CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN IFUGAO

Module: PHYSICAL SCIENCE ( HumSS and ABM )

MIDTERM : Second Semester, Academic Year 2022 - 2023

Have a Modern Periodic Table of Elements to assist you in our lessons for the midterms

Learning Competencies
1. To give evidence for and explain the formation of the light elements in the Big Bang theory.
2. To site evidences for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star formation and evolution.
3. To write the nuclear fusion reactions that take place in stars, which lead to the formation of new elements.

LESSON 1. FORMATION OF THE ELEMENTS

I. INTRODUCTION
Everything around us is matter, which is composed of varying combinations of any of the 118 elements identified to
be present in the universe, including our planet. These elements are later found to be composed of atoms- the
building blocks of matter. How these elements formed and existed is explained by physicists, chemists and
astronomers on the basis of cosmology and the nuclear reactions that occurred during the early existence of the
universe.
II. NUCLEAR REACTIONS
- processes in which a nucleus of an atom combines with another nucleus (nuclear fusion) or splits into smaller
nuclei
(Nuclear fission) resulting to the emission of large amounts of energy.
 NUCLEAR FISSION – the splitting of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei. This reaction sustains nuclear power
plants and nuclear weapons
 NUCLEAR FUSION - involves the combining of light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus. These reactions fuel the
stars as well as hydrogen or thermonuclear bombs. This type of nuclear reaction produces less radioactive
products and are thus safe than nuclear fission reactions. Moreover, fusion reaction generates less amounts of
nuclear waste products that must be disposed off properly.
RADIOACTIVITY – the release of energetic particles of an atom during nuclear fusion and fission. These energetic
particles or radioactive particles come in the form of the following:

Radioactive Particle Symbol Radioactive Particle Symbol

Electron 0
−1�
Beta Particle 0
−1β
Proton 1
1�
Gamma ray 0
0ϒ
Neutron 1
0�
Positron 0
+1�
Alpha Particle 4
2α

COMMON TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS (with examples)

1. Alpha Decay = loss of an alpha particle
210 206 4
Eg. Alpha decay of Polonium-210 84�� 82�� + 2α
2. Beta Decay = loss of a beta particle
14 14 0
Eg. Beta decay of Carbon-14 6� 7� + −1β
3. Gamma Radiation = emission of a gamma ray
238 234 4
Eg. Gamma radiation in the alpha decay of Uranium-238 92� 90�ℎ + 2α
234 234 0
90�ℎ 90�ℎ + 0ϒ
4. Positron Emission = conversion of a proton in a nucleus into a neutron, along with the release of a positron
15 15
Eg. Positron emission of Oxygen-15 8� 7� + +10�
5. Electron Capture = drawing of an electron into an atom’s nucleus
201
Eg. Electron capture of Mercury-201 80�� + −10� 201
79��
6. Bombardment of Alpha Particle
Eg. Bombardment of Beryllium with an alpha particle 94�� + 42α 12
6� +
1
0�
In the above nuclear reactions, notice that the sum of the atomic masses of the particles at the left side of the equation
is equal to that in the right side of the equation. The same is true with the atomic number. Therefore, if a nuclear
reaction is incomplete, the missing particle can be determined by getting the sum of the atomic masses and atomic
numbers of the particles.

1 I PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 HumSS and ABM

 From this group of radioactive particles: −10�, 11�, 42α and −10β, what will complete this nuclear reaction:
226 222
88�� 86�� + ______
Atomic number: 88 = 86 + 2
Atomic mass: 226 = 222 + 4 ; Therefore the 42α will complete the nuclear reaction
==================================================================================================
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 1a. Complete the following nuclear reactions and state what type of nuclear reaction took
place.
1. 94�� + 42α ____ + 10�

2. 210
84��
206
82�� + _____
234 0
3. ____ 90�ℎ + 0ϒ

===================================================================================
III. COSMIC ORIGIN OF ELEMENTS - elements are formed from certain cosmological phenomena
A. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis or Primordial Nucleosynthesis – refers to the formation of the nuclei of light elements
after the Big Bang
Few seconds after the explosion of the singularity, the subatomic particles such as protons, neutrons and
electrons were formed. As the expanding universe cooled, the protons and neutrons started to fuse to form heavier
nuclei of deuterium (an isotope of hydrogen with one neutron and proton) and some into helium. Subsequent nuclear
fusion reactions followed resulting to the formation of other light elements and their isotopes.
Astronomers believed that minutes after the Big Bang, the cosmos was composed of approximately 75 %
hydrogen, 25 % helium and trace amounts of helium.
The following are the nuclear reactions that lead to the formation of light elements and their isotopes.
1
1� + 10� 2
1� + 00ϒ 2
1� + 21� 2�� + 0�
3 1

1
2
1� + 1�
3
2�� + 00ϒ 3
1� + 2
1�
4
2�� + 10�
2
1� + 2
1�
3
1� + 11� 3
2�� + 2
1�
4
2�� + 1
1�

B. Stellar Formation/Nucleosynthesis – formation of elements heavier than lithium like carbon, neon, oxygen, silicon,
etc. Depends on the mass of the star. Thru nuclear reactions, particularly nuclear fusion:
 Small stars can merely transform hydrogen into helium
 Medium sized stars ( like the sun ) transform the atoms of helium into carbon and oxygen
 Massive stars undergo further nuclear reactions causing the nuclei oxygen and carbon to fuse to form
neon, sodium, magnesium, silicon and sulfur
* The nuclear reactions involved in the formation of each new
element happened in regions or layers called fusion shells. As
more elements were produced, more layers added up to the size
of the star until it becomes a red giant star.
a.) Nuclear Reactions in the Hydrogen Fusion shell
( Hydrogen Burning )
0
1� + +1�
1 1 2
1� + 1�
0
0ϒ
2 3
1� + 11� 2�� +
3 The Fusion Shells
2�� + 32�� 4
+ 11� + 11�
2��
b.) Helium Burning – occurs in the core of stars once the temperature reaches about 108 K. Includes the following
reactions:
4 4 8 16 4 20
2�� + 2�� 4�� 8� + 2�� 10�� + energy
8 4 12 20 4 24
4�� + 2�� 6� 10�� + 2�� 12�� + energy
12 4 16
6� + 2�� 8� + energy
c.) Carbon and Oxygen Burning – occurs at approximately 5 x 108 K. includes the following nuclear reactions:
12 12 24 12 12 20
6� + 6� 12�� + energy 6� + 6� 10�� + 42��
12 12 23
6� + 6� 11�� + 11� 20
10�� + energy 16
8� + 42��
16 16 28
8� + 8� 14�� + 42��
d.) Silicon Burning
The formation of silicon establishes the following reactions (through alpha decay) that leads to an inner core
that is iron and nickel rich.
2 I PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 HumSS and ABM
 28 4 32 44 4 48
14�� + 2�� 16� + energy 22�� + 2�� 24�� + energy
32 4 36 48 4 52
16� + 2�� 18�� + energy 24�� + 2�� 26�� + energy
36 4 40 52 4 56
18�� + 2�� 20�� + energy 26�� + 2�� 28�� + energy
40 4 44
20�� + 2�� 22�� + energy
C. Stellar Explosion/SUPERNOVA – the violent explosion of a red giant star releases a huge amount of nuclear energy
and thereby, producing, through neutron capture and beta decay, other elements heavier than iron.
1
0�
62 63
28�� + 28�� neutron capture
63 63 0 63
28�� 29�� + −1β beta decay of unstable 28��
1
0�
63 64
29�� + 29�� neutron capture
64 64
29�� 30�� + −10β beta decay of an unstable 64
29��
 Rapid process ( r process ) - a series of neutron capture that occurred very fast in such a way that the seed
nucleus turned into a relatively heavier nucleus before beta decay took place.
- Exemplified in the formation of cobalt from iron
- 5626�� + 3 10� 59
26�� ; 59
26��
59
27�� + −10β
==================================================================================================
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 1b. Construct a concept map that shows the cosmic origin of elements
==================================================================================================

LESSON 2.
I. ATOMIC STRUCTURE and DISCOVERY – an element is a pure substance made up of only one kind of atom.
An atom is the basic unit of matter. The word atom came from the Greek word “atomos” that means
indivisible.
A. Greek Philosophers and Their Claims About Atoms
a. Leucippus and Democritus – believed that all things are made up of tiny indivisible and indestructible
particles called atoms.
b. Aristotle – all things can be divided infinitely; therefore, he claimed that there is no smallest part of
matter.
Experimentation in the field of alchemy – the practice of transforming common metals into gold- allowed the testing
of early Greek hypotheses of atoms which has been the bases of more accepted principles of atomic theory.
B. Dalton’s Atomic Theory (John Dalton, 1766-1844)
a. Atom is composed of small invisible particles called atoms.
b. Atoms of the same element is identical.
c. Compounds contain atoms of more than one element
d. In a compound, atoms of different elements always combine in the same proportion by mass.

Recall that an atom is made up of sub atomic particle like the proton, electron, and neutrons that are arranged inside
the atom. To illustrate, look at the timeline of the development of the atomic structure.
1. Eugen Goldstein (1850-1930) discovered positively charged subatomic particle as a component of anode
rays.
2. Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) coined the term proton for the positively charged particle in an atom.
3. J.J Thomson (1856-1940) in his CRT (cathode ray tube) experiment discovered that an atom is also
composed of negatively charged particles called electrons.
4. James Chadwick (1932) discovered the neutral particles, which he called neutrons, located in the nucleus of
an atom.

Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model Rutherford’s Nuclear Model

The discovery of these sub atomic particles contributed to the arrangement of the elements in the modern periodic
table. If observed, the elements are arranged based on increasing atomic number. The number of protons determine the
atomic number (Z) of an element. Furthermore, the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons, except in an
ion form where the atom may donate or accept an electron. The difference between the number of protons and the

3 I PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 HumSS and ABM

number of electrons determines the charge of an atom. The mass number (A) of an element can be determined by
adding the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. The number of neutrons can be determined using the formula:
Mass number (A) – atomic number (Z)= number of neutrons.
5. Niels Bohr incorporated the quantum concepts o of Max Planck and Albert Einstein in Rutherford’s
planetary model of the atom to describe the electrons and proposed the following postulates:
a. An electron can evolve around an atom following its special orbital.
b. An electron does not emit radiation if it revolves only around its allowed orbital.
c. Moving from one orbital to another, which is called quantum leap, will allow the electron to gain or
lose energy. Thus electrons can only be at a certain energy level an will only move to a higher orbital
if it is in its excited state.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY- the ability of each atom in a chemical bond to attract electrons toward it. The higher the
electronegativity of an atom, the higher the tendency that it will attract electron towards it.
IONIC BOND- formed when metals and non-metals share electrons.
COVALENT BOND- formed when atoms (both non-metals) share electrons.
NONPOLAR COVALENT BOND- the bond that exists between atoms of the same kind, having the same electronegativity
value. Pairing is equal.
POLAR COVALENT BOND- the bond between atoms with different electronegativity value. Pairing is non-equal.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES- can be attractive or repulsive, holds molecules together. This explains why substances exists
as solids, liquids, or gases at room temperature.

Types of Interaction Interacting Particles

Dispersion All molecules
Dipole-dipole Polar molecules
Ion-dipole Ions and polar molecules
Ion-ion Ions
Hydrogen bond N,O,and F bonded with H atom
==================================================================================================
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 2a. Complete the table
Element Atomic Number Atomic Mass Number of Protons Number of Electrons Number of Neutrons
1. Al 13 27 g ____ ____ ____
2. Mo ____ 96 g ____ ____ 52
3. Sb ____ 122g 51 ____ ____
4. Cl ____ _____ ____ 17 ____
5. O 8 _____ ____ ____ 8

==================================================================================================
II. CHEMICAL REACTIONS
A. CHEMICAL REACTION – a process whereby 2 or more substances (ions, atoms, molecules, compound) chemically
combine to produce a substance/s which are entirely different from the substances that reacted.
Eg. Oxidation reactions, decomposition reactions, rusting of iron, photosynthesis, cellular respiration
- represented by a chemical equation
B.CHEMICAL EQUATION – makes use of the chemical symbol or formula of substances and other symbols to summarize
a chemical reaction
- composed of:
a. Reactant – found at the left side of a chemical equation, the starting materials
b. Product – found at the right side of a chemical equation, the end-result of the reaction
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2 O
reactant products
C. Symbols to be used in Transforming a Chemical Reaction to a Chemical Equation
SYMBOL MEANING
+ - separates reactants or products ( if there are more than one reactant or product )
At the reactant side, it is read as chemically reacts
At the product side, it is read as and or plus
- separates the reactant from the products
It is read as yields or produces
- a solid substance or a precipitate is produced

- a gas is produced and escapes to the atmosphere

- chemical reaction is reversible

4 I PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 HumSS and ABM

 s, l, g, aq - substance is solid, liquid, gas, aqueous
sunlight - words written above the arrow separating the reactant from the product side signifies the
conditions necessary to carry out the chemical reaction
MnO2 - a substance above the arrow indicates an enzyme that will speed up the chemical reaction

- substance must be heated first before it is broken down into its component substance

D. Transforming a Worded Chemical Reaction to a Balanced Chemical Equation

Law of Conservation of Mass – no energy is lost nor created during a chemical reaction, it can only be transformed to
other forms of energy.
* the number of atoms of each element at the reactant side is equal to the number of atoms of each element at
the product side
Eg. PHOTOSYNTHESIS
6 CO2 (g) + 6H2 Ol C6 H12 O6 + 6O2
C=6 C=6
O = 18 O = 18
H = 12 H = 12
NUMERICAL COEFFICIENTS – whole numbers placed before a substance to balance the equation
Steps in writing a chemical equation
1. Formulate a word equation.
2. Make the skeleton equation.
3. Balance the equation.
Tips in Balancing Chemical Equations
1. Always check the equation by counting atoms on each side of the equation. For each element, the number of
atoms on the left has to be equal to the number of atoms on the right.
2. Start by putting a “1” in front of the most complex compound (the one containing the greatest number and
variety of atoms)
3. Balance elements that appear in multiple reactants or multiple products last. In combustion equations, this
means that the oxygen is always balanced last.
4. Be certain that the total charge is the same on each side after you have mass-balanced equation.
5. Don’t touch the subscripts.
6. Balance the equation as though the polyatomic ions were ‘atoms’.
7. A missing coefficient is understood to be a ‘1’
8. Write the equation so that the coefficients are the smallest set of integers possible. For example, if all of the
coefficients are divisible by 2, divide them all by 2.
Example: When silver oxide is heated, silver metal and oxygen gas are produced.
1. word equation: silver oxide silver metal + oxygen gas
2. skeleton equation: Ag2O Ag + O2
3. balanced equation: 2Ag2O 4Ag + O2

E. Types of Chemical Reactions

1. SYNTHESIS OR COMBINATION REACTION – takes place when 2 substances combine to form a compound.
- Takes the form: A + B AB
Examples:
a.) oxidation of a metal
metal + oxygen metallic oxide
4Ta + 5O2 2Ta2 O5
2Sn+2 + O2 2SnO
b.) Oxidation of a Non-metal
non-metal + oxygen non-metallic oxide
+7
3I2 + 14 As 2I3 As7
H2 + Br2 2HBr
c.) Metallic Oxide + Water Metallic Hydroxide or Base

Tantalum Oxide + Water

Ta2 O5 + 5 H2 O 2Ta(OH)5
Stannous Oxide + Water
SnO + H2 O Sn(OH)2
d.) Non-metallic Oxide + Water Oxyacid
Diphosphorus Pentoxide + Water

5 I PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 HumSS and ABM

 P2 O5 + 3H2 O 2H3 PO4
Dinitrogen Trioxide + Water
N2 O3 + H2 O 2HNO2
e.) The chemical combination of a metal and a non-metal
2K + Cl2 2KCl
2Cu+3 + 3 Br2 2CuBr3
f.) The chemical reaction of two non-metals
3H2 + P2 2H3 P

2. DECOMPOSITION REACTION – takes place when a complex compound is broken down into its component
substances in the presence of heat or electricity; the opposite of combination reaction
- Takes the form :
AB A + B
Examples:
a.) the decomposition of a metallic carbonate
metallic carbonate metallic oxide + carbon dioxide
* Molybdenum ( V ) Carbonate is decomposed to
Mo2 ( CO3 )5 Mo2 O5 + 5CO2

* the decomposition of Scandium Carbonate

��2 (��3 )3 ��2 �3 + 3��2
b.) the decomposition of a metallic chlorate
metallic chlorate metallic chlorite and oxygen
* the decomposition of Barium Chlorate
Ba(ClO3 )2 Ba(ClO2 )2 + O2
* the decomposition of Antimonous Chlorate
2Sb(ClO3 )3 2Sb(ClO2 )3 + 3O2

c. the decomposition of a metallic hydroxide

metallic hydroxide metallic oxide + water
* Plumbous Hydroxide is broken down to
Pb(OH)2 PbO + H2 O

d. the decomposition of an oxyacid

Oxyacid non-metallic oxide + water
* The decomposition of Arsenous Acid
2H3 AsO3 As2 O3 + 3H2 O
e. The decomposition of a metallic bicarbonate
metallic bicarbonate metallic carbonate + water + carbon dioxide
* The decomposition of Cadmium Bicarbonate
Cd(HCO3 )2 CdCO3 + H2 O + CO2
h. The decomposition of a metallic oxide
i. The decomposition of a non-metallic oxide
3. SINGLE DISPLACEMENT REACTION OR SUBSTITUTION REACTION
- take place when a metallic cation replaces the metallic cation of a compound
- take the form of A + BC AC + B
- to determine what the metallic cation ( A ) replaces, refer to the ACTIVITY OR ELECTROMOTIVE SERIES,
*Elements above can replace the elements below
Calcium reacts with Zinc Phosphide
3Ca + Zn3P2 Ca3P2 + 3Zn
Calcium reacts with Lithium Oxide
Ca + LiO no reaction
4. DOUBLE REPLACEMENT REACTION OR METATHESIS OR IONIC REACTION
- take place when the cation of a compound takes the place of or exchanges with the cation of the other compound
- takes the form of AB + CD AD + CB
Aluminum Oxide reacts with Stannous Nitride
Al2O3 + Sn3N2 2AlN + 3SnO
5. NEUTRALIZATION REACTIONS – involves the chemical combination of a base and an acid to produce salt
Sodium Hydroxide chemically reacts with Hydrochloric Acid:
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
Base acid salt

6 I PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 HumSS and ABM

6. COMBUSTION REACTIONS
* Complete Combustion – burning reactions at high oxygen levels.
* Incomplete Combustion – burning reactions at low oxygen levels
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 2b. Balance the given equations and identify the type of reaction.
Balanced Equation Type of Reaction
1. ___SeCl6 +___ O2 → ___SeO2 + ___Cl
2. ___NH3 + ___ H2 SO4 → ___ (NH4 )₂SO4
3. ___ NaBr + ___ Ca(OH)2 → CaBr2 + ___ NaOH
4. ___ NO2 → ___ O2 + ___ N2
5.___ C3 H6 O + ___ O2 → ___ CO2 + ___ H2 O
6. ___ KOH +___ H3 PO4 →___ K3 PO4 + __ H2 O
==================================================================================================

III. CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE/NAMING COMPOUNDS GIVEN THE CHEMICAL FORMULA

A. Binary Ionic Compound – a compound composed of a metal and a non-metal
RULE 1. If the metallic cation is composed of a single valence number, name the cation first followed by the
anion ending in -ide.
Example
Chemical Formula Name Chemical Formula Name
Zr3 As4 Zirconium Arsenide Mg3 N2 Magnesium Nitride
AlP Aluminum Phosphide ScI3 Scandium Iodide

RULE 2. If the metallic cation has 2 valence numbers, use the classical/traditional method and or stock method
to name the compound
CLASSICAL OR TRADITIONAL METHOD – If the lower valence number is used, the English name or Latin name of the
element will end in ous, if the higher valence number is used, the name will end in ic. The name of the cation ending in
ous or ic will be followed by the name of the non-metallic ion ending in ide.

STOCK SYSTEM- Name the metallic cation followed by the valence number written in Roman Numerals and enclosed in
parenthesis and the name of non-metallic anion will follow ending in ide.
Example Classical Method Stock System Example Classical Method Stock System
FeBr2 ferrous bromide iron (II) bromide Hg3P Mercurous Phosphide Mercury ( I ) Phosphide
FeBr3 ferric bromide iron (III) bromide Hg3P2 Mercuric Phosphide Mercury ( II ) Phosphide
Naming Ions Using the Stock System and Old System
Ion Stock System Old System
Fe 2+
Iron (II) Ferrous
Fe3+ Iron (III) Ferric
Cu +
Copper (I) Cuprous
Cu2+ Copper (II) Cupric
Sn 2+
Tin (II) Stannous
Sn4+ Tin (IV) Stannic
Pb 2+
Lead (II) Plumbous
Pb4+ Lead (IV) Plumbic
Hg +
Mercury (!) Mercurous
Hg2+ Mercury (II) Mercuric
Au +
Gold (I) Aurous
Au2+ Gold (III) Auric
Ni 2+
Nickel ( II ) Nickelous
Ni3+ Nickel ( III ) Nickelic
Co 2+
Cobalt ( II ) Cobaltous
Co3+ Cobalt ( III ) Cobaltic
Pt2+
Platinum ( II ) Platinous
Pt4+ Platinum ( IV ) Platinic
RULE 3. For metals with more than two oxidation states, use the stock method.
Example Name Example Name Example Name
CrO3 Chromium ( VI ) Oxide Mo3Sb5 Molybdenum ( V ) Antimonide TiC Titanium ( IV ) Carbide
B. Binary Covalent Compound – a compound composed of two non-metals
RULE. Use prefixes to indicate the numbers of atoms present *Mono is never used in the first element
Example Name Example Name Example Name
NO2 Nitrogen Dioxide P2O5 Diphosphorus Pentoxide N5Cl Pentanitrogen Monochloride
7 I PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 HumSS and ABM
C. Binary acids – acids composed of hydrogen and a non-tal in aqueous solution; non-oxygen acids
RULE. Use the prefix hydro followed by the name of the anion ending in ic and the word acid added at the end
Example Name Example Name Example Name
HCl(aq) Hydrochloric Acid H2S(aq) Hydrosulfuric Acid H4C(aq) Hydrocarbonic Acid
D. Compounds composed of hydrogen and another non-metal
RULE. Name the cation, Hydrogen followed by the name of the non-metal ending in ide.
Example Name Example Name Example Name
HCl Hydrogen Chloride H2S Hydrogen Sulfide H4C Hydrogen Carbide
E. Ternary compounds - compounds composed of more than two elements: a monoatomic ion and a polyatomic ion or
the cation is polyatomic and the anion is a monoatomic ion or both the cation and anion are polyatomic ions.
RULE. Give first the name of the cation followed by the anion; if the anion is a monoatomic ion, the name should end in
ide.
Example Name Example Name Example Name
Al2(SO4)3 Aluminum Sulfate NH4NO3 Ammonium Nitrate ( H3O )2 Se Hydronium Selenide
F. Ternary acids/Oxyacids – composed of the Hydrogen ion and a polyatomic ion whose name ends in ate or ite.
RULE. If the polyatomic ion name ends in ite, drop ite and change it to ous. If the polyatomic ion name ends in ate, drop
ate and change it to ic and the word acid is added as the last name of the oxyacid.
Chemical Formula Polyatomic ion name Name of Compound
HClO2 Chlorite Chlorous Acid
HClO3 Chlorate Chloric Acid
H3PO3 Phosphite Phosphorous Acid
H3PO4 Phosphate Phosphoric Acid
H2SO3 Sulfite Sulfurous Acid
H2SO4 Sulfate Sulfuric Acid

I. Hydrates – compounds whereby attached to their solid structure are several molecules of water.
RULE. Name the compound ( follow the above rules in naming ) followed by the prefix ( 1 - mono; 2 – di; 3 – tri…etc. )
and the word hydrate.
Eg. a.) Al2(SO4)3.7H2O Aluminum Sulfate Pentahydrate b.) Pt3P4 . 4 H2O Platinic Phosphide Tetrahydrate
Platinum ( IV ) Phosphide Tetrahydrate
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 2c. Give the names of the following compounds. Use a ½ sheet of pad paper. (15 pts)
1.) Rf3P4 9.) Cl4C7
2.) NF6 10.) H2SnO2
3.) Rb4C 11.) I2S7
4.) H4As2O7 12.) H3P
5.) Mo2Se5 13.) H3P(aq)
6.) HMnO4 14.) H3BO3
7.) Sb2( S2O3 )5 15.) Pt3( AlO3 )2
8.) Y4 �� (��) 6
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
IV. WRITING THE CHEMICAL FORMULA OF AN INORGANIC COMPOUND
A. How to Write the Chemical Formulas of Inorganic Compounds
CHEMICAL FORMULA – a written representation of a compound.
- shows the atoms and the number of atoms of a certain element that composes a compound.

Four Types of Chemical Formula Example

a.) Molecular Formula – shows the actual number of atoms composing a compound C6 H12 O6
b.) Empirical Formula – simplified molecular formula CH2O
c.) Structural Formula H
H - C - H
H
d.) LEDS Formula H
H:C:H
H

* Criss Cross Method – the method used to write the chemical formula of a certain inorganic compound.
Ions – charged atoms
Cation – a positively charged ion Anion – a negatively charged ion
Monoatomic Ion – composed of a single atom with a charge
Polyatomic Ion – composed of several ions/atoms that carry an overall charge
8 I PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 HumSS and ABM
A list of Polyatomic Ions with their corresponding charges
Polyatomic ion Formula and Charge Polyatomic ion Formula and Charge
Ammonium NH4+ Permanganate MnO4-1
Hydronium H3O+ Thiocyanate SCN-1
Acetate C2H3O2- Bismuthate BiO4-3
Bicarbonate HCO3-1 Borate BO3-3
Chlorate ClO3-1 Sulfate SO4-2
Chlorite ClO2-1 Sulfite SO3-2
Carbonate CO3-2 Thiosulfate S2O3-2
Chromate CrO4-2 Phosphate PO4-3
Dichromate Cr2O7-2 Phosphite PO3-3
Oxalate C2O4-2 Aluminate AlO3-3
Stannate SnO3-2 Arsenite AsO3-3
Stannite SnO2-2 Bismuthate BiO4-3
Ferricyanide Fe ( CN )6-3 Silicate SiO4-4
Orthosilicate SiO4-4 Pyroarsenate As2O7-4
Pyrophosphate P2O7-4 Ferrocyanide Fe ( CN )6-4

Steps in writing formulas: Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4 Example 5

Aluminum Vanadium Diphosphorus Scandium Ammonium
1st . Determine the ions Carbide (IV) Selenide Pentoxide Pyrophosphate Ferrocyanide
composing the compound
2nd. Write the symbol of the
positive particle or cation first
before the symbol of the Al+3 C-4 V+4 Se_2 P+5 O-2 Sc+3 P2O4 -4 NH4-1 Fe( CN )6-4
negative particle or anion.
3rd. Determine the valence
numbers of the ions.
4th.Criss-cross the valence Al+3 C-4 V+4 Se_2 P+5 O-2 Sc+3 P2O4 -4 NH4-1 Fe( CN )6-4
numbers, disregarding the
sign, so that the charge of the
cation becomes the subscript
of the anion and the charge of Sc4( P2O4 )3
the anion becomes the Al4C3 V2 Se4 P2O5 ( NH4 )4 Fe( CN )6
subscript of the cation. The
charges are dropped.
NOTE: If the subscript is 1, it is
no longer written
5th. Reduce the subscript to VSe2
the simplest whole number
ratio.
6th. When the polyatomic ion
needs a subscript, enclose it Sc4( P2O4 )3
first with a parenthesis. If the
original polyatomic ion ( NH4 )4 Fe( CN )6
already contains a
parenthesis, use a bracket.

NOTE: If the name ends in -ic, Stannic Antimonic NOTE: If the name ends in -ous, Antimonous
the higher valence electron Phosphide Nitrate the lower valence electron was Nitrate
was used. used Sb+3 NO3-1
Sn+4 P-3 Sb+5 NO3-1 Stannous Phosphide Sb( NO3 )3
Sn3P4 Sb( NO3 )5 Sn2 P-3
Sn3P2
NOTE: If, after the name of Technetium
the cation, a roman numeral (VI ) Nitride
enclosed in a parenthesis
follows, the roman numeral Tc+6 N-3
indicates the valence number Tc3N6 TcN2
used.

9 I PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 HumSS and ABM

==================================================================================================
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 2d. Write the chemical formula of the following compounds
Compound Chemical Formula Compound Chemical Formula
1. Mercuric Fluoride 6. Aluminum Carbide Octahydrate
2. Dinitride Pentacarbide 7. Hydrogen Nitride
3. Tin ( IV ) Oxide 8. Hydronitric Acid
4. Sulfuric Acid 9. Barium Aluminate
5. Sulfurous Acid 10. Ammonium Ferricyanide
==================================================================================================
V. CHEMICAL STOICHIOMETRY; Stoichiometric Conversion
Stoichiometry is the accounting or math behind chemistry. We can use stoichiometry to calculate masses, moles and
percent within a chemical equation.
Quick review:
Often, chemical equations are written showing the state
that each substance is in. The s means the substance is
solid, l means liquid, aq stands for aqueous in water
meaning the substance is dissolved in water and lastly g
means gas.
A. MOLE CONCEPT
- use the mole concept to express mass of substances.
Scientist and mathematician use special names for
counting unit. In chemistry, counting unit is the mole. It is
a Latin word which means “heap” or a “huge pile” and the
SI symbol is mol.
- a mole represents Avogadro’s number (6.023 x1023) of
molecules.
- a mole is similar to a term like dozens which refers to a
12-count of anything. If you have 1 dozen of eggs then you
have 12 pieces of them. It is also defined as the amount of
substance containing the Avogadro’s number in any kind
of chemical unit. Thus, if you have a mole of eggs, then you
have 6.023 x1023 eggs.

In this equation, there are no numbers in front of the terms, so

AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) ----- Agl (s) + NaNO3 (aq) each coefficient is assumed to be one (1). Thus, 1 mole of AgNO3, 1
mole of NaCl, 1 mole of AgCl and 1 mole of NaNO3.
The Avogadro’s number

The number 6.02 X 10²³ particles is known as the Avogadro’s number, named after Amedeo Avogadro, an Italian
Scientist whose work led to the determination of this value (6.02214179 X 10²³). The reason Avogadro’s number is so
large is because the masses of atoms are so small.
Molar Mass
The atomic mass of an element is the weighted average value of the masses of the isotopes in a naturally occurring
sample of the element. The atomic masses of all elements can be found in the Periodic Table of Elements. The unit used
for the mass of atom is “amu” which stands for atomic mass unit
Atomic Masses of Some Elements
Element Atomic Weight Mass of One Atom Mass of One Mole
H 1.00 1.0 amu 1.0 g
C 12.01 12.0 amu 12.0 g
N 14.01 14.0 amu 14.0 g
O 16.00 16.0 amu 16.0 g
Al 26.98 27.0 amu 27.0 g
Cu 63.55 64.0 amu 64.0 g
* The formula mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms indicated in the formula of a substance.
This formula can be that of an element (H₂, P, O₂, Ar) or of a molecular compound (NaCl, H₂O).
* Formula mass cannot be determined without considering the molar masses of the individual elements. The mass in
grams of one mole of substance is called molar mass. Each element has its own unique molar mass.
* Finding molar mass starts with units of grams per mole (g/mol). When calculating molar mass of a chemical compound,
it states how many grams are in one mole of that substance. The number of grams in the molar mass of an element is
10 I PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 HumSS and ABM
the same as the atomic mass. Translating atomic masses into molar masses, the following dimensional analysis can be
used:

Molar mass of an element= (atomic mass from periodic table) g

1 mol element
For example, the atomic mass of the element calcium (Ca) listed on the periodic table is 40.08, giving a molar mass of
40.08 g/mol. This measurement provides the following conversion factors for converting between grams and moles of
calcium

40.08 g Ca or 1 molCa
1 molCa 40.08 g Ca

A. FORMULA MASS and MOLECULAR MASS

If the involved substance is a molecular substance, the formula mass of that compound may also be called molecular
mass.
Sample Problem:
Solve for the formula mass of glucose
Solution:
1. Write the chemical formula of the substance. (Glucose is represented by the chemical formula C₆H₁₂O₆).
2. Determine the elements involved and the number of atoms for each element.
3. Find the atomic mass of each element using the periodic table of elements.
4. Solve for the formula mass.

FORMULA/ MOLECULAR MASS OF C₆H₁₂O₆

C = 12.0 ɥ X 6 atoms = 72.0 g/mol

H= 1.01 ɥ X 12 atoms= 12.1 g/mol
O= 16.0 ɥ X 6 atoms = 96.0 g/mol
Total 180.1 g/ mol

1. A Chestnut compound is a mixture of copper sulfate (CuSO₄) and ammonium carbonate [(NH₄)₂ CO₃] used in
horticulture to prevent damping off in seedlings. Solve for the formula mass of the two substances used in the
preparation of this compound.
Formula Mass of CuSO₄ Formula Mass of (NH₄)₂ CO₃
Cu = 63.5 ɥ X 1 atom = 63.5 g/mol N= 14.01 ɥ X 2 atoms = 28.02 g/mol
S = 32.1 ɥ X 1 atom = 32.1 g/mol H=1.01 ɥ X 8 atoms=8.08 g/mol
O= 16.0 ɥ X 4 atoms= 64.0 g/ mol C=12.01 ɥ X 1 atom= 12.01 g/mol
TOTAL 159.6 g/mol O=16.0 ɥ X 3 atoms=48. 0 g/mol
TOTAL 96.11 g/mol

B. STOICHIOMETRIC CONVERSIONS
FOUR SIMPLE STEPS IN STOICHIOMETRY
1. Balance the equation.
2. Convert the units of a given substance to moles
3. Using the mole ratio, calculate the moles of a substance yielded by the reaction
4. Convert moles of the wanted substance to the desired units.
One mole of certain elements implies two things, namely: the molar mass of the element and the Avogadro’s number (N)
which is the same for all elements. Since the mole is used often in chemistry to quantify the number of atoms, molecules
and several other atoms, it is important to know the relationships that exist and how to move from one to another.
Mole to Mass
Sample problem: Johann Van Helmont was the first to prepare sulfuric acid by destructive distillation of ferrous sulfate
(1,600). This substance, which reacts violently with water, has recorded a melting point of -2 °C and boils at 327 °C.
Determine the mass in grams of 11.22 mol of sulfuric acid.
Solution: First, look up the atomic masses for hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen from the Periodic Table. The atomic mass is 1.01
for H; 32.07 for S; 16.00 for O. the formula mass of H₂SO₄ is:
H= 2 X 1.01= 2.02 g/mol

11 I PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 HumSS and ABM

 S=1 X 32.07= 32.07 g/mol
O= 4 X 16.00= 64.00 g/mol
Total 98.09 g/mol
1 mole of H₂SO₄ weights 98.09 grams.
Grams H₂SO₄= 11.22 mol x 98.09 g/mol= 1,101 g H₂SO₄
Mole to Mole
Sample Problem: two atoms of sulfur react with three molecules of oxygen to form two molecules of sulfur trioxide
which is an air pollutant. How many moles of sulfur react in this way with 9 moles of O₂?
2 S + 3 O₂ 2 SO₃
Solution:From the balanced equation, you can see that 2 sulfur (S) react with 3 oxygen (O₂). Write the ratio of moles of
the elements involved: 2 moles S = X moles S
3 moles O₂ 9 moles O₂
Then, cross multiply to get 2* 9 moles= 3 * X
X= (2 mols of S X 9 mols of O2 ) = 6 moles of S
3 mols of O2
Therefore, if 9 moles of O₂ reacted, 6 moles of S must also be present.
Mass to mass
Sample Problem: how many grams of Al can be created when decomposing 9.8 g of Al₂O₃?
Solution: find the mass of the given
9.8 g Al₂O₃ are decomposed
1 mole of Al₂O₃ = 102 g of Al₂O₃
X= (9.8 g Al₂O₃) (1 mole Al₂O₃)= 0.096 moles of Al₂O₃
102 g Al₂O₃
Calculate the moles using the ratios.
1 mole of Al₂O₃ 2 mole of Al
So, 0.096 moles of Al₂O₃ X mol of Al
X= (0.096 moles of Al₂O₃) (2 mol of Al) = 0.19 mol Al
1 mole of Al₂O₃
Calculate the mass using the new moles
1 mol of Al 27 g of Al
So, 0.19 mol of Al X g of Al
X= (0.19 mol of Al) (27 g of Al) = 5.1 g of Al
1 mol of Al
Therefore 5.1 g of aluminum will be created when decomposing 9.8 g of aluminum oxide.
Mass to number of Particles
Sample Problem: how many water molecules will there be in a 72.0 gram sample of water?
Solution:
1. Convert the mass of the sample to number of moles. Find the molar mass of water.
Molar Mass of H₂O:
H = 2 atoms X 1.01 g = 2.02 g
O= 1 atom X 16. 0 g = 16.0 g_____
Molar mass of H₂O = 18.02 g/ mol
2. Solve the number of moles of the substance using the formula,
Number of moles of the substance = Mass of the sample___
Molar mass of the substance
= 72.00 g H₂O= 4 moles of water
18 g/mol H₂O
3. Convert the number of moles of water to number of particles using the formula:
Total # of particles = no. of moles X 6.02 X 10²³ representative particles
1 mole
= 4 mol X 6.02 X 10²³
1 mole
= 2.41 X 10 ²⁴ molecules of H₂O
Mole to number of Particles
Sample Problem: How many molecules of carbon dioxide are found in 12.5 moles of carbon dioxide?
Solution:
12 I PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 HumSS and ABM
 Simply use the formula:
Total # of particles = no. of moles X 6.02 X 10²³ representative particles
1 mole
= 12.50 mol X 6.02 X 10²³
1 mole
= 7.53 X 10 ²⁴ molecules of H₂O
You can also determine how many moles of a substance are represented by a certain number of representative particles.
Just inverse the Avogadro’s number as a conversion factor.
 For example, find how many moles of copper are there in 9.5 x 10 ²³ of copper atoms:
SOLUTION
Number of moles= number of particles X 1 mole
6.02 X 10²³ representative particles

= 9.5 x 10²³ moles

6.02 X 10²³
= 1.6 moles of Cu

C. CALCULATION OF MASSES OF REACTANTS AND PRODUCTS IN A CHEMICAL REACTION

MOLE RATIO – the ratio of moles of one substance to mole of another substance in a balanced equation.
PROCEDURES EXAMPLE
Problem 1. What mass of Barium Chloride will react with 20 g of Aluminum Oxide
1. If only the reactants are mentioned, predict the 20 g X =?
products then balance the chemical equation. Write the Al2O3 + 3BaCl2 2AlCl3 + 3BaO
mass above the compound, represent the unknown with 102 g 207 g
X. Compute for the molar masses of the substances and
write them below each compound
2. Convert the given mass of the substance to moles 20 ���2 �3 X
1 ��� ����2 �3
= 0.20 mol of ��2 �3
102 � ����2 �3

3. Use the balanced equation to set up the appropriate 0.20 mol of ��2 �3 X
3 ��� �� ����2
= 0.6 mol 0f BaCl2
1 ��� ����2 �3
mole ratios
4. If the problem is asking for the mass, convert the 0.6 mol 0f BaCl2 X
207 � �� ����2
= 124.2 g of BaCl2
1 ��� �� ����2
computed number of moles to grams
Therefore, 20 g ��2 �3 of reacted with 124.2 g of BaCl2

CALCULATIONS INVOLVING OF LIMITING AND EXCESS REAGENT.

LIMITING REACTANT OR REAGENT – the reactant is completely consumed when a chemical reaction is run to
completion.
PERCENTAGE YIELD – the ratio of the actual yield of a product to its theoretical yield multiplied by 100.
- relates the actual yield to the theoretical yield
* ACTUAL YIELD (AY) – the measured quantity of a product obtained in a chemical reaction.
- Amount of product that is actually obtained from the chemical reaction.
- Almost always less than the theoretical yield because.
a.) part of the reactants may not react.
b.) part of the reactants may react in a way different from the desired.
c.) it is impossible to recover the entire reaction product from the mixture.
* THEORETICAL YIELD (TY) – the quantity of product calculated to result from a chemical reaction.
��
% YIELD = �� �100
To determine the limiting reactant and the percentage yield, study the following procedures with the
corresponding example.
PROCEDURE EXAMPLE
20 g of Aluminium Hydroxide reacted with 10 g Hydrochloric Acid. How many grams of aluminum chloride will be
produced from the chemical reaction? What is the percentage yield if the actual yield is 9 g?
1. If only the reactants are mentioned, 20 g 10 g X =?
predict the products then balance the Al(OH)3 + 3HCl AlCl3 + 3H2O
chemical equation. Write the given 78 g 36 g 132 g
masses above the compound/substance
and the molar masses below the
compound/substance.
2. Convert the known masses of the 1 ��� �� ��(��)
* 20 g of Al(OH)3 X 78 � �� ��(��) 3 = 0.26 mol of Al(OH)3
substances to moles. 3

13 I PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 HumSS and ABM

 1 ��� �� ���
* 10 g of HCl X 36 � �� ���
= 0.28 mol of HCl

3. By comparing the mole ratio of mol of AlCl3 = 0.26 mol of Al(OH)3 X

1 ��� �� ����3
= 0.26 mol of AlCl3
1 ��� �� ��(��)3
reactants required by the balanced
equation with the mole ratio of reactant 1 ��� �� ����3
actually present, determine which mol of AlCl3 = 0.28 mol of HCl X 3 ��� �� ���
= 0.09 mol of AlCl3
reactant is limiting.
4. Use the amount of limiting reactant The reactant that produced the least number of moles of the desired
and appropriate mole ratios to compute product is the limiting reagent.
the number of moles of the desired Limiting Reagent is HCl
product
5. Convert the number of moles to grams 0.09 mol of AlCl3 X
132 � �� ����3
= 11.88 g of AlCl3
1 ��� �� ����3
6. Compute for the percentage yield. % YIELD =
��
�100
��

9�
= 11.88 �X 100
% YIELD = 75.76 %

==================================================================================================
=
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 2e.
A. Solve the molar mass of the given substance and convert the unit. Use a one whole sheet of pad paper.
1.) 34 g of Pb3 As4 to mol.
2.) 8 g of P2 S3 to number of particles
3.) 2.7 mol of �5 �12 to grams and number of particles
4.) 4.3 X 1020 particles of Silver (Ag) to number of moles and grams

B. Solve for what is being asked in the following problem.

1.) Calcium reacted with 30 g of Manganese (VII) Phosphide. How many grams of the product will be produced?

LESSON 3. CONTRIBUTIONS OF CHEMISTRY TO OUR UNDERSTANDING OF PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS

Household materials contain chemicals that serve as active ingredients of the product. These active ingredients have
been helpful in lessening the tedious work that come along with cleaning stubborn stains, foul smells on surfaces, and
even disinfecting surfaces from bacteria and viruses. These cleaning agents has 4 general types; acidic, alkaline, neutral,
and degreaser. They are usually manufactured as powders, liquids or sprays.

ACIDIC – contains acid that can unclog inorganic deposit.

ALKALINE – contains strong bases that can dissolve grease, oils, fats, and protein-based deposits.
NEUTRAL- neutral materials that can typically disperse different kinds of dirt.
DEGREASER- specially made for the removal of grease. Contains surfactant as an active ingredient. It may contain
alkaline washing agents to promote further removal of grease.
EXAMPLES OF CLEANING AGENTS: laundry detergent, dishwashing soap, all-purpose cleaners, toilet cleaner, etc.,

COMPOUND CLEANING AGENT

Ammonia Window cleaner
Sodium hypochlorite Bleach
All purpose cleaners
Sodium hydroxide Liquid sosa(drain decloggers)
Potassium hydroxide Oven cleaners
Hydrochloric acid Muriatic acid
Sodium bicarbonate Baking soda
Sodium tetraborate Household borax
Sodium bisulfate Toilet cleaner

Aside from household products, chemistry has been useful in explaining the contents and benefits of various personal
care products that enhance the appearance of the human body- cosmetic products. These products include lotions,
shampoos, shaving creams among others. Below are some of the common chemical components of some personal care
products.

14 I PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 HumSS and ABM

 PRODUCT MAIN INGREDIENTS
Soap Fatty acids (different kinds of oils)
Sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide
Shampoo Cocamidopropyl betaine
Sodium lauryl sulfate
Water
Lotion Emulsifier
Glycerin
Oil
Water
Deodorant Aluminum chloride
Aluminum chlorohydrate
Shaving cream Glycerin
Lanolin
Stearic acid
Water
Perfume Colorants
Essential oils
Ethyl alcohols
Water
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 3.
Follow the steps then fill in the table with the necessary information.
1. Search for one cosmetic product and one cleaning product at home.
2. Examine the active ingredients used in each product.
Cosmetic Product Cleaning Product
Active Ingredients 1. 1.
Effects

Active Ingredients 2. 2.
Effects

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LESSON 4. USES, PROPERTIES, MODE OF ACTION, OF PRODUCTS (FUEL, PERSONAL CARE AND HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS)
AND PRECAUTIONS ON THE USE OF SUCH PRODUCTS.
Along with these benefits are the precautionary measures in handling every chemical used at home to maintain over all
health and safe environment. Below are some of the reminders that will help in using cleaning products and cosmetics:
1. Less or non-toxic alternatives should be used whenever possible.
2. Phosphate free laundry detergents and automatic dishwasher detergents should be used to reduce
contamination of the aquatic environment by high levels of dissolved plant nutrients which leads to algal blooms.
3. Use water-based products whenever possible.
4. Products should be used in well ventilated areas to avoid inhaling fumes.
5. Chemical products should be stored away from heat or possible sources of sparks.
6. Read and follow the proper use of chemical products carefully. Any hazards are indicated by pictograms and
statements while the relevant precautions, like wearing gloves or eye protection, are listed on the label.
7. Personal protective equipment, like protective gloves, aprons, and eye protection, should be used.
8. Different products should not be mixed with other unless the label directs the user to do so.
9. Special care should be taken when using caustic soda (sodium hydroxide). This can erupt when mixed with water.
Splashes in the eye can cause blindness.
10. Concentrates that contain bleach should never be mixed with any other chemical. These can react and
dangerous gas (chlorine) is released.
11. Pregnant women should avoid chemical exposure as much as possible. Some products are classified as toxic for
reproduction.
12. When taking chemical products to a civic amenity site for disposal, the containers should be carefully sealed and
clearly labelled with the name and active ingredient of the products.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 4. In groups, identify the mode of action and properties of the following products.
1. Lipstick 4. Dishwashing liquid
2. Whitening soap 5. Bleach
3. Moisturizers/Lotion 6. Detergent
15 I PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 HumSS and ABM
16 I PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 HumSS and ABM