devices as per the description, the variable resistance in the
decade resistance box varies gradually until the amplitude displaying in the
indicating device reaches to the one-half of its original open circuit value.

The value of resistance adjusted in the decade resistance and half of the amplitude
value indicating in the indicating device is approximately equal to the
equivalent-source impedance of electrode pair.

Thus, the equivalent-source impedance is measured by using the two methods

approximately as per the described procedure.

These two methods of measurement of source impedance of electrodes is affected

by polarization of electrodes.

The loading of electrodes with variable resistance causes the considerable current to
flow between electrodes. The current flow between electrodes leads to polarization
of electrodes, which is undesirable, since the polarization of electrodes vary with the
source impedance value.

Step 3.

The polarization effect is reduced (not completely) by loading the electrodes by

decade resistance box up to the amplitude value which is reduced by 10% of its
original value instead of 50% (half of the value).

After adjusting the decade resistance value, when the amplitude reaches 90% of its
original value (reduced only 10%), use voltage divider concept and calculate the
source impedance value of electrode pair.
However, these two methods measure the approximate value of source impedance
and causes low-frequency distortions.

The best way to determine the equivalent-source impedance of electrode pair is by

placing the electrode in a sensitive bridge circuit and considering both resistance and
reactive components of electrodes. But it will be a complicated one compared with
earlier methods.

Thus, the experimental procedures to determine the equivalent-source impedance of

biopotential electrode pair are explained.

5.7. Using Test Equipment Found In Most Labs,design (show a block diagram
and wiring connections) a test facility for measuring the impedance versus
frequency of 1cm2 electrodes. It should use the largest current density that
does not cause a change in the impedance.
Step 1.
The measurement of impedance versus frequency of electrodes requires the following lab
equipment.

• Supply voltage source,

• A resistor to maintain the constant current of electrodes,

• Electrodes of area, and

• An oscilloscope to measure the impedance with respect to frequency.

Consider the supply voltage to the circuit to be 5 V and that it is connected in series with the
resistor .

The voltage resistor combination is connected across the electrodes. The oscilloscope is
also connected across the electrode to measure the impedance of electrodes with respect to
frequency.

Step 2.

From the described analysis, draw the test facility circuit to measure the impedance

of electrodes with respect to frequency as shown in Figure 1.

Step 3.

Consider the largest current density of electrodes of to be .

Therefore, the current of an electrode for area is .

Consider the current of an electrode, which is , to be constant in the circuit.

Write the expression to find current in the circuit .

…… (1)

Here,

is the supply voltage, which is taken as 5 V,

R is the resistance of the resistor, which is taken as , and

is the impedance of the electrode.

Step 4.

Rearrange the expression in equation (1) to find impedance of the electrode .

Substitute 5 V for , for , and for R.

The calculated impedance of the electrode is at one particular frequency. The

impedance of the electrode varies when the frequency is varied. The value of
electrode impedance at each frequency is appeared in the oscilloscope.

Thus, the test equipment used to measure the impedance of the electrode versus
the frequency is designed.

5.8. A Pair Of Biopotential electrodes is placed in a saline solution and connected to a

stimulator that passes a direct current through the electrodes. It is
noted that the offset potentials from the two electrodes are different.Explain
why this happens during the passage of current. Sketch the distribution of
ions about each electrode while the current is on.
Step 1.

Consider a pair of biopotential electrodes is placed in a saline solution and

connected to a stimulator.

If the direct current passes between electodes through an electrolyte, the half-cell
potential of electrodes is altered with the zero-current half-cell potential.

The variation of half-cell potential from the two cases (current existing and non
existing conditions) is due to the polarization of the electrode.
The voltage variation between current existed condition of half-cell potential and

zero-current half-cell potential is termed as overpotential.

There are three mechanisms that are contributed for the overpotential of electrodes
and they are classified as follows.

• Ohmic overpotential ,

• Concentration overpotential , and

• Activation overpotential .

Step 2.

Ohmic overpotential:

The ohmic overpotential occurs due to the presence of resistance in the current path
between electrodes (electrolyte solution).

When the current passes between electrodes through the electrolyte, the voltage
drops between electrodes due to the presence of resistance of electrolyte solution.

Concentration overpotential:

When the current passes between electrodes through the electrolyte, the
concentration of ions in electrolyte changes. The change of concentraion of ions
between two electrodes leads to the altered half-cell potential at the electrodes.

The change of potential between the half-cell potential due to the change in the
concentration of ions and the zero-current half-cell potential is termed as
concentration overpotential.

Activation overpotential:

When the current passes between electrodes through the electrolyte, either
reduction or oxidation is predominated in the electrolyte solution.

It leads to energy barrier dependence on the direction of current and subsequently

varies with the voltage between electrode and electrolyte. The variation of voltage
between electrode and electrolyte is termed as activation overpotential.
Step 3.

Because of these three significant mechanisms, the polarization potential or total

potential will be the combination of ohmic overpotential, zero-current half-cell
potential, concentration overpotential, and activation overpotential.

The descripition is expressed as follows.

Thus, the half-cell potential of electrode is altered when the current is passed
between electrodes through the electrolyte due to polarization of the electrolde.

Step 4.

Consider each biopotential electrode consisting of carbon metalic atoms (C), and the
electrolyte solution consisting of cations of electrode metal and anions .

When the current passes between electrodes through the electrolyte, the electrons

, anions move in the opposite direction to the direction of current and ions
move in the direction of current.

From the description, draw the distribution of ions of each electrode when the currect
is passed as shown in Figure 1.

Thus, the distribution of ions of each electrode when the current is passed is drawn.
5.9. Electrodes Having Source Resistance of 4kΩeach are used in bipolar
configuration with a differential amplifier having an input impedance of
70kΩ. What will be the percentage reduction in the amplitude of the biopotential signal?
How can this distortion of the signal be reduced?
Step 1.

Consider the biopotential signal voltage is .

The electrode source resistances are connected in a bipolar configuration with

differential amplifier impedance.

Draw an equivalent circuit for the described system as shown in Figure 1.

Step 2.
Write the expression to find output voltage by voltage division rule .

…… (1)

Here,

is the biopotential signal voltage,

is the impedance (resistance) of differential amplifier, which is , and

, are the electrode source resistances, which are and

respectively.

Substitute for , for , and for in equation (1) to

find output voltage .

The output voltage is 0.8974 times of biopotential signal voltage.

Step 3.

Write the expression to find percentage reduction in the amplitude of the biopotential

signal .

…… (2)

Substitute for .
Thus, the percentage reduction in the amplitude of the biopotential signal is
.

Step 4.

The distortion of the biopotential signal is reduced by connecting the resistance in

parallel to each electrode source resistance as shown in Figure 2.

Consider the parallel connected resistances are each.

Step 5.

Write the expression to find output voltage by voltage division rule .

 …… (3)

Here,

, are the parallel connected resistances to the electrode source resistances,

which are and respectively.

Substitute for , for , for , for ,

for in equation (3) to find output voltage .

The output voltage is 0.9459 times of biopotential signal voltage.

Step 6.

Substitute for in equation (2) to find the percentage reduction in the

amplitude of the biopotential signal .

The percentage reduction in the amplitude of the biopotential signal is .
Therefore the distortion is reduced from 10.26% to 5.41% by connecting the parallel
resistances to the electrode source resistances.

Thus, the distortion of biopotential is reduced by connecting the parallel resistances

to the electrode source resistances.

5.10. A nurse noticed that one electrode of a pair of Ag/AgCl cardiac electrodes used
onachroniccardiacmonitorwasdirty andcleaneditbyscraping it with steel wool (Brillo) until it
was shiny and bright. The nurse then placed the electrode back on the patient. How did this
procedure affect the signal observed from the electrode and electrode impedances?
Step 1.

The silver-silver chloride electrode (Ag/AgCl) is a non-polarizable electrode used to

monitor electrocardiogram (ECG), electroencephalogram (EEG), and
electromyography (EMG) in the human body.

The silver-silver chloride electrode is also used in animals when the chloride ion is a
principal anion.

One of the electrodes of a pair of silver-silver chloride, that is, cardiac electrode is
cleaned with steel wool, the elemental silver is exposed and consequently the
parameters of material are changed.

From the Table 5.1 in the textbook, the half-cell potential for silver (Ag) and silver
chloride (AgCl) are 0.799 V and 0.223 V respectively. Therefore, the half-cell
potential varies.

Step 2.

The following are the parameters change in the pair of silver-silver chloride electrode
when it is cleaned by steel wool.

• The value of low-frequency source impedance value increases,

• The noise with the material increases, and

• The motion artifact increases.

The outcome after cleaning the electrode is undesirable and leads to an unstable
operation. Due to these undesirable outcomes, the electrode pair is an inadequate
device for cardiac monitoring.

Thus, the consequences after cleaning the electrode are described.

5.11. A metal microelectrode has a tip that can be modeled as being cylindrical. The metal
itself is 1 μm in diameter, and the tip region is 3mm long. The metal has a resistivity of
1.2×10−5Ωcm and is coated over its circumference with an insulation material 0.2 μm thick.
The insulation material has a relative dielectric constant of 1.67. Only the base of the
cylinder is free of insulation
a. What is the resistance associated with the tip of this microelectrode?
b. What is the area of the surface of the electrode that contacts the electro lytic solution
within the cell? The resistance associated with the elec trode–electrolyte interface of this
material is 103 Ω for 1cm2. What is the resistance due to this microelectrode’s contact with
the electrolyte?
c. What is the capacitance associated with the tip of the microelectrode when the
capacitances at the interface of the electrode–electrolytic solu tion are neglected?
d. Draw an approximate equivalent circuit for the tip portion of this microelectrode
e. Atwhatfrequenciesdoyouexpecttoseedistortionswhentheelectrodeis connected to an
amplifier having a purely resistive input impedance of 10 MΩ?Youmayassumethat the
reference electrode has an impedance low enough so that it will not enter into the answer to
this question. If the amplifier’s input impedance is raised to 100 MΩ, how does this affect the
frequency response of the system? Is this difference significant for most intracellular
biological applications?
Step 1.

a.

Write the expression to find the resistance associated with the tip of the

microelectrode .

…… (1)

Here,

is the specific resistance or resistivity of material,

L is the length of the material, and

A is the area of the material.

Write the expression to find the area of the material .

…… (2)

Here,

is the diameter of metal.

Substitute for in equation (2).

Substitute for , 3 mm for L, and for in equation

(1).

Thus, the resistance associated with the tip of the microelectrode is .

Step 2.

From Part (a), area of the surface of the electrode that contracts the

electrolytic solution within the cell is .

Thus, the area of the surface of the electrode that contracts the electrolytic

solution within the cell is .

Step 3.

As the resistance associated with the electrode-electrolyte interface with the material

is for of area, the conductance for of area is .

Write the expression to find the conductance due to the microelectrode’s contact with

the electrolyte .

…… (3)

Here,

is the conductance for of area, which is .

Substitute for and for in equation (3).

Step 4.
Write the expression to find the resistance due to the microelectrode’s contact with

the electrolyte .

Substitute for .
Thus, the resistance due to the microelectrode’s contact with the electrolyte is

Step 5.

c.

Write the expression to find the capacitance associated with the tip of the

microelectrode .

…… (4)

Here,

is the dielectric constant of the free space, which is .

is the relative dielectric constant of insulation material, which is 1.67.

is the length of tip region, which is 3 mm.

is the diameter of cylinder, and

is the diameter of electrode, which is .

Step 6.

The diameter of cylinder is the diameter of electrode with the insulation layer. The
metal electrode is coated over its circumference with an insulated material.

Therefore, the diameter of cylinder is calculated by considering the thickness of

insulation layer on both sides of diameter line of electrode.
Write the expression to find the diameter of cylinder (D).

…… (5)

Here,

is the thickness of insulation layer, which is .

Substitute for and for in equation (5).

Substitute for 1.67 for , 3 mm for , for , and

for in equation (4) to find the capacitance associated with the tip of the

microelectrode .

Thus, the capacitance associated with the tip of the microelectrode is .

Step 7.

d.
The equivalent circuit for the tip portion of the microelectrode consists of resistance
and capacitances associated with the tip of the microelectrode, half-cell potential

, membrane and action potential , and load resistance .

Draw the approximate equivalent circuit for the tip portion of the microelectrode as
shown in Figure 1.

Thus, the approximate equivalent circuit for the tip portion of the microelectrode is
drawn.

Step 8.
e.

When the electrode is connected to an amplifier, the load resistance of

is connected to the circuit as shown in Figure 1.

When the load resistance is connected to the circuit as shown in Figure 1, the
Thevenin equivalent resistance in the circuit is the parallel combination of source
resistance (R) and load resistance.

Write the expression to find the equivalent resistance when the load resistance is

connected to the circuit as shown in Figure 1 .

 …… (5)

Substitute for R and for .

As the Thevenin equivalent resistance is approximately equals to load resistance,

the circuit behaves as low-pass filter circuit.

Step 9.

Write the expression to find the corner frequency of the circuit .

…… (6)

Substitute for and for .

Step 10.
At of input impedance of amplifier, the input impedance amplifier is much

lesser than the source resistance of electrode . Therefore, the

significant distortions are occurred at a low input impedance of amplifier.

When the input impedance of amplifier (load resistance) is increased from to

, the corner frequency is reduced by 10 times. The corner frequency is
reduced from to . The difference between margin of input
impedance of amplifier and source resistance of electrode is also reduced.

Step 11.

The following are the effects when the input impedance of amplifier is raised to
.

• The frequency response is improved,

• Signal amplitude is increased, and

• The loading effect of electrode is decreased as there is a reduction between the

margin of source resistance of electrode and input impedance of amplifier.

The high input impedance amplifier and negative capacitance characteristics are
desirable for intracellular biological application because the high input impedance of
amplifier improves the frequency response, increases the signal amplitude, and
decreases the loading effect of electrode.

There by, these improved parameters by high input impedance of amplifier are
significant for intracellular biological applications.

Thus, the distortions are occurred at a low input impedance of amplifier ,

the frequency response is improved due to high input impedance of amplifier

, and the improved parameters such as signal amplitude, loading effect,

and frequency response play a significant role in case of intracellular biological
applications.

5.12. A micropipet electrode has a luminal diameter of 3μm at its tip. At this point, the glass
wall is only 0.5 μm thick and 2mm long. The resistance of the electrolyte in the tip is 40 MΩ.
The glass has a relative dielectric constant of 1.63. Estimate the frequency response of this
electrode when it is connected to an infinite-input-impedance amplifier. How can this
frequency response be improved?
Step 1.

The micropipette electrode is modeled as a cylinder and covered with an insulation

material of glass.

The insulation layer leads to the formation of distributed capacitance along the
resistance due to the electrolyte in the tip.

Draw an equivalent circuit from the description as shown in Figure 1.

Step 2.

Write the expression to find the distributed capacitance .

…… (1)

Here,

is the dielectric constant of the free space, which is ,

is the relative dielectric constant of glass, which is 1.63,

is the length of the glass, which is 2 mm,

 is the diameter of the cylinder, and

is the diameter of the electrode, which is .

Step 3.

The diameter of the cylinder is the diameter of the electrode with the insulation layer
(including the glass layer). The glass layer is covered in the micropipette electrode.
Therefore, the diameter of the cylinder is calculated by considering the thickness of
glass on both sides of the diameter line of the electrode.

Write the expression to find the diameter of the cylinder (D).

…… (2)

Here,

is the thickness of glass, which is .

Substitute for and for in equation (2).

Step 4.

Substitute for 1.63 for , 2 mm for , for , and

for in equation (1) to find distributed capacitance .

Step 5.

From the Figure 1, the circuit resembles a low-pass filter.

Write the expression to find the corner frequency .

…… (3)

Here,

is the resistance of the electrolyte in the tip, which is .

Substitute for R and for in equation (3)

The calculated low-pass frequency gives the frequency response of the electrode
when it is connected to an infinite-input-impedance amplifier.
Thus, the frequency response of the electrode when it is connected to an

infinite-input-impedance amplifier is .

Step 6.
From equation (3), the frequency response is inversely proportional to the series
effective electrolyte resistance and distributed capacitance.

Therefore, the frequency response is improved either by reducing electrolyte

resistance or distributed capacitance.

From equation (2), the distributed capacitance is directly proportional to the relative
dielectric constant of the insulation material and length of the material.

Therefore, the frequency response is also improved by reducing the length of the
material and by changing the low dielectric constant of insulation material.

From equation (2), the distributed capacitance is inversely proportional to the ratio of
the diameter of cylinder to the diameter of the electrode.

Therefore, the frequency response is also improved by increasing the diameter of

the cylinder.

Thus, the frequency response is improved either by reducing electrolyte resistance

or distributed capacitance.

5.13. A pair of biopotential electrodes are used to monitor a bioelectric signal from the body.
The monitoring electronic circuit has a low-input impedance that is of the same order of
magnitude as the source impedance in the electrodes.
a. Sketch an equivalent circuit for this situation.
b. Describe qualitatively what you expect the general characteristics of the frequency
response of this system to be. It is not necessary to plot an analytic Bode plot.
Step 1.

a.

Consider that identical (similar) biopotential electrodes are used to monitor a

bioelectric signal from the body.

The pair of biopotential electrode circuit consists of distributed resistors, distributed

capacitors, sources resistors, load resistors, and half cell potentials.

The components in each biopotential electrode are described as follows.

The distributed resistor is usually connected in parallel with the distributed capacitor.
The parallel combination of the distributed resistor and capacitor is connected in
series with the half cell potential and load resistor.

Step 2.

From the described analysis, draw the equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 1.

Step 3.
As the biopotential electrodes are considered to be identical, the distribution

resistances , source resistances , and distribution

capacitances of two biopotential electrodes are equal in magnitude.

Therefore, consider the following parameters

Step 4.

From Figure 1, the source resistances of two biopotential electrodes and the load
resistance are connected in series. Therefore, the equivalent resistance of the

source and load resistances’ combination is .

From Figure 1, the parallel combinations of distribution resistance and the

capacitance of two electrodes are connected in series with each other. Therefore,
the distribution resistances of two electrodes and the distribution capacitances of two
electrodes are in series connection.

The equivalent resistance of two distribution resistances is , which is .

The equivalent capacitance of two distribution capacitances is , which is

because when the two magnitude capacitances are connected in series, the
equivalent becomes half of one capacitance’s value.

From the analysis, draw the simplified equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 2.
Step 5.

b.

From Figure 2, it is observed that the electrodes of the equivalent circuit of the
system tend to distort the low frequencies. Therefore, the system behaves as a
high-pass filter.

The corner frequency of the high-pass filter gives the response of the system.

Write the expression to find the response of the system from Figure 2.

Simplify the expression.

 …… (1)

Thus, the frequency response of the system is .

Step 6.

Case-i: .

When the load resistance is much greater than the distribution and source
resistances, the frequency response in equation (1) becomes approximately as
follows.

Thus, the frequency response of the system when is .

Step 7.

Case-ii: .

When the load resistance has a much lower value than the distribution and source
resistances, the frequency response in equation (1) becomes approximately as
follows.

Thus, the frequency response of the system when is .

Step 8.
From the analysis, it is clear that the input impedance of the amplifier affects the
frequency response of the biopotential electrode system. Therefore, the frequency
response system increases with an increase in input impedance and reduces with a
decrease in input impedance.

Thus, the characteristics of the frequency response system are described.

5.14. A pair of identical stainless steel electrodes is designed to be used to stimulate skeletal
muscles. The stimulus consists of a rectangular constant voltage pulse applied to the
electrodes. The pulse has an amplitude of 5V with a duration of 10ms.Draw,on the basis of
the equivalent circuits of each of the electrodes, an equivalent circuit for the load seen by the
constant voltage pulse generator. Simplify your circuit as much as possible. What is
the waveshape of the current at the generator terminals? Remember that
a constant-voltage generator has a source impedance of zero. Explain and
sketch the resulting current waveform.
Step 1.

The equivalent circuit of stainless steel electrodes consists of half-cell potentials,

distributed resistances, distributed capacitances, source resistances, and impedance
between electrodes and tissue.

Draw the equivalent circuit for stainless steel electrodes as shown in Figure 1.
Step 2.

Here,

is the distribution resistance of first electrode,

is the distribution resistance of second electrode,

is the distribution capacitance of first electrode,

is the distribution capacitance of second electrode,

is the source resistance of first electrode,

is the source resistance of second electrode,

 are the resistance of tissue between electrodes, and

is the capacitance of tissue.

Step 3.

Consider the two electrodes are identical and all the parameters are equal for two
electrodes.

Simplify the circuit in Figure 1 and draw simplified circuit as shown in Figure 2.

Step 4.

Consider the current in the circuit is .

As two capacitances are existed in the circuit, two time constants are associated in
the circuit.
Consider initial condition current in the circuit is and final conditions current is .

Therefore, current is a maximum allowed current and is minimum current in

the circuit.

The time at final state current is much larger than the time at initial state current.

Write the expression for current in the circuit.

Here,

is the input voltage signal, which is 5 V.

Write the expression for current in the circuit.

Step 5.
At initial time conditions, the capacitors are short circuited and fully charged
condition. Therefore, the circuit allows maximum current at the initial conditions.

At final time conditions, the capacitors are open circuited and fully discharged state.
Therefore, the circuit allows almost zero current or minimum current at the final
conditions.

From the analysis, draw the waveshape of the current at the generator terminals as
shown in Figure 3.
Thus, the equivalent circuit of the described system is drawn, waveshape of the
current at the generator terminals is drawn, and the sketch is explained.

5.15. An exotic new animal,recently discovered, has an unusual electrolyte

makeup in that its major anion is Br− rather than Cl−. Scientists want to
measure the EEG of this animal, which is less than 25μV. Electrodes made
of Ag/AgClseemtobenoisy. Can You Suggest A Better electrode system and
explain why it is better?
Step 1.

In the case of normal, conventional animals, the Ag/AgCl (silver-silver chloride)

electrode is a better electrode that can be used to measure the EEG
(Electroencephalography). This is because conventional animals have chloride ions
as their principal anion.

As the exotic new animal consists of an unusual bromide ion as its main anion, the
usual Ag/AgCl electrode does not function properly to monitor the EEG of the animal.

A better electrode that can be used to monitor the EEG of the exotic new animal is a
silver-silver bromide (Ag/AgBr) electrode.

The Ag/AgBr electrode also works like an Ag/AgCl electrode but it is not an adequate
electrode for normal, conventional animals.
Step 2.

The following are the reasons for the better functioning of Ag/AgBr electrode in case
of exotic new animals to monitor EEG of the animal.

• Silver bromide is a solid of low solubility, that can formed into electrode as same as
silver -silver chloride electrode.

• As the animal have bromide anions as its main anion, the Ag/AgBr electrode can
functions quickly and in better manner.

The following are the limitation of using Ag/AgBr electrode in case of exotic new
animals to monitor EEG of the animal.

• Silver-bromide electrodes are not stable compared with silver-chloride electrode.

• In the presence of light, sensitivity of silver-bromide is reduced, results in less

stable electrode.

Thus, the Ag/AgBr electrode is the better electrode to monitor EEG of an exotic, new
animal and the reasons are explained.

5.16. Needle-type EMG electrodes are placed directly in a muscle.

Figure P5.16 shows their simplified equivalent circuit and also the equivalent
circuit of the input stage of an amplifier. The value of the capacitor C2 in the
amplifier may be varied to any desired quantity.

a. Assuming C2 = 0 and the amplifier gain is A, write an equation showing the output voltage
of the amplifier as a function of es (the signal) and frequency.
b. Determine a value for C2 that gives electrode–amplifier characteristics that are
independent of frequency.
c. What is the amplifier’s output voltage in part (b) when the signal is es?
Step 1.

Refer to Figure P5.1 in the textbook for simplified equivalent circuit of needle-type
EMG electrode when placed directly in a muscle and equivalent circuit of the input
stage of an amplifier.

a.

As the parallel combination of two resistance and capacitance are in series

connection, the equivalent resistance becomes and equivalent capacitance

becomes .

Consider the capacitance is zero and simplify the circuit in Figure P5.1 in the
textbook and draw the circuit as shown in Figure 1.

Step 2.
Write the expression to find output voltage .

…… (1)

Here,

is the input signal voltage,

is the resistance, and

is the equivalent impedance of parallel combination resistance and capacitance.

Write the expression to find equivalent impedance of parallel combination resistance

and capacitance .

…… (2)

Here,

is the Laplace operation term, which is equivalent to .

Simplify the expression in equation (2).

Substitute for in equation (1) to find output voltage.

As the input signal is sinusoidal signal, substitute for .

Thus, the equation of output voltage for is

Step 3.
b.

Draw the equivalent circuit of the system by considering the capacitance as

shown in Figure 2.
Step 4.

Write the expression to find output voltage .

…… (3)

Write the expression to find impedance in the circuit.

Step 5.

Substitute for and for in equation (3) to find output

voltage.

…… (4)

Consider and which is equal to time constant .

Substitute for and for in equation (4).

…… (5)

From the obtained expression of output voltage, the output voltage is independent of
frequency. Therefore, the time constants of two RC circuits to be equal to makes the

output voltage as independent of frequency. And the capacitance equals to .

Thus, the value of capacitance required to make the output voltage as

independent of frequency is .

Step 6.

c.

From equation (5), the output voltage is .

The amplifier circuit has the gain .

Write the expression to find amplifier’s output voltage .

Substitute .

Thus, the amplifier’s output voltage is .

5.17. Figure P5.17 shows the equivalent circuit of a biopotential electrode. A pair of these
electrodes are tested in a beaker of physiological saline solution. Thetest consists of
measuring the magnitude of the impedance between the electrodes as a function of
frequency via low-level sinusoidal excitation so that the impedances are not affected by the
current crossing the electrode–electrolyte interface. The impedance of the saline solution is
small enough to be neglected. Sketch a Bode plot (log of impedance magnitude
versus log of frequency) of the impedance betweenthe electrodes over afre quency range of
1 to 100,000Hz.

Step 1.

Refer to Figure P5.2 in the textbook for the equivalent circuit of a bipotential
electrode.

Consider the electride itself as a pair of such electodes combination for simple
calculation.

Write the expression to find impedance at lower-corner frequency .

…… (1)

Here,

is the series connected impedance, which is and

is the impedance connected in parallel with capacitor, which is .

Substitute for and for in equation (1).

Step 2.

Write the expression to find impedance at higher-corner frequency .

Substitute for and for in equation (1).

Step 3.

Write the expression to find lower-corner frequency .

Here,

is the capacitance, which is .

Substitute for and for .

Write the expression to find higher-corner frequency .

Substitute for and for .

Step 4.

From the analysis, draw the bode plot of impedance magnitude versus log scale
frequency as shown in Figure 1.
Thus, the bode plot of impedance magnitude versus log scale frequency is drawn.

5.18. A pair of biopotential electrodes are implanted in an animal to measure the ECG for a
radiotelemetry system. One must know the equivalent circuit for these electrodes in order to
design the optimal input circuit for the telemetry system. Measurements made on the pair of
electrodes have shown that the polarization capacitance for the pair is 200nF and that the
half-cell potential for each electrode is 223 mV. The magnitude of the impedance between
the two electrodes was measured via sinusoidal excitation at several different frequencies.
The results of this measurement are given in TableP5.18.On the basis of all of this
information,draw an equivalent circuit for the electrode pair. State what each component in
your circuit represents physically, and give its value

Step 1.

Refer to Figure P5.2 in the textbook for the equivalent circuit of a bipotential
electrode.

The equivalent circuit of for the system described is represented by the following
components.

• Impedance of tissue and electrode/electrolyte high frequency interface ,

• Impedance of electrode/electrolyte low frequency interface ,

• Half cell potential , and

• Polarized capacitance of the pair of electrodes.

The impedance between two electrodes is measured at various frequencies. The
impedance between two electrodes is the impedance of electrode/electrolyte at a low
frequency interface.

The impedance of tissue and electrode/electrolyte high frequency interface

is and the impedance of an electrode/electrolyte low frequency

interface is , half cell potential is , and the polarized

capacitance of the pair of electrodes is .

Equivalent circuit of a bipotential electrode modified figure is shown in Figure 1.

Step 2.

The impedance of electrode/electrolyte low frequency interface is connected in

parallel with the polarized capacitance of the pair of electrodes.

The parallel combination of these two components is connected in series with the
series combination of half cell potential and the impedance of tissue and
electrode/electrolyte high frequency interface.

Step 3.
At high frequency, the value of capacitance reactance is low and parallel

combination of and is approximately equal to . Therefore, at high

frequency the total impedance of the circuit is .

Similarly, at low frequency, the value of capacitance reactance is high and parallel

combination of and is approximately equal to . Therefore, at low

frequency the total impedance of the circuit is series combination of and

Find the value of .

Substitute for and for .

Step 4.

Modify Figure 1 for calculated values of resistance as shown in Figure 2.

Thus, the equivalent circuit for the electrode pair is drawn and the components with
values are stated.