As 5100.6-2017 Steel and Composite Construction

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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
AP-G51.6-17
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
Australian/New Zealand Standard™
Bridge design
Part 6: Steel and composite

construction
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
This Joint Australian/New Zealand Standard was prepared by Joint Technical
Committee BD-090, Bridge Design. It was approved on behalf of the Council of
Standards Australia on 13 March 2017 and by the New Zealand Standards Approval
Board on 7 March 2017.
This Standard was published on 31 March 2017.
The following are represented on Committee BD-090:
Australian Industry Group

Australian Steel Institute
Austroads
Bureau of Steel Manufacturers of Australia
Cement & Concrete Association of New Zealand
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia—Cement
Concrete Institute of Australia
Consult Australia
Engineers Australia
New Zealand Heavy Engineering Research Association
Rail Industry Safety and Standards Board
Steel Construction New Zealand
Steel Reinforcement Institute of Australia
Sydney Trains
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This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR2 AS/NZS 5100.6:2016.
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
Australian/New Zealand Standard™
Bridge design
Part 6: Steel and composite

construction
Originated as HB 77.6—1996.
Revised and redesignated as AS 5100.6—2004.
Jointly revised and redesignated as AS/NZS 5100.6:2017.
COPYRIGHT
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017 2
PREFACE
This Standard was prepared by the Standards Australia Committee BD-090, Bridge Design,
Sub-Committee 6, Steel and Composite Construction, to supersede AS 5100.6—2004.
This Standard is also designated as AUSTROADS publication AP-G51.6-17.
The objectives of the AS(AS/NZS) 5100 series are to provide nationally acceptable
requirements for—
(a) the design of road, rail, pedestrian and cyclist path bridges;
(b) the specific application of concrete, steel, composite construction and timber
construction methods, which embody principles that may be applied to other materials
in association with relevant Standards;
(c) the assessment of the load capacity of existing bridges; and
(d) the strengthening and rehabilitation of existing bridges.
The objective of this Part (AS/NZS 5100.6) is to provide design rules for steel and steel-
concrete composite bridges, or member within bridges.
Whereas earlier editions of the Bridge design were essentially administered by the
infrastructure owners and applied to their own inventory, an increasing number of bridges
are being built under the design-construct-operate principle and being handed over to the
relevant statutory authority after several years of operation. This Standard includes clauses
intended to facilitate the specification to the designer of the functional requirements of the
owner to ensure the long-term performance and serviceability of the bridge and associated
structure.
Significant differences between this edition and the 2004 edition are the following:
(i) New fatigue provisions.
(ii) New welding provisions.
(iii) New Appendix (New Zealand-only) dealing with other steels.
Appendix H is for New Zealand only. Differences identified by the technical committee
between the Standards referenced in Appendix H and Clause 2.2 were unable to be
addressed in this revision so the Appendix allows for the existing practices in New Zealand
to remain in place. Appendix J provides a commentary of the differences identified.
In line with Standards Australia policy, the words ‘shall’ and ‘may’ are used consistently
throughout this Standard to indicate respectively, a mandatory provision and an acceptable
or permissible alternative.
Statements expressed in mandatory terms in Notes to tables are deemed to be requirements
of this Standard.
The terms ‘normative’ and ‘informative’ have been used in this Standard to define the
application of the appendix to which they apply. A ‘normative’ appendix is an integral part
of a Standard, whereas an ‘informative’ appendix is only for information and guidance.
3 AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
CONTENTS
Page
SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

1.1 SCOPE ......................................................................................................................... 7
1.2 EXCLUSIONS............................................................................................................. 7
1.3 APPLICATION ........................................................................................................... 7
1.4 NORMATIVE REFERENCES .................................................................................... 8
1.5 NOTATION ................................................................................................................. 9
1.6 MATTERS FOR RESOLUTION BEFORE DESIGN COMMENCES ........................ 9
1.7 WORKMANSHIP ..................................................................................................... 10
1.8 ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS--NEW ZEALAND ONLY ................................. 10
SECTION 2 MATERIALS
2.1 YIELD STRESS AND TENSILE STRENGTH USED IN DESIGN.......................... 27
2.2 STRUCTURAL STEEL ............................................................................................. 27
2.3 CONCRETE, REINFORCEMENT AND PRESTRESSING STEELS ....................... 28
2.4 FASTENERS ............................................................................................................. 28
2.5 WELDS ..................................................................................................................... 28
2.6 WELDED STUD SHEAR CONNECTORS ............................................................... 29
2.7 STEEL CASTINGS ................................................................................................... 29
2.8 WROUGHT IRON .................................................................................................... 29
2.9 RIVETS ..................................................................................................................... 29
2.10 CAST IRON .............................................................................................................. 29
2.11 DUCTILITY REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................... 29
SECTION 3 GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

3.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 32
3.2 DESIGN FOR ULTIMATE (STRENGTH) LIMIT STATE....................................... 32
3.3 DESIGN FOR SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE .................................................. 34
3.4 DESIGN FOR STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY BY LOAD TESTING ......... 35
3.5 AVOIDANCE OF BRITTLE FRACTURE AND LAMELLAR TEARING .............. 35
3.6 FATIGUE .................................................................................................................. 35
3.7 CORROSION ............................................................................................................ 35
3.8 DESIGN FOR FIRE RESISTANCE .......................................................................... 36
3.9 PARTICULAR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS—GENERAL ...................................... 36
3.10 PARTICULAR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS—RAIL BRIDGES .............................. 36
3.11 DESIGN FOR EARTHQUAKE................................................................................. 38
3.12 RELIABILITY MANAGEMENT .............................................................................. 39
SECTION 4 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

4.1 METHODS OF DETERMINING ACTION EFFECTS ............................................. 40
4.2 ELASTIC ANALYSIS............................................................................................... 40
4.3 MEMBER BUCKLING ANALYSIS ......................................................................... 45
4.4 ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITE BEAMS, GIRDERS AND COLUMNS .................... 48
4.5 ANALYSIS OF BOX GIRDERS ............................................................................... 51
4.6 STAGED CONSTRUCTION .................................................................................... 52
4.7 CONNECTIONS ....................................................................................................... 52
4.8 LONGITUDINAL SHEAR ........................................................................................ 54
4.9 SHRINKAGE AND DIFFERENTIAL TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ........................ 55
4.10 RIGOROUS STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS ................................................................ 56
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017 4
SECTION 5 STEEL BEAMS

5.1 DESIGN FOR BENDING MOMENT ....................................................................... 64
5.2 SECTION MOMENT CAPACITY FOR BENDING ABOUT A PRINCIPAL
AXIS .......................................................................................................................... 70
5.3 MEMBER CAPACITY OF SEGMENTS WITH FULL LATERAL RESTRAINT ... 70
5.4 RESTRAINTS ........................................................................................................... 72
5.5 CRITICAL FLANGE................................................................................................. 75
5.6 MEMBER CAPACITY OF SEGMENTS WITHOUT FULL LATERAL
RESTRAINT ............................................................................................................. 76
5.7 BENDING IN A NON-PRINCIPAL PLANE ............................................................ 85
5.8 DESIGN OF WEBS ................................................................................................... 85
5.9 ARRANGEMENT OF WEBS ................................................................................... 86
5.10 SHEAR CAPACITY OF WEBS ................................................................................ 87
5.11 INTERACTION OF SHEAR AND BENDING ......................................................... 90
5.12 COMPRESSIVE BEARING ACTION ON THE EDGE OF A WEB ........................ 91
5.13 DESIGN OF LOADBEARING STIFFENERS .......................................................... 95
5.14 DESIGN OF INTERMEDIATE TRANSVERSE WEB STIFFENERS ...................... 97
5.15 DESIGN OF LONGITUDINAL WEB STIFFENERS ............................................... 99
SECTION 6 COMPOSITE BEAMS

6.1 SCOPE OF SECTION ............................................................................................. 101
6.2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................ 101
6.3 DESIGN FOR BENDING MOMENT ..................................................................... 103
6.4 SECTION MOMENT CAPACITY .......................................................................... 104
6.5 BEAM MOMENT CAPACITY ............................................................................... 105
6.6 VERTICAL SHEAR CAPACITY ........................................................................... 106
6.7 INTERACTION OF SHEAR AND BENDING ....................................................... 106
6.8 LONGITUDINAL SHEAR ...................................................................................... 107
SECTION 7 BOX AND LONGITUDINALLY STIFFENED GIRDERS

7.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 117
7.2 BOX GIRDERS WITHOUT LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS .............................. 117
7.3 FLANGES IN BEAMS WITH LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS ........................... 117
7.4 WEBS IN BEAMS WITH LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS .................................. 123
7.5 TRANSVERSE MEMBERS IN STIFFENED FLANGES ....................................... 135
7.6 DIAPHRAGMS AT SUPPORTS ............................................................................. 138
7.7 GEOMETRIC REQUIREMENTS FOR LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS ............. 160
SECTION 8 TRANSVERSE MEMBERS AND RESTRAINTS

8.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 165
8.2 DEFINITIONS......................................................................................................... 165
8.3 PARTICULAR REQUIREMENTS ......................................................................... 165
8.4 DESIGN OF RESTRAINTS TO FLEXURAL MEMBERS ..................................... 166
8.5 SEPARATORS AND DIAPHRAGMS .................................................................... 169
8.6 DESIGN OF RESTRAINTS TO COMPRESSION MEMBERS .............................. 169
SECTION 9 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO AXIAL TENSION

9.1 DESIGN FOR AXIAL TENSION ........................................................................... 171
9.2 NOMINAL SECTION CAPACITY ......................................................................... 171
9.3 TENSION MEMBERS WITH TWO OR MORE MAIN COMPONENTS .............. 173
9.4 MEMBERS WITH PIN CONNECTIONS ............................................................... 174
5 AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
SECTION 10 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO AXIAL COMPRESSION

10.1 DESIGN FOR AXIAL COMPRESSION ................................................................. 175
10.2 SECTION CAPACITY ............................................................................................ 175
10.3 NOMINAL MEMBER CAPACITY ........................................................................ 177
10.4 LACED AND BATTENED COMPRESSION MEMBER ....................................... 182
10.5 COMPRESSION MEMBERS BACK-TO-BACK ................................................... 181
10.6 COMPOSITE COMPRESSION MEMBERS ........................................................... 185
10.7 DETAILING PROVISIONS—MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT ............................ 195
10.8 VERIFICATION OF COMPOSITE COLUMNS FOR SERVICEABILITY
LIMIT STATES ....................................................................................................... 196
SECTION 11 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO COMBINED ACTIONS

11.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 198
11.2 DESIGN ACTIONS ................................................................................................. 198
11.3 SECTION CAPACITY ............................................................................................ 198
11.4 MEMBER CAPACITY............................................................................................ 200
11.5 CAPACITY OF COMPOSITE COMPRESSION MEMBERS ................................ 204
SECTION 12 CONNECTIONS
12.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 208
12.2 DEFINITIONS......................................................................................................... 208
12.3 PARTICULAR REQUIREMENTS FOR CONNECTIONS ..................................... 209
12.4 DEDUCTIONS FOR FASTENER HOLES ............................................................. 210
12.5 DESIGN OF BOLTS, RIVETS AND PINS ............................................................. 212
12.6 DESIGN OF WELDS .............................................................................................. 218
SECTION 13 FATIGUE
13.1 SCOPE ..................................................................................................................... 230
13.2 EXCLUSIONS......................................................................................................... 230
13.3 DEFINITIONS......................................................................................................... 230
13.4 NOTATION ............................................................................................................. 233
13.5 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................ 234
13.6 ASSESSMENT METHODS .................................................................................... 234
13.7 STRESSES FROM FATIGUE ACTIONS ............................................................... 236
13.8 CALCULATION OF STRESSES ............................................................................ 237
13.9 CALCULATION OF STRESS RANGES ................................................................ 238
13.10 FATIGUE STRENGTH ........................................................................................... 242
13.11 FATIGUE VERIFICATION .................................................................................... 247
SECTION 14 BRITTLE FRACTURE AND LAMELLAR TEARING

14.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 268
14.2 METHODS .............................................................................................................. 268
14.3 NOTCH-DUCTILE RANGE METHOD .................................................................. 268
14.4 DESIGN SERVICE TEMPERATURE .................................................................... 268
14.5 MATERIAL SELECTION....................................................................................... 270
14.6 FRACTURE ASSESSMENT ................................................................................... 273
14.7 SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR THE AVOIDANCE OF LAMELLAR
TEARING ................................................................................................................ 273
SECTION 15 TESTING OF STRUCTURES OR ELEMENTS

15.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 274
15.2 TESTING OF MEMBERS ....................................................................................... 274
15.3 PROOF TESTING ................................................................................................... 275
15.4 PROTOTYPE TESTING ......................................................................................... 275
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017 6
APPENDICES
A ELASTIC RESISTANCE TO LATERAL BUCKLING .......................................... 278
B STRENGTH OF STIFFENED WEB PANELS UNDER COMBINED ACTIONS .. 283
C SECOND ORDER ELASTIC ANALYSIS .............................................................. 285
D ECCENTRICALLY LOADED DOUBLE-BOLTED OR WELDED SINGLE
ANGLES IN TRUSSES ........................................................................................... 286
E INTERACTION CURVES FOR COMPOSITE COLUMNS ................................... 288
F MODIFICATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES .................................................. 290
G CORROSION RATE MAPS .................................................................................... 291
H REQUIREMENTS—STEEL OTHER THAN SPECIFIED IN SECTION 2 ............ 302
I FATIGUE ................................................................................................................ 313
J GUIDANCE ON USING STEELS OTHER THAN STEELS SPECIFIED IN
SECTION 2 ............................................................................................................. 317
K STATISTICAL DATA ............................................................................................ 320
L GUIDANCE ON DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTRUCTION
CATEGORY ............................................................................................................ 322
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................... 326

7 AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
STANDARDS AUSTRALIA/STANDARDS NEW ZEALAND
Australian/New Zealand Standard

Bridge design
Part 6: Steel and composite construction
SECTI ON 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL
1.1 SCOPE
This Standard sets out minimum requirements for the design, fabrication and erection of the
structural steelwork in bridges. Wrought and cast iron structures may be checked in
accordance with this Standard, using the appropriate material properties and capacity
reduction factors.
The Standard also includes requirements for the design of other steel components of bridges
including steel piers, steel railings, sign structures, and structural interaction between steel
and concrete composite members.
1.2 EXCLUSIONS
This Standard does not cover the steelwork of the following structures, members and
materials:
(a) Bridges with orthotropic plate decks.
(b) Cold-formed members other than those complying with AS/NZS 1163.
(c) Steel members for which the value of yield stress (f y) used in design exceeds
690 MPa.
(d) Steel elements, other than packers, less than 3 mm thick.
1.3 APPLICATION
The requirements for bridges, members and materials specified in Items (a) to (d) of
Clause 1.2, and for new and unusual bridge types shall be designated by the relevant
authority.
In the design of steel-concrete composite members, the general requirements of AS 5100.5
pertaining to the design of concrete shall apply, where relevant, in addition to the
requirements of this Standard.
NOTE: In New Zealand, the concrete structures design may be designated by the relevant
authority.
The design of structural elements using non-ferrous metals such as aluminium alloys is not
covered in this Standard. Where such components are to carry calculated stress, the
applicable specification to be used in their design shall be designated by the relevant
authority.
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017 8
1.4 NORMATIVE REFERENCES

The following are the normative documents referenced in this Standard:
NOTE: Documents referenced for informative purposes are listed in the Bibliography.
AS
1110 ISO metric hexagon bolts and screws—Products A and B—Bolts
1111 ISO metric hexagon bolts and screws—Product C—Bolts
1112 ISO metric hexagon nuts
1112.1 Part 1: Style 1—Product grades A and B
1112.2 Part 2: Style 2—Product grades A and B
1112.3 Part 3: Product grade C
1210 Pressure vessels
1237 Plain washers for metric bolts, screws and nuts for general purposes
1237.1 Part 1: General plan
1237.2 Part 2: Tolerances
1275 Metric screw threads for fasteners
1391 Metallic materials—Tensile testing at ambient temperature
1420 ISO metric hexagon socket head cap screws
1831 Ductile cast iron
2074 Cast steels
2327 Composite structures
2327.1 Part 1: Simply supported beams
3597 Structural and pressure vessel steel—Quenched and tempered plate
4100 Steel structures
4312 Atmospheric corrosivity zones in Australia
5100 Bridge design
5100.1 Part 1: Scope and general principles
5100.2 Part 2: Design loads
5100.5 Part 5: Concrete
5100.7 Part 7: Rating of existing bridges
5104 General principles on reliability for structures
AS/NZS
1163 Structural steel hollow sections
1170 Structural design actions
1170.0 Part 0: General principles
1252 High strength steel bolts with associated nuts and washers for structural
engineering
1554 Structural steel welding
1554.1 Part 1: Welding of steel structures
1554.2 Part 2: Stud welding (steel studs to steel)
1554.4 Part 4: Welding of high strength quenched and tempered steels
1554.5 Part 5: Welding of steel structures subject to high levels of fatigue loading
1594 Hot-rolled steel flat products
3678 Structural steel—Hot-rolled plates, floorplates and slabs
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AS/NZS
3679 Structural steel
3679.1 Part 1: Hot-rolled bars and sections
3679.2 Part 2: Welded I sections
5131 Structural steelwork—Fabrication and erection
AS/NZS ISO
3834 Quality requirements for fusion welding of metallic materials
3834.2 Part 2: Comprehensive quality requirements
3834.3 Part 3: Standard quality requirements
4671 Steel reinforcing materials
NZS
3404.1 Steel Structures Standard
AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
ANSI/AWS
D1.1 Structural Welding Code—Steel
ISO
7040 Prevailing torque type hexagon nuts (with non-metallic insert), style 1—
Property classes 5.8 and 10
7041 Prevailing torque type hexagon nuts (with non-metallic insert), style 2—
Property classes 9 and 12
7042 Prevailing torque type all metal hexagon nuts, style 2—Property classes 5, 8,
10 and 12.
10511 Prevailing torque type hexagon thin nuts (with non-metallic insert)
13918 Welding—Studs and ceramic ferrules for arc stud welding
1.5 NOTATION
Symbols used in this Standard are listed in Table 1.5.
Unless a contrary intention is given, the following applies:
(a) Where non-dimensional ratios are involved, both the numerator and denominator are
expressed in identical units.
(b) The dimensional units for length, force and stress in all expressions or equations are
to be taken as millimetres (mm), Newtons (N) and megapascals (MPa) respectively,
unless specifically noted otherwise.
(c) An asterisk (*) placed after a symbol as a superscript denotes a design action effect
due to the design load for the ultimate limit state specified in AS 5100.2.
1.6 MATTERS FOR RESOLUTION BEFORE DESIGN COMMENCES

The matters for resolution listed below shall be confirmed as accepted by the relevant
authority or owner of a bridge or associated structure before commencing the design
process.
1 Requirements for bridges, members and materials specified in Items (a) to (d) of
Clause 1.2, and for new and unusual bridges.
2 Design requirements for structural elements using non-ferrous metals (see
Clause 1.3).
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017 10
3 Requirements for steels for machined parts and for uses in other than structural
member or elements (see Clause 2.2.4).
4 Requirements for structures, members and materials (see Clause 1.2).
5 Requirements for the fatigue design assessment method (see Clause 13.6).
1.7 WORKMANSHIP
The minimum requirements for fabrication and erection shall be in accordance with
AS/NZS 5131.
NOTE: Minimum required standards of workmanship are to ensure that the design assumptions
remain valid.
1.8 ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS—NEW ZEALAND ONLY

In New Zealand, requirements for steel other than specified in Section 2 shall be in
accordance with Appendix H.
NOTE: For purchasing guidelines for steels other than specified in Section 2, see Appendix J.
TABLE 1.5
NOTATION
Symbol Definition
A area of a cross-section
A bs area of bottom slab reinforcement, shown in Figure 6.8.5.2.1
A bt area of bottom transverse reinforcement, shown in Figure 6.8.5.2.1
A bv cross-sectional area of the transverse reinforcement per unit length of a beam placed in the
bottom of a slab or haunch
Ac area of concrete in a cross-section; or
minor diameter area of the bolt
Ad deducted area for fastener holes based on the gross area of a hole in the plane of its axis and
not that of the fastener
Ae effective area of the cross-section; or
effective area of a diaphragm and flanges at the vertical cross-section through the reference
point; or
effective area of a vertical cross-section of the diaphragm and flanges, at the point under
consideration; or
area enclosed by the hollow section
A ep area of the end plate
A fb area of the bottom flange
A fc flange area at the critical cross-section
A ff area per unit width of the flange of a box girder (including longitudinal stiffeners)
A fg gross area of a flange
A fm flange area at the minimum cross-section; or
lesser of the flange effective areas
A fn net area of a flange
Ag gross area of the cross-section of the member or element
A he effective horizontal shear area of a diaphragm plate only
An sum of the net areas of the flanges and the gross area of the web; or
net area of the cross-section
Ao nominal plain shank area of the bolt
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Symbol Definition
Ap cross-sectional area of the pin
Ar cross-sectional area of the reinforcement
A rs area of slab reinforcement within the effective width of the slab
As area of the stiffener; or
cross-sectional area of the structural steel section; or
tensile stress area of a bolt
A se area of effective stiffener section; or
effective cross-sectional area of a group of bearing stiffeners; or
effective cross-sectional area of the stiffener; or
effective area of the diaphragm and web junction; or
effective area of the horizontal stiffeners, or
effective cross-sectional area of a continuity member
At area of the section to one side of the shear plane under consideration
A tf total area of both steel flanges and the longitudinal reinforcement included in the section
A ts effective cross-sectional area of the transverse reinforcement per unit length of beam, which
is fully anchored in accordance with AS 5100.5, and crosses a shear plane in Figure 6.8.5.2.1
that is assumed to resist shear failure along that plane
A tt area of top transverse reinforcement, shown in Figure 6.8.5.2.1
A ve effective vertical shear area of a diaphragm plate only
A vea minimum value of the effective vertical shear area, shown in Figure 7.6.5.2.1
A veb minimum value of the effective vertical shear area, shown in Figure 7.6.5.2.1
Aw area of the web; or
effective shear area of a plug or slot weld; or
gross sectional area of the web
Az sum of the areas of all holes in a zig-zag line extending progressively across a member or part
of a member
a a distance or dimension as defined in the text
length between transverse stiffeners; or
length of a panel; or
clear distance between transverse web stiffeners; or
transverse member spacing (or mean of adjacent spacings); or
length of the plate panel (that is, the distance between transverse stiffeners); or
panel dimension adjacent to an inclined web; or
length of the longer side of a plate panel
ae minimum distance from the edge of a hole to the edge of a ply measured in the direction of
the component of the force, plus half the diameter of the bolt
a max. maximum spacing of vertical stiffeners; or
one-half of the sum of the panel widths on each side of the stiffener
ao, a1 out-of-square dimensions of flanges
a2, a3 diagonal dimensions of a box section
a1, a2, a3 dimensions of bearing stress, shown in Figure 7.4.3.1
B spacing between main beams of a U-frame; or
spacing of the main beam webs at the level of the transverse member
Bc length of the cantilever portion of a transverse member
Bf total width of a stiffened flange between main beam webs
b distance or dimension as defined in the text; or
clear width of an element outstand from the face of a supporting plate element or the clear
width of the element between the faces of the supporting plate elements; or
distance between centres of adjacent beams or maximum distance when the beams are not
exactly parallel; or
total length of the section; or
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017 12
Symbol Definition
b (cont.) width of panel; or
mean of the clear widths of the web plate panels above and below the line of attachment of
the stiffener under consideration; or
width of a diaphragm taken as the average of the widths at the top and bottom flange levels
for boxes with sloping webs; or
spacing of stiffeners or the distance between a stiffener and a beam flange and web boundary,
as appropriate; or
width of the concrete flange of the composite section; or
lesser dimension of a web panel; or
length of the shorter side of a plate panel; or
clear width of the element outstand from the face of the supporting plate element or the clear
width of the element between the faces of supporting plate elements
bb total width of the bearing obtained by dispersions at 1:1 from b bf to the neutral axis, shown in
Figure 5.12.1(A)
b bf width of the bearing obtained by dispersion at 1:2.5 from b s to the underside of the flange,
shown in Figure 5.12.1(A)
b bw width of the bearing obtained at the neutral axis to either side of the width bbf , shown in
Figure 5.12.1(A)
bd distance from a stiff bearing to the end of the member, shown in Figure 5.12.1(C); or
width of bottom flange of a box girder, shown in Figure 7.6.1
be width of a diaphragm at the point under consideration; or
effective width of a plate element
b eff,i total effective width
b es outstand width of a stiffener from the face of a web
bf width of the flange
b fe effective width of a flange for checking the web restraint
b fo value used in calculating flange restraint factor; or
half the clear distance between the centre-lines of adjacent webs or the distance from the
centre-line of a web to the free edge of the flange or width of the top flange of a steel section
bo trunkated value of b bw , shown in Figure 5.12.1(A)
bs length of a stiff bearing; or
width of an angle stiffener
b so width of the flange outstand of a stiffener
bw depth of the web
b 1, b 2 greater and lesser leg lengths of an angle section; or
dimension across a U stiffener or between U stiffeners
Cd factor to allow for the effects of boundary shears
C3, C4 factors for beams unrestrained at one end
C 4r reduced value of C 4
c width between supports at a diaphragm of box girder, shown in Figure 7.6.1; or
distance between centres of bearings
ch perpendicular distance to the centroid of an angle section from the face of the loaded leg of
the angle
cm factor for unequal moments
d depth of the steel section; or
depth of web of a box girder, shown in Figure 7.6.1; or
depth of the diaphragm; or
depth of preparation for incomplete penetration butt weld
db lateral distance between the centroids of the welds or fasteners
d bs nominal shank diameter
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Symbol Definition
dc depth of a section at the critical cross-section
de net depth of a diaphragm at the point under consideration; or
effective outside diameter of a circular hollow section; or
factor for buckling capacity
df distance between flange centroids; or
nominal diameter of fastener
dg distance from the centroid of a steel beam to the centroid of a composite concrete slab
dh depth of a compression block
dm depth of a section at the minimum cross-section
dn distance from the outer fibre of the bottom flange to the centroidal axis of the section (or of
the transformed composite section)
do outside diameter of a circular hollow section; or
overall section depth of the segment; or
overall depth of a member including out-of-square dimensions
dp clear transverse dimension of a web plate; or
greatest panel depth in the length; or
depth of the deepest web panel
ds thickness of a concrete slab forming the flange of a composite beam
d s1, d s2 depth to the centre-line of the flange of the stiffener; or
widths of the walls of the stiffeners
dx, dy distances of the extreme fibres from the neutral axes
dw depth of the steel web
d1 distance between flanges of an I beam; or
distance from the centroid of the compression flange to the nearer face of the cross-member
of a U-frame; or
distance from the centroid of the compression flange to the nearest surface of the structural
deck; or
clear depth between flanges, ignoring fillets or welds; or
dimension of an opening, shown in Figure 7.6.2.3
d2 distance from the centroid of the compression flange to the centroidal axis of the cross-
member of a U-frame; or
distance from the centroid of the compression flange to the centroidal axis of the deck; or
twice the clear distance from the neutral axis to the compression flange; or
dimension of an opening, shown in Figure 7.6.2.3
d 3, d 4 value of d for each side of the weld
d5 depth of section excluding corner radii, shown in Figure 5.12.1(C)
E modulus of elasticity of steel; or
modulus of elasticity of reinforcement
Ec modulus elasticity of concrete at the age being considered
(EI) e effective elastic flexural stiffness of a column
e distance between an end plate and a loadbearing stiffener; or
eccentricity of bearing reaction along the span; or
eccentricity of loading; or
out-of-plane eccentricity; or
web off-centre dimension
ec, et eccentricities of the centroids of compression and tension angles
ef greatest offset of the flange plate from a straight line of a length L 2 due to a specified camber
or curvature
F fully restrained
F a force
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Symbol Definition
F* total design load on a member between supports
Fc* additional horizontal force per unit length resulting from interaction between the bending of
cross-members and vertical stiffeners
Fh* total horizontal shear on connectors
Fn* design force normal to the web
Fp* design force parallel to the web panel
Fu* nominal horizontal force acting normal to the compression flange at the level of its centroid
f flexibility of the joint between a cross-member and the verticals of a U-frame
fa longitudinal stress at the centroid of the effective section of the stiffener
fb bending strength for bending about the x-axis
f ci equivalent buckling stress in the flange
f ds characteristic shear capacity of a shear connector acting as an element of a group of n shear
connectors
f fl lesser of the yield stress used in design or the design stress in either flange
f ks characteristic shear capacity of the connector
f Ls limiting stiffener stress
f ry yield stress used in design of a transverse reinforcement; or
nominal yield stress of the reinforcement
f sy nominal yield stress of tensile reinforcement
f tc tensile stress at the top surface of the concrete slab of a composite beam at supports
fu tensile strength used in design
f uc ultimate tensile strength of the shear connector
f uf minimum tensile strength of a bolt
f up tensile strength of a ply
f uw nominal tensile strength of weld metal
fy yield stress used in design
f yb nominal yield stress of the bottom flange material
f yd nominal yield stress of the diaphragm plate
f ye effective yield stress
f yf nominal yield stress of the flange material
f yp yield stress of the pin used in design
f ys nominal yield stress of the stiffener; or
nominal yield stress of a diaphragm and web junction
f yw nominal yield stress of the web material
f* design stress (action effect); or
design stress range; or
maximum longitudinal stress due to in-plane bending of the individual panel after any
assumed redistribution of stresses
f a* total vertical stress in a bearing stiffener
f b* maximum longitudinal stress due to in-plane bending of an individual panel

*
f bs bending stress in a bearing stiffener due to an out-of-plane moment
*
f b2 bending stress induced in a stiffener
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Symbol Definition
f c* concrete compressive stress in regions of sagging moment
*
f d1 vertical stress in stiffened diaphragm
*
f d2 horizontal stress in stiffened diaphragm
f f* longitudinal stress at mid-plane of the flange plate; or

longitudinal compressive stress in the flange of a main beam (box girder), averaged across the
width of the segment between the webs; or
maximum compressive stress in the flange of a U-frame
f i* design stress range for loading event ‘i’
f i*n design stress range for loading event ‘i’ for normal stresses
f i*s design stress range for loading event ‘i’ for shear stresses
*
f jn design stress range for loading event ‘j’ for normal stresses
* design stress range for loading event ‘k’ for shear stresses
f ks
f n* design stress range for normal stresses
f q* stresses in diaphragm stiffeners
*
f Rv reference value of in-plane shear stress in unstiffened diaphragm
* reference value of in-plane vertical stress in unstiffened diaphragm
f R1
*
f R2 reference value of in-plane horizontal stress in unstiffened diaphragm
fs* summation of stresses in each flange; or
longitudinal stress, including any redistribution of stresses from the web, positive when
compressive, at the centroid of the effective section of the stiffener; or
design stress range for shear stresses
f se* equivalent axial stress in the stiffener for buckling
f v* average design shear stress due to the applied shear force and, in a closed section, due to the
applied torsional moment; or
average shear stress in the panels on either side of the stiffener
* average design shear stress in a web
f va
f vf* shear stress in the flange due to torsion and shear force on the beam
* shear stress which would occur in the plating adjacent to a stiffener if the opening had been
f vh
fully plated
f vj* shear stress in the flange at the junction with the web of the beam due to shear force on the
beam
* maximum design shear stress in a web
f vm
f vt* in-plane shear stress in the flange due to torsion
f w* equivalent design stress on the web panel
f x* summation of the stresses about the x-axis
f y* summation of stresses about the y-axis
f1* mean longitudinal in-plane stress on a cross-section of the panel after any assumed
redistribution of stresses; or
longitudinal stress along the stiffener connection centre-line derived without distribution
f1e* effective longitudinal in-plane stress in a plate panel
f1s* vertical stress in a bearing stiffener
* vertical stress from torsional reaction on a single bearing
f1T
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Symbol Definition
f 2* in-plane transverse stress at the mid-plane of the flange plate; or
in-plane transverse stress
* horizontal bending stress in a stiffened diaphragm
f 2b
* *
f 2b max. , maximum and minimum values of f 2b within the length L s
*
f 2b min.
* *
f 2s average value of f d2 within the middle-third of the length L s
* horizontal stress in the horizontal component of a girder shear in a stiffened diaphragm when
f 2v
the webs are inclined
f c concrete compressive stress in regions of sagging moment; or
characteristic compressive strength of concrete at 28 days

f cy characteristic strength of the concrete at the age being considered
G shear modulus of elasticity of steel; or
length of a gauge
hh dimension of the opening parallel to the diaphragm stiffener
hs depth of a stiffener
I second moment of area
I bc average effective second moment of area of the cantilever portion of a transverse member
I be average second moment of area of the effective transverse member between main beam (box
girder) webs
Ic second moment of area of the compression flange about its centroidal axis parallel to the web
of the beam at the point of maximum bending moment; or
second moment of area of the uncracked concrete section
I cy second moment of area of the compression flange about the section principal y-axis
I ff second moment of area per unit width of the flange of a box girder (including longitudinal
stiffeners), taken about the centroidal axis of the flange
Ir second moment of area of the reinforcement
Is second moment of area of a pair of stiffeners about the centre-line of a web; or
second moment of area about the face of a web; or
second moment of area of the structural steel section
I se second moment of area of the effective section of the stiffener or a group of stiffeners
It second moment of area of a transformed composite cross-section
Iw warping constant for a cross-section
Ix second moment of area of a cross-section about the principal x-axis; or
section constant
I xse effective second moment of area of the stiffener group about the centroidal axis of the
stiffener group (axis x-x in Figure 7.6.1)
Iy second moment of area of the section about the principal y-axis
I yd second moment of area of the diaphragm plate of width j, excluding cut-outs, about the y-axis
I yse effective second moment of area of the stiffener group about the centroidal axis of the
stiffener group (axis y-y in Figure 7.6.1)
I1 second moment of area of the effective section of the vertical about its axis of bending
I2 second moment of area of the cross-member of the U-frame about an axis perpendicular to the
plane of the U-frame; or
second moment of area of the deck per unit length about its axis of bending, with the gross
concrete area being transformed in terms of steel
i number of loading event
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Symbol Definition
J torsion constant for a cross-section
j contact width of a stiffened diaphragm above a bearing, shown in Figure 7.6.1; or
width of contact of a bearing pad plus 1.5 times the thickness of the bottom flange at each end
if available
K a coefficient for calculating elastic buckling
Kb plate buckling coefficient under in-plane bending
Kc plate buckling coefficient under direct compression
KD diaphragm buckling coefficient
K D1 , K D2 , K D3, coefficients used for checking buckling of diaphragms (K D )
K D4 , K D5
KT buckling coefficient for transverse members
Kv shear coefficient
K1 axial coefficient
K2 transverse coefficient
k coefficient given by the lesser of y/b or 0.77; or
coefficient
kb elastic buckling coefficient for a plate element
k bo basic value of kb
k co cohesion coefficient given in Table 6.8.5.2.1
kd a factor for buckling of diaphragms
ke member effective length factor
kf form factor for members subject to axial compression
kh factor for different hole types
kL load height effective length factor
k L1, k L2 values of the reduction factor kL for longitudinal flange stiffeners
kn load-sharing factor given as a function of n
kp factor for pin rotation
kr lateral rotation restraint factor; or
reduction factor to account for the length of a bolted lap connection; or
reduction factor to account for the length of a welded lap connection
ks ratio used to calculate  p and  pm ; or
coefficient used in determining effective stiffener stress
k s1 , k s2 coefficients used for the design of longitudinal stiffeners
kt twist restraint factor; or
correction factor defined for distribution of forces
kv ratio of the flat width of a web (d 5 ) to the thickness (t) of the section
k1 U-frame restraint effective length factor
k s coefficient used in determining effective stiffener stress
L laterally restrained
L length of a stringer; or
member length from centre-to-centre of its intersections with supporting members; or
length of a segment; or
overhang from the outer edge of a bearing to the box; or
member length; or
clear length of stiffener between adjacent transverse stiffeners, cross-frames, cantilevers or
diaphragms
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Symbol Definition
Lb span length of the beam between vertical supports; or
length between points of effective bracing or restraint
Le effective length of a member
(L e /r) geometrical slenderness ratio
(L e /r) bn slenderness ratio of a battened compression member about the axis normal to the plane of the
battens
(L e /r) bp slenderness ratio of a battened compression member about the axis parallel to the plane of the
batten
(L e /r) c maximum slenderness ratio of the main component in a laced or battened compression
member; or
slenderness ratio of the main component between the interconnections
(L e /r) m slenderness ratio of the whole battened compression member
Lf horizontal distance from the reference point to the nearest edge of the bottom flange
Lj length of a bolted lap splice connection
LR distance to reference point from bottom flange, shown in Figure 7.6.5.2.1
Lr length of a segment over which the cross-section is reduced
Ls spacing of cross-beams or diaphragms, or both, which restrain longitudinal stiffeners; or
length of the stiffener between points of effective restraint; or
total length of a diaphragm and web junction; or
span of the stiffener between supporting members
L se effective length of longitudinal stiffeners on flanges not stiffened transversely
Lu distance between U-frames
greatest internal dimension of an opening in the web; or
Lw
length of a welded lap connection
Mb nominal member moment capacity
M bx nominal member moment capacity about the principal x-axis
M bxo nominal member capacity about the principal x-axis without full lateral restraint and with a
uniform distribution of design bending moment
M cx lesser of the nominal in-plane member moment capacity (M ix ) and the nominal out-of-plane
member moment capacity (M ox )
M ds nominal moment capacity of a steel section allowing for interaction between plasticity and
elastic lateral distortional buckling
M dx total bending moment capacity about the principal x-axis when N * is acting on the section
M dy total bending moment capacity about the principal y-axis when N * is acting on the section
Mf nominal moment capacity calculated for the flanges alone
Mi nominal in-plane member moment capacity
M ix nominal in-plane member moment capacity about the principal x-axis
M iy nominal in-plane member moment capacity about the principal y-axis
Mo reference elastic buckling moment for a member subject to bending
M oa amended elastic buckling moment for a member subject to bending
M ob elastic buckling bending moment
M obr decreased resistance of the elastic buckling bending moment for elastic torsional end restraint
M od elastic lateral distortional buckling moment
M oo reference elastic buckling moment obtained using L e = L
M os elastic buckling moment for a segment, fully restrained at both ends, unrestrained against
lateral rotation and loaded at the shear centre
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Symbol Definition
M ox nominal out-of-plane member moment capacity about the principal x-axis
Mp nominal section moment capacity determined by simple plastic theory; or
nominal moment capacity of a pin
M rx nominal section moment capacity about the principal x-axis reduced by axial force tension or
compression
M ry nominal section moment capacity about the principal y-axis reduced by axial force tension or
compression
Ms nominal section moment capacity
M sh nominal section moment capacity for an angle bent about the rectangular h-axis parallel to the
loaded leg
M ss nominal section moment capacity of the steel section in the support region
M sx nominal section moment capacity about the principal x-axis
M sy nominal section moment capacity about the principal y-axis
M tx lesser of M rx and M ox
Mw nominal section moment capacity of a web panel if the web panel resisted bending alone
My section moment capacity (elastic) when the web yielding is disregarded
M yr section moment capacity (elastic) when the web yielding is accounted for
M* design bending moment; or
in-plane primary moment on a diaphragm
M e* second order (or amplified) end bending moment
M h* design bending moment on an angle, acting about the rectangular h-axis parallel to the loaded
leg
*
Mm maximum calculated design bending moment along the length of a member or in a segment
M s* portion of the out-of plane moment carried by a group of bearing stiffeners
*
Mw design bending moment acting on a web panel
M x* design bending moment about the principal x-axis
M y* design bending moment about the principal y-axis
mb, mc, mv, factors for checking the plate panel interaction buckling criterion
m1, m2
m fw factor used in calculating the web plate restraint
N number of shear connectors per unit length
Nc nominal member capacity in compression
N ch nominal member capacity in axial compression
N cr elastic critical load
N cy nominal member capacity in axial compression for buckling about the principal y-axis
N om elastic flexural buckling load of a member in axial compression
N omb elastic flexural buckling load of a braced member
N oms elastic flexural buckling load of a sway member
N oz nominal elastic torsional buckling capacity of a member
Ns nominal section capacity of a compression member
Nt nominal section capacity in tension
N tf nominal tensile capacity of a bolt
N ti minimum bolt tension at installation
Nu design axial tension on the shear stud at the strength limit state
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Symbol Definition
N uc nominal member capacity for a member in axial compression; or
nominal member capacity of a composite member
N us nominal section capacity for a member in axial compression; or
nominal section capacity of a concentrically loaded composite compression member
Now nominal axial capacity of a web panel if the web panel resisted axial load alone
N* design axial tensile or compressive force
N e* effective axial force resulting from out-of-plane eccentricity of the design axial force (N * )
N s* design axial load in the shear connector
N t* minimum tensile force per unit length of a beam in the transverse reinforcement in the top of
a slab due to transverse bending in the slab
N tf* design tensile force on a bolt
N u* design axial tension on the shear stud
*
Nw design axial force acting on a web panel
n number of shear connectors per unit length
nb number of parallel planes of battens
n ei number of effective interfaces
nn number of shear planes with threads intercepting the shear plane in a bolted connection
ns number of longitudinal stiffeners in width B f ; or
number of full width horizontal stiffeners; or
number of shear planes
nw number of webs
nx number of shear planes without threads intercepting the shear plane
n number of shear connectors per unit length placed within 200 mm of the centre-line of the
web being considered
P partially restrained
P* local load on a beam, shown in Figure 7.4.3.1; or
local load applied to the top of a diaphragm; or
force on the effective diaphragm and web junction section
Pd* total vertical load applied to the top of a diaphragm
Pi* locally applied deck load between the section under consideration and the web
Ps* total vertical force in a group of bearing stiffeners
Q* design transverse force
*
Q bv total vertical force transmitted to the diaphragm by the portion of the bottom flange between
the inner edges of the bearings when there is a change in flange slope
Qc* vertical component of any cross-beam or cantilever shear
*
Qfv vertical force transmitted to the diaphragm by the portion of the bottom flange over a width L f
when there is a change of flange slope
Q h* shear force due to transverse horizontal loads on the bridge transmitted from the top flange to
the diaphragm
QT* vertical component of torsional shear transmitted into the diaphragm from one web
Q v* total vertical component of symmetric shear transmitted into the diaphragm from one web
q* shear flow at a the section of a diaphragm under consideration
Rb nominal bearing capacity of a web
R bb nominal bearing buckling capacity
R by nominal bearing yield capacity
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Symbol Definition
R sb nominal buckling capacity of a stiffened web and stiffener; or
nominal buckling capacity of a transversely stiffened web panel in bearing alone
R sy nominal yield capacity of the stiffened web
Ru nominal capacity
R* design bearing force on a web; or
design bearing force or design reaction, including the effects of any shear forces applied
directly to the stiffener; or
design reaction at the bearing
Rv* total vertical load transmitted by the diaphragm to one bearing, including the effects of torque
on twin bearings
*
Rw design bearing force acting on a web panel
r radius of gyration
re ratio of the distance from the elastic neutral axis to the compression edge of the web to the
depth of the web
r ext outside radius of a section, shown in Figure 5.12.1(C)
rn hybrid factor
rp ratio of the distance from the plastic neutral axis to the compression edge of the web to the
depth of the web
rr, rs ratio
r se radius of gyration of the effective section of a longitudinal stiffener about the centroidal axis
parallel to the flange plate; or
radius of gyration of the effective stiffener section about an x-x axis parallel to the web; or
radius of gyration of the effective section of the stiffener about its centroidal axis parallel to
the plane of the diaphragm; or
radius of gyration of the effective diaphragm and web junction about its centroidal axis
parallel to the web
ry radius of gyration about the principal y-axis; or
radius of gyration of the compression flange about the principal y-axis
r1 radius of a concave bearing seating
S plastic section modulus of a section
S* design action effect
s longitudinal dimension of the web plate; or
constant stress for design of longitudinal shear
sb longitudinal centre-to-centre distance between battens
sg gauge distance, measured at right angles to the direction of the design action in a member,
centre-to-centre of holes in consecutive lines
sp staggered pitch, which is the distance measured parallel to the direction of the design action
in a member, centre-to-centre of holes in consecutive lines
ss spacing of stiffeners, shown in Figure 7.6.1; or
distance between stiffener centroids on a diaphragm
T* torque transmitted to the diaphragm in shear through the box walls and from cross-beams or
cantilever loading, or both
Tb* torsional reaction at a single central bearing
Ts* moment in the plane of a diaphragm on a group of bearing stiffeners
t thickness of a material; or
element thickness; or
thickness of a holed material; or
thickness of the thicker part; or
thickness of a thinner part joined
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Symbol Definition
td plate thickness of a diaphragm
tf thickness of the flange; or
thickness of the compression flange plate; or
top flange thickness of a steel beam
tp thickness of the thinner ply element; or
thickness of the thinner part joined; or
thickness of a plate
ts thickness of a stiffener
t so average thickness of a flange outstand of width b so
tt design throat thickness of a weld
tw thickness of the web of the beam; or
size of a fillet weld
t w1 , t w2 leg lengths of a fillet weld
U unrestrained
u factor for a U-frame restraint; or
length of a shear plane
Vb nominal shear buckling capacity of the web; or
nominal shear buckling capacity for a stiffened web; or
nominal bearing capacity of a ply; or
nominal bearing capacity of a pin
Vf nominal shear capacity of the bolt; or
nominal shear capacity of the pin
V sf nominal shear capacity of a bolt for a friction-type connection
Vu nominal shear capacity of a web with uniform shear stress distribution
Vv nominal shear capacity of a web; or
nominal shear capacity of a web panel if the web panel resisted shear alone
V vm nominal shear capacity of a web in the presence of bending moment
Vw nominal shear yield capacity of the web; or
nominal shear capacity of a weld
V* design shear force at the cross-section under consideration; or
design transverse shear force
Vb* design bearing force of a ply; or
design bearing force of a pin
*
Veff effective design longitudinal shear force on a shear connector
Vf* design shear force on a bolt or on a pin
*
VLx design longitudinal shear force on a connector at a distance x from the centre-line of the web
Vsf* design shear force in the plane of the interfaces of a friction-type connection
V w* design shear force acting on a weld; or
design shear force acting on a web panel
v L* design longitudinal shear force per unit length of a composite beam
*
vLp design longitudinal shear force per unit length of the beam on the particular shear plane
considered
design shear force per unit length; or
v*w
design force per unit length of weld
v Ls permissible longitudinal shear design force per unit length at the serviceability limit state
vw nominal capacity of a fillet weld per unit length
Wd* total uniformly distributed load applied to the top of a diaphragm
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Symbol Definition
w distributed load; or
width of the load P *, shown in Figure 7.4.3.1; or
actual width of the load P * on a diaphragm
wh width of a stiffener loop in a box girder, shown in Figure 7.6.1; or
width of a cut-out for a stiffener in a diaphragm, shown in Figure 7.6.5.2.1
x dimension along x-axis; or
major axis coordinate; or
horizontal distance of a stiffener under consideration from the centroidal axis, normal to the
plane of a diaphragm, of a stiffener group
xb distance from the section under consideration to the inner edge of the nearest bearing
xc horizontal distance from the section under consideration to the root of the cross-beam or
cantilever
xi distance from the section under consideration to the locally applied deck load Pi*
xR distance parallel to the bottom flange from the reference point to the web mid-point
xw horizontal distance from the section under consideration to the mid-point of the web
y dimension along y-axis; or
minor axis coordinate; or
perpendicular distance from the point being considered to the longitudinal centre-line of the
panel; or
distance of the extreme fibre of a stiffener under consideration from the centroidal axis,
parallel to the plane of the diaphragm, of a stiffener group
y Bs distance from the centroid of the effective stiffener section to the neutral axis of the effective
cross-section of the beam
yc distance from the neutral axis of the composite cross-section to the centroid of area A t
yL distance of the gravity loading below the centroid
yo coordinate of the shear centre; or
distance from the centroid of the effective stiffener section to the point on the stiffener
furthest from the plate
yt distance from the axis of zero stress to the extreme tension fibre of a section
yz distance from the centroid of the effective stiffener section to the mid-plane of the flange
plate
Z elastic section modulus
Ze effective section modulus; or
effective section modulus of a diaphragm and flanges at the vertical cross-section through the
reference point; or
effective section modulus of a vertical cross-section of a diaphragm and flanges at the point
under consideration
Z ec effective section modulus of the transformed composite section
Z en effective elastic section modulus of a not compact section
Z enc effective elastic section modulus of the section transformed to steel
Z enx effective elastic section modulus of the tension and compression flange, as appropriate
Z ex effective section modulus about the principal x-axis
Z se lowest section modulus of the effective junction section about the centroidal axis parallel to
the web
Z we elastic section modulus of the web panel
 angle between the x-and h-axes; or
dynamic load allowance in AS 5100.2 Table 7.7.2
a compression member factor
b compression member section constant
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Symbol Definition
 bc moment modification factor for bending and compression
c compression member slenderness reduction factor
d tension field coefficient for web shear buckling; or
distortional buckling reduction factor
f flange restraint factor for web shear buckling
 L,  Lc factor for bending
m moment modification factor for bending
 mc factor for bending
n a factor for interaction curve
p coefficient used to calculate the nominal bearing yield capacity; or
value of S/Z for compact sections
 pm coefficient used to calculate p
 ry elastic stiffness of the flexural end restraint
 rz elastic stiffness of a torsional end restraint; or
elastic stiffness
s slenderness reduction factor; or
steel contribution factor; or
inverse of the slope of the S-N curve
 st reduction factor
T coefficient of thermal expansion for steel
t factor for torsional end restraint
u magnification factor
v shear buckling coefficient for the web
w a factor for buckling capacity
 ratio of web to bottom flange area for a hybrid girder; or
inclination of a box web to the vertical, shown in Figure 7.6.1
e modifying factor which accounts for end conditions at the far ends of beam members
m ratio of the smaller to the larger bending moment at the ends of a member
t measure of elastic stiffness of torsional end restraint
tf size correction factor for plate thicknesses
w a factor for buckling capacity
x monosymmetry section constant
 factor for transverse stiffener arrangement; or
index
1, 2 ratio of the compression member stiffness to the end restraint stiffness
 deflection
f out-of-flatness of a flange plate
 sx ,  sy maximum deviations from flatness within a specified gauge length, measured perpendicular to
and parallel to the plate surface, respectively
u lateral deflection which would occur in a U-frame at the level of the centroid of the flange
being considered
v deviation from verticality of a web at a support
w out-of-flatness of a web
x maximum deviation from flatness within a specified gauge length
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Symbol Definition
b moment amplification factor for a braced member
m moment amplification factor, taken as the greater of b and s
s moment amplification factor for a sway member
 nom nominal strain
 true true strain
 compression member imperfection factor ( = eta)
1, 2,
coefficients used to calculate Nus of a circular member with an increase in concrete strength
10 , 20
 rotation in radians of a cross-member at its junction with the main beam under consideration;
or
angle of preparation of an incomplete penetration butt weld
 slenderness ratio
c elastic buckling load factor
d non-dimensional slenderness for elastic distortional buckling
e plate element slenderness
ed plate element deformation slenderness limit
ep plate element plasticity slenderness limit
ey plate element yield slenderness limit
ms elastic buckling load factor for a member
 modified compression member slenderness
r relative slenderness for a composite column in a given plane of bending
s section slenderness
sp section plasticity slenderness limit
sy section yield slenderness limit
w slenderness of a web
wy yield slenderness limit of a web
 slip factor for friction type bolted joints ( = mu); or
coefficient of friction given in Table 6.8.5.2.1
 Poisson’s ratio 0.25 ( = nu)
 constant
 compression factor ( = xi)
 ratio of yield stresses of web to bottom flange for a hybrid girder; or
proportion of stress redistributed from an unrestrained web panel; or
proportion of stress assumed to be redistributed from the panel
c density of plain concrete, as given in AS 5100.5
σ cp average intensity of effective prestress in concrete
σ nom nominal stress
σ true true stress
 bond design shear strength
u longitudinal shear strength on the surface considered
 Rv* total vertical force transmitted by the diaphragm to the bearings
 wh sum of the widths of any cut-outs for stiffeners within the width j at the level immediately
above the flange
 capacity reduction factor
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Symbol Definition
c capacity factor for concrete in compression members
p aspect ratio a/b, as shown in Figure 7.4.2
v Ls shear capacity
R u design capacity
 ratio of section depths for a hybrid girder ( = psi)
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SECTI ON 2 MATERIALS
2.1 YIELD STRESS AND TENSILE STRENGTH USED IN DESIGN

2.1.1 Yield stress
The yield stress used in design (fy) shall not exceed that given in Table 2.1. Additionally for
New Zealand, the yield stress shall be in accordance with Appendix H.
2.1.2 Tensile strength
The tensile strength used in design (fu ) shall not exceed that given in Table 2.1.
Additionally for New Zealand, the tensile strength shall be in accordance with Appendix H.
2.2 STRUCTURAL STEEL

2.2.1 Compliance
Except as otherwise permitted in Clause 2.2.4, all structural steel covered by the scope of
this Standard shall, before fabrication, comply with the requirements of the following
Standards, as appropriate:
(a) AS 3597.
(b) AS/NZS 1163.
(c) AS/NZS 1594.
(d) AS/NZS 3678.
(e) AS/NZS 3679.1.
(f) AS/NZS 3679.2.
Additionally, for New Zealand only, other certified steels shall comply with Appendix H.
2.2.2 Acceptance of steel
Mill certificates that comply with the minimum requirements of the appropriate Standard
listed in Clause 2.2.1 shall constitute sufficient evidence of compliance of the steel with the
Standards listed in Clause 2.2.1.
NOTE: A mill certificate includes both test and inspection certificates.
2.2.3 Unidentified steel
Where steel does not satisfy the requirements of Clause 2.2.2, it shall be classed as
unidentified steel. Unidentified steel shall not be used.
2.2.4 Other steels
Except where permitted with the specific approval of the relevant authority, steels for
machined parts and for uses in other than structural members or elements shall comply with
the relevant Standard.
2.2.5 Properties of steel
The following properties shall be assumed for all grades of steel for design purposes:
(a) Modulus of elasticity (E) ..................................................................... 200  103 MPa.
(b) Shear modulus of elasticity (G) ............................................................. 80  103 MPa.
(c) Poisson’s ratio (ν) ................................................................................................ 0.25.
(d) Coefficient of thermal expansion (αT) .................................................. 11.7  106 /°C.
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2.2.6 Through-thickness deformation properties

Through-thickness deformation properties shall be as specified to guarantee adequate
deformation capacity perpendicular to the surface to provide ductility and toughness against
lamellar tearing. For product in accordance with AS/NZS 3678, the minimum values for
reduction of area for the specified quality class shall comply with the relevant requirements
of AS/NZS 3678 and as given in Table 2.2.6. For flat products, the minimum values for
reduction of area shall apply to the whole product.
TABLE 2.2.6
MINIMUM REDUCTION IN AREA
Grade suffix %
Z15 15
Z25 25
Z35 35
2.3 CONCRETE, REINFORCEMENT AND PRESTRESSING STEELS

Concrete, reinforcement and prestressing steels shall meet the requirements of AS 5100.5.
In analysing a structure to determine the load effects, the material properties associated
with the unfactored characteristic strength shall be used irrespective of the limit state being
considered.
2.4 FASTENERS
Steel bolts, nuts and washers and screws shall comply with the following Standards, as
appropriate:
(a) AS 1110.
(b) AS 1111.
(c) AS 1112.1.
(d) AS 1112.2.
(e) AS 1112.3.
(f) AS 1237.1.
(g) AS 1237.2.
(h) AS/NZS 1252.
(i) ISO 7040.
(j) ISO 7041.
(k) ISO 10511.
2.5 WELDS
All welding consumables and deposited weld metal shall comply with AS/NZS 1554 series
as appropriate. Weld quality shall be either SP or GP as specified in AS/NZS 1554.1, or
AS/NZS 1554.4, as appropriate, except that where a higher weld is required by Section 13,
weld quality conforming with AS/NZS 1554.4 category FP or AS/NZS 1554.5, as
appropriate, shall be used.
Welding shall be undertaken in accordance with AS/NZS ISO 3834.2 and
AS/NZS ISO 3834.3.
NOTE: Where welding of wrought iron is proposed, specialized metallurgist advice should be
sought.
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2.6 WELDED STUD SHEAR CONNECTORS

Welded studs shall comply with, and shall be installed in accordance with AS/NZS 1554.2.
The weld collars of welded studs in non-prequalified stud applications shall comply with
the requirements of ISO 13918.
2.7 STEEL CASTINGS

All steel castings shall comply with AS 2074.
2.8 WROUGHT IRON

Where the properties of wrought iron in a structure are unknown, the material shall be
tested in accordance with AS 1391, and sufficient samples of the material shall be tested to
provide a reasonable statistical distribution of its properties. The ductility of the wrought
iron shall be checked to ensure that it has a minimum characteristic elongation at failure of
5%. Provided that its ductility meets this limit, the capacity of the wrought iron structure
may be checked using the rules of this Clause for steel, but with particular consideration
taken of the fatigue strength of critical details.
NOTE: For material characteristics of typical existing wrought iron, refer to AS 5100.7.
2.9 RIVETS
Where unidentified steel is used, it shall be free from surface imperfections and shall be
used only where the particular physical properties of the steel and its weldability will not
adversely affect the strength and serviceability of the structure. Unless the material is tested
in accordance with AS 1391, and sufficient samples of the material are tested to provide a
reasonable statistical basis for assessing its properties, the yield stress of the steel used in
design (fy) shall be taken as not exceeding 170 MPa, and the tensile strength used in design
(fu ) shall be taken as not exceeding 300 MPa.
2.10 CAST IRON

The minimum tensile strength (fu ) of cast iron shall be taken from AS 1831 for the grade
selected, and the properties of cast iron in a structure shall be tested in accordance with
AS 1391. Sufficient samples of the material shall be tested to provide a reasonable
statistical distribution of its properties. Full account shall be taken of the brittleness of cast
iron and potential casting defects.
NOTE: For material characteristics of typical existing cast iron, refer to AS 5100.7.
2.11 DUCTILITY REQUIREMENTS

For steels and cast iron a minimum ductility is required, which shall be expressed in terms
of limits for:
(a) fu /fy  1.2, where fu is the specified minimum ultimate tensile strength and fy is the
specified minimum yield strength;
(b) elongation at failure not less than 15% on a gauge length of 5.65 S0 , where S0 is the
cross-sectional area of the test piece before testing; and
(c) the ultimate strain εu  6ε y, where εu corresponds to the ultimate strength fu and ε y is
the yield strain (εy = f y/E).
Steel conforming with one of the steel grades listed in Table 2.1 shall be accepted as
satisfying these requirements.
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TABLE 2.1
STRENGTHS OF STEELS COMPLYING WITH AS/NZS 1163, AS/NZS 1594,
AS/NZS 3678, AS/NZS 3679.1, AS/NZS 3679.2(Note 3) AND AS 3597
Thickness of Yield stress Tensile strength
Steel Standard Form Steel grade material (t) (f y ) (f u )
mm MPa MPa
AS/NZS 1163 Hollow sections C450 All 450 500
(Note 3)
C350 All 350 430
C250 All 250 320
AS/NZS 1594 Plate, strip, sheet
HA400 All 380 460
floorplate
HW350 All 340 450
HA350 All 350 430
HA300
All 300 400
HU300
HA250
All 250 350
HU250
AS/NZS 3678 Plate and
450 t  20 450 520
(Note 2 and 3) floorplate
450 20 < t  32 420 500
450 32 < t  50 400 500
400 t  12 400 480
400 12 < t  20 380 480
400 20 < t  80 360 480
350 t  12 360 450
350 12 < t  20 350 450
350 20 < t  80 340 450
350 80 < t  150 330 450
WR350 t  50 340 450
300 t8 320 430
300 8 < t  12 310 430
300 12 < t  20 300 430
300 20 < t  50 280 430
300 50 < t  80 270 430
300 80 < t  150 260 430
250 t8 280 410
250 8 < t  12 260 410
250 12 < t  50 250 410
250 50 < t  80 240 410
250 80 < t  150 230 410
200 t  12 200 300
(continued)
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TABLE 2.1 (continued)
Thickness of Yield stress Tensile strength

Steel Standard Form Steel grade material (t) (f y ) (f u )
mm MPa MPa
AS/NZS 3679.1 Flats and sections 350 t  11 360 480
(Note 3)
350 11 < t < 40 340 480
350 t  40 330 480
300 t < 11 320 440
300 11  t  17 300 440
300 t > 17 280 440
Hexagons, rounds 350 t  50 340 480
and squares
350 50 < t < 100 330 480
350 t  100 320 480
300 t  50 300 440
300 50 < t < 100 290 440
300 t  100 280 440
AS 3597 Plate 500 5  t  110 500 590
600 5  t  110 600 690
700 t5 650 750
700 5 < t  65 690 790
700 65 < t  110 620 720
NOTES:
1 For design purposes, yield and tensile strengths approximate those of structural Grade HA200.
2 Welded I-sections complying with AS/NZS 3679.2 are manufactured from hot-rolled structural steel
plates complying with AS/NZS 3678, so the values listed for steel grades to AS/NZS 3678 shall be used
for welded I-sections to AS/NZS 3679.2.
3 AS/NZS 3678, AS/NZS 3679.1 and AS/NZS 1163 all contain, within each grade, a variety of impact
grades not individually listed in the Table. All impact-tested grades within the one grade have the same
yield stress and tensile strength as the grade listed.
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SECTI ON 3 GENERAL DESIGN

REQUI REME NTS
3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 Aim
The aim of structural design is to provide a structure that does not reach any of the limit
states defined in AS 5100.1, which requires that the structure be durable, serviceable and be
adequately strong while serving its intended function. In addition, the structure has to
satisfy other relevant requirements, such as robustness, fatigue, brittle fracture, corrosion
resistance and protection, fire resistance, ease of construction and economy.
3.1.2 Design for ultimate limit states
The structure as a whole and its components shall be designed for the requirements of all
the ultimate limit states specified in AS 5100.1.
3.1.3 Design for serviceability limit states
The structure and its components shall be designed for serviceability by controlling
deflection, cracking and vibration, as appropriate, in accordance with the relevant
requirements of Clauses 3.3 to 3.8.
3.2 DESIGN FOR ULTIMATE (STRENGTH) LIMIT STATE

The structure and its component members and connections shall be designed for strength as
follows:
(a) The design action effects (S*) resulting from the design loads at the ultimate limit
state shall be determined by an analysis in accordance with Section 4.
(b) The design capacity (Ru) shall be determined from the nominal capacity (Ru)
determined from Sections 5 to 12, as appropriate, where the capacity reduction factor
( ) shall not exceed the appropriate value given in Table 3.2.
(c) All members and connections shall be proportioned so that the design capacity (Ru)
is not less than the design action effect (S*), i.e., S*  Ru.
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TABLE 3.2
CAPACITY REDUCTION FACTORS ( ) FOR ULTIMATE (STRENGTH) LIMIT
STATES
Capacity reduction factor
Design capacity for Clauses
( )
(a) Structural steel:
(i) Members subject to bending—
– full lateral support 5.1, 5.11, 8.4 0.90
and App. B
– segment without full lateral support 5.1 and 5.11 0.90
– web in shear 5.10 and 5.11 0.90
– web in bearing 5.12 and 4.13 0.90
– stiffener 5.12, 5.13 and 5.14 0.90
(ii) Members subject to axial compression—
– section capacity 10.1 and 10.6 0.90
– member capacity 10.1 and 10.6 0.90
(iii) Members subject to axial tension 9.1 0.90
(iv) Members subject to combined actions—
– section capacity 11.3 0.90
– member capacity 11.4 0.90
(b) Composite members:
(i) Members subject to bending—
– full lateral support 6.2, 7.3 and 7.6 0.90
(ii) Composite compression members— Steel Concrete
– section capacity 10.6 0.9 0.65
– relative stiffness 10.6.2.3 1.0 0.20
– combined axial and flexural actions 11.5 0.90
(c) Connections Connection component other than
12.3.6 0.90
bolt, pin, rivet or weld
(i) Bolted connections—
– bolt in shear 12.5 0.80
– bolt in tension 12.5 0.80
– bolt subject to combined shear and tension 12.5 0.80
– ply in bearing 12.5 0.90
– bolt group 12.5 0.80
(ii) Riveted connections—
– power driven rivets As for bolted 0.80
connections
– hand driven rivets As for bolted 0.60
connections
(iii) Pin connections—
– pin in shear 12.5 0.80
– pin in bearing 12.5 0.80
– pin in bending 12.5 0.80
– ply in bearing 12.5 0.90
(continued)
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TABLE 3.2 (continued)

Capacity reduction factor
Design capacity for Clauses
( )
(iv) Welded connections— SP Category GP Category
– complete penetration butt weld 12.6 0.90 0.60
– fillet weld and incomplete penetration butt 12.6 0.80 0.60
weld
– weld group 12.6 0.80 0.60
– plug or slot weld 12.6 0.80 0.60
(d) Shear connection:
– Shear connectors 6.8.3 0.8
– Transverse reinforcement 6.6 1.00
(e) Wrought iron As for structural steel 0.85
(f) Cast iron Factors based on minimum tensile
strength (f u ):
– Axial and flexural tension 5.1 and 9.1 0.33
– Axial compression in short columns and flexural 10.1 and 10.6 0.41
compression
– Shear 5.10 0.21
(g) Bearings:
– Steel and cast iron components of bearings AS 5100.4 1.00
3.3 DESIGN FOR SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE

3.3.1 General
The structure and its components shall be designed for the SLS by controlling or limiting
deflection, vibration, crack control, bolt slip, as appropriate, in accordance with the relevant
requirements of Clauses 3.3.2 to 3.3.7, using the capacity reduction factors () given in
Table 3.3.
3.3.2 Deflection limits for beams
The deflection of beams and box girders under service conditions shall comply with the
deflection limits as specified in AS 5100.2.
For cantilevers, the calculated deflection shall include effects due to rotation at the support.
Deflections shall be calculated by an elastic analysis in accordance with Clause 4.2.
3.3.3 Vibration of beams
The design of beams for vibration, including box girders, under service conditions shall
comply with the vibration requirements specified in AS 5100.2.
3.3.4 Shear connection
In composite beams, the longitudinal shear connection between the steel member and the
concrete slab shall be designed in accordance with Section 6.
3.3.5 Steel reinforcement
The design and detailing of the steel reinforcement for composite members shall be carried
out in accordance with Clause 6.2.3 and AS 5100.5.
3.3.6 Connections
Bolts in friction-type connections, in which slip under serviceability loads shall be avoided,
shall be designed in accordance with Clause 12.5.4.
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3.3.7 Steel and cast iron components for bridge bearings

The design of steel and cast iron bridge bearings shall be in accordance with AS 5100.4.
TABLE 3.3
CAPACITY REDUCTION FACTORS ( ) FOR SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES
Design capacity for Clauses Capacity reduction factor ( )
(a) Connections:
Bolted connection 12.5.4 0.70
– bolts in friction type connection checked for
serviceability limit state
(b) Cast steel:
– members subject to axial tension 15.3 1.00
– members subject to axial compression 15.3 1.00
– members subject to shear 15.3 1.00
(c) Shear connection:
Shear connectors 6.6 1.00
3.4 DESIGN FOR STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY BY LOAD TESTING

Notwithstanding the requirements of Clause 3.2 or Clause 3.3, a structure or a component
member or connection may be designed for the strength or serviceability limit state, or both,
by load-testing in accordance with Section 15. If this alternative procedure is adopted,
Clauses 3.5 to 3.8, as appropriate, shall also apply.
3.5 AVOIDANCE OF BRITTLE FRACTURE AND LAMELLAR TEARING

To avoid failure by brittle fracture, the selection of the parent material shall be made in
accordance with Section 14.
3.6 FATIGUE
For members subjected to fatigue, a fatigue assessment shall be carried out in accordance
with Section 13.
3.7 CORROSION
3.7.1 Resistance and protection
All steelwork shall be designed and detailed to minimize the risk of corrosion (see Notes 1,
3, 4 and 5).
Where necessary, the effects of possible stray current corrosion shall be considered (see
Note 2).
NOTES:
1 The basis for the design of components contained in this Standard makes no allowance for
any loss of material due to corrosion.
2 A corrosion allowance is not required for structural steel in Corrosivity Categories C1 and C2
where the coatings are appropriately specified, applied, and maintained to AS/NZS 2312.1 or
the structural steel is hot dip galvanized to AS/NZS 4680 with design details from
AS/NZS 2312.2. For Corrosivity Categories C3, C4, C5 and CX, the selection of a coating
system and the maintenance strategy should be the subject of professional advice.
3 An estimate of the durability of a coating system can be obtained from AS/NZS 2312.
4 For corrosion maps for Australia and New Zealand, see Appendix G.
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5 Guidance for applying AS/NZS 2312.1 and AS/NZS 2312.2 in combinations with the
corrosion maps in Appendix G can be found in: Australian steelwork corrosion and coatings
guide, Australian Steel Institute (ASI), ASI Number 870; and, in New Zealand, New Zealand
Steelwork Corrosion and Coatings Guide, Heavy Engineering Research Association (HERA),
HERA R4-133.
3.7.2 Allowances of weathering steel
To cater for loss of structurally effective material due to the development of rust patina
during the life of the bridge, the following corrosion allowances shall be made on each
exposed surface, representing a loss of thickness of material used for structural purposes:
(a) For AS 4312 atmospheric corrosivity categories C1 and C2, the corrosion allowance
shall be 1.0 mm per surface. For AS 4312 atmospheric corrosivity category C3, the
corrosion allowance shall be 1.5 mm per surface.
NOTE: Caution is needed for the use of weathering steel in corrosivity Category C3 in
environments in which levels of chlorides, sulfur dioxide and any other type of contaminants
are high.
(b) For AS 4312 atmospheric corrosivity categories C4 and C5, weathering steel shall be
allowed, provided the steel is protected.
NOTE: Weathering steel with an applied corrosion protective coating is deemed to perform
the same as ordinary carbon steel with an identical applied corrosion protective coating.
(c) For ‘interior’ surfaces of box sections, the allowance shall be 0.5 mm.
The allowances stated in Items (a), (b) and (c) shall apply to fillet welds and partial
penetration butt welds.
3.8 DESIGN FOR FIRE RESISTANCE

In instances where it is considered necessary for a bridge to be designed for fire resistance,
for example, rail bridges near stations, the relevant provisions of AS 4100, AS 2327.1 and
AS 5100.2 shall apply.
3.9 PARTICULAR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS—GENERAL

3.9.1 Web-to-flange welds
For rail bridges, and road and pedestrian composite box girder bridges, the total effective
thickness of web-to-flange welds shall be not less than the thickness of the web. Where
used, fillet welds shall be provided on both sides of the connecting flange or web plate.
3.9.2 Beam restraint at piers of rail bridges
Longitudinal beams of rail bridges shall be braced with cross-frames or diaphragms at
support points. These shall be designed to provide both adequate strength and stiffness to
the structure.
3.10 PARTICULAR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS—RAIL BRIDGES

3.10.1 Beam restraint at intermediate locations of rail bridges
A cross-frame or diaphragm shall be used at the centre of a span if the length of
longitudinal beams is greater than the permissible spacing of cross-frames or diaphragms as
given in this Clause.
Cross-frames or diaphragms shall be used at intervals not greater than the following:
(a) For open deck construction ................................................................................ 5.5 m.
(b) Where steel plate, timber or precast concrete decking is utilized in ballasted or direct
fixed deck construction without top lateral bracing ............................................ 3.5 m.
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(c) Where steel plate, timber or precast concrete decking is utilized in ballasted or direct
fixed deck construction with top lateral bracing ................................................. 5.5 m.
(d) Where cast in situ concrete decking is used in ballasted or direct fixed deck
construction .......................................................................................................... 7 m.
Beams restrained by U-frames designed in accordance with Clauses 5.6.3 and 8.4.6, and
beams continuously restrained by a deck not at compression flange level, which have been
designed in accordance with Clauses 5.6.4 and 8.4.7, shall be deemed to comply with this
Clause.
3.10.2 Slenderness ratio for rail bridges
The slenderness ratio of length to the least radius of gyration in rail bridges shall be not
greater than—
(a) 100 for main compression members;
(b) 120 for wind and sway bracing in compression;
(c) 140 for single lacing members;
(d) 200 for double lacing members; and
(e) 200 for tension numbers,
unless a rigorous fatigue analysis is carried out.
3.10.3 Bracing for rail bridges
Bracing for rail bridges complying with Clause 3.10.2 shall be assessed for fatigue by
allowing two times the calculated effective number of load cycles in the fatigue assessment.
3.10.4 Rail truss bridges
Rail truss bridge members and lattice girder members complying with Clause 3.10.2 shall
be assessed for fatigue by allowing 1.4 times the calculated effective number of load cycles
in the fatigue assessment.
3.10.5 End connections of floor members in rail bridges
End connections of floor members in rail bridges shall be designed as follows:
(a) Stringers shall have end connection angles to ensure the necessary flexibility in the
connection to cross-girders. Cross-girders and beams in solid floor construction shall
have end connection angles, where practicable. Welding shall not be used to connect
the flexing legs.
(b) Where applicable, the flexing legs of the connection angles shall be not less than
100 mm in width and 12 mm in finished thickness.
(c) Where applicable for stringers, the gauge from back of angle to the first line of the
fasteners in the flexing legs of the connection angles over the top third of the stringer
depth shall be not less than—
Lt
. . . 3.10.5
8
where
L = length of a stringer
t = thickness of angle
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3.10.6 Minimum moment on end connections in rail bridges

For stringers and cross-girders with end connections complying with Clause 3.10.5, the end
connections shall be designed for a minimum hogging moment that is 33% of the calculated
centre moment, assuming the member to be simply supported.
Bolted or riveted end connections not complying with Clause 3.10.5 shall be designed for a
minimum hogging moment of 50% of the calculated centre moment, assuming the member
to be simply supported.
3.10.7 Welded stiffeners and cross-girder to through girder connections for rail
bridges
To achieve satisfactory fatigue life, stiffeners, other than end bearing stiffeners, at bracing
connections on deck spans or through spans, at the connection of cross-girders to through
girders, and at the connection of stringers to cross-girders, shall have the following details:
(a) The end of the stiffener shall be bolted to the tension flange. Welding shall not be
permitted.
(b) The end 40 mm of stiffener to web weld shall be fatigue life enhanced.
NOTE: For methods of enhancement, refer to ‘TGN-D-02, Introduction to Fatigue of Welded
Steel Structures and Post-Weld Improvement Techniques,’ Welding Technology Institute of
Australia.
(c) At cross-girder to through girder connections, the cross-girder bottom flange shall be
bolted to the through girder bottom flange.
3.10.8 Transom top rail bridge
For transom top spans where transoms load either girders or trusses, full account of the
eccentricity of transom loading shall be taken in the following cases:
(a) Local bending under transoms of top flanges of girders or top chords of trusses.
(b) Torsional loading of girders or top chords of trusses.
3.10.9 Thickness of material for rail bridges
Metal, except for fillers, shall be not less than 8 mm thick.
NOTE: Parts used in highly corrosive environment should have their thickness increased as
appropriate, or else protected against such influences.
3.11 DESIGN FOR EARTHQUAKE

This Section presents minimum design and detailing requirements of steel and composite
members and structures for the earthquake loading provisions.
For Australia, when µ  2, the rules of AS 5100.2 and AS/NZS 5100.6 shall be applied. For
cases when µ > 2, the steel members and connections for such structures shall be designed
and detailed in accordance with NZS 3404.1 (see Figure 3.11).
For New Zealand, when the loadings given in the NZTA Bridge manual are applied, the
steel members and connections shall be designed and detailed in accordance with
NZS 3404.1 (see Figure 3.11).
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E ar t h q u a ke d e s i g n
Au str ali a N ew Zea l an d
NZ TA
AS 510 0. 2
B r i d g e m anu al
S p e c i al No
design and μ ≤ 2 NZS 3 4 0 4.1
d et ailing
Ye s
D e s i g n to
AS / NZS 510 0.6
an d AS 510 0. 2
Po s s i b l e s o lut i o n
FIGURE 3.11 FLOWCHART FOR DESIGN OF STRUCTURES FOR EARTHQUAKES
3.12 RELIABILITY MANAGEMENT

For the application of AS/NZS 5131, the selection of Construction Category should be
selected in accordance with Appendix L of this Standard.
If different levels of reliability are specified, these levels should be achieved by an
appropriate choice of quality management in design together with fabrication and erection,
according to AS/NZS 5131 and AS 5104 (ISO 2394).
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SECTI ON 4 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL

ANAL YSIS
4.1 METHODS OF DETERMINING ACTION EFFECTS

4.1.1 General
For the purpose of complying with the requirements for the limit states of stability, strength
and serviceability specified in Section 3, the design action effects in a structure and its
members and connections caused by the design loads shall be determined by structural
analysis using one of the following methods:
(a) Elastic analysis, in accordance with Clause 4.2.
(b) Rigorous structural analysis, in accordance with Clause 4.10.
In addition, where appropriate, the requirements of Clauses 4.4 to 4.9 shall be satisfied.
4.1.2 Definitions
For the purpose of this Section, the definitions below apply:
4.1.2.1 Braced member
One for which the transverse displacement of one end of the member relative to the other is
effectively prevented. This applies to triangulated frames and trusses or to frames where in-
plane stiffness is provided by diagonal bracing, or by deck slabs or by bracing systems
parallel to the plane of buckling of the member.
4.1.2.2 Sway member
One for which the transverse displacement of one end of the member relative to the other is
not effectively prevented. Such members occur in structures that depend on flexural action
to limit the sway.
4.2 ELASTIC ANALYSIS

4.2.1 General
4.2.1.1 Assumptions
Individual members shall be assumed to remain elastic for the purpose of analysis, which
shall apply to both the ultimate and serviceability limit states.
The effect of haunching or any variation of the cross-section along the axis of a member
shall be considered and, where significant, shall be taken into account in the determination
of the member stiffness.
4.2.1.2 Second-order effects
The analysis shall allow for the effects of the design loads acting on the structure and its
members in their displaced and deformed configuration. These second-order effects shall be
taken into account by using either—
(a) a first-order elastic analysis with moment amplification in accordance with
Clause 4.2.2.2, provided the moment amplification factors for a braced member or
sway member (b or s) are not greater than 1.4; or
(b) a second-order elastic analysis in accordance with Appendix C.
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4.2.2 First-order elastic analysis

4.2.2.1 General
In a first-order elastic analysis, changes in the geometry are not accounted for, and changes
in the effective stiffnesses of the members due to axial force are neglected. The effects of
these on the first-order bending moments shall be allowed for by using the methods of
moment amplification of Clause 4.2.2.2 or Clause 4.2.2.3 as appropriate, except that where
the calculated moment amplification factor (b or s) is greater than 1.4, a second-order
elastic analysis in accordance with Appendix C shall be carried out.
The maximum calculated design bending moment (M*) shall be taken as the maximum
bending moment along the length of a member obtained by superposition of the simple
beam bending moments resulting from any transverse loading on the member with the end
bending moments determined by the analysis.
4.2.2.2 Moment amplification for a braced member
For a braced member with zero axial force or a braced member subject to axial tension, the
design bending moment (M*) shall be calculated as follows:
M* = M m* . . . 4.2.2.2(1)
For a braced member with a design axial compressive force (N*) as determined by the
analysis, the design bending moment (M*) shall be calculated as follows:
M* = b M m* . . . 4.2.2.2(2)
where
M m* = maximum calculated design bending moment along the length of a member
or in a segment
b = moment amplification factor for a braced member, calculated as follows:
cm
b  1
 N*  . . . 4.2.2.2(3)
1   

 N omb 
Nomb = elastic flexural buckling load of a braced member, determined in
accordance with Clause 4.3.1 for the braced member buckling
about the same axis as that about which the design bending
moment (M* ) is applied
For a braced member subject to end moments only, the factor for unequal moments (c m)
shall be calculated as follows:
cm = 0.6  0.4 m  1.0 . . . 4.2.2.2(4)
where
m = ratio of the smaller to the larger moment at the ends of the member, taken
as positive when the member is bent in reverse curvature, except that for
column members being designed for load combinations which include
earthquake loads
= 0
The same expression for c m shall be used for a braced member with transverse load applied
to it, with the values of m approximated by the value obtained by matching the distribution
of moment along the member with one of the typical distributions of bending moment
shown in Figure 4.2.2.2. For members where the maximum moment occurs within the
length of the member, m may conservatively be taken as 1.0.
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M o m e nt d i s t r i b u ti o n M o m e nt d i s t r i b u ti o n
M* M*
-1.0 -1.0
M* M*
+0. 2 +0. 5
M* M*
M* M*
2 2
+0.6 +1.0
M* M*
M* M*
- 0. 5 +0.4
M* M*
2 2
M* M*
+0. 2 +0
M* M*
M* M*
2 2
+0. 2 +0. 5
M* M*
FIGURE 4.2.2.2 (in part) VALUES OF  m FOR VARIOUS

DISTRIBUTIONS OF BENDING MOMENT
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M o m e n t di s tr ib u ti o n βm M o m e n t di s tr ib u ti o n βm
M* M*
- 0.4 - 0. 5
M* M*
2 2
M* M*
+ 0.1 - 0.1
M* M*
M* M*
2 2
+ 0.7 + 0. 3
M* M*
M* M*
M* M*
2 2
- 0. 5 - 0.4
M* M*
2 2
M* M*
M* M*
2 2
- 0. 2 - 0.1
M* M*
M* M*
β +1. 0
βM *
M*
FIGURE 4.2.2.2 (in part) VALUES OF  m FOR VARIOUS

DISTRIBUTIONS OF BENDING MOMENT
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4.2.2.3 Moment amplification for a sway member

For a sway member, the design bending moment (M* ) shall be calculated as follows:
M* = m M m* . . . 4.2.2.3(1)
The moment amplification factor (m) shall be taken as the greater of—
b = moment amplification factor for a braced member, determined in accordance with
Clause 4.2.2.2; and
s = moment amplification factor for a sway member, determined as follows:
(a) Sway members in rectangular frames The amplification factor (s) shall be
calculated as follows:
1
s 
 1  . . . 4.2.2.3(2)
1   
 ms 
The elastic buckling load factor (ms) for the member under consideration shall
be determined as follows:
 N oms 
  L 

ms  . . . 4.2.2.3(3)
 N* 
 
 L 



where
Noms = member buckling load for each column determined in accordance
with Clause 4.3.1, and the summations include all columns at the
same level
N* = member design axial force, with tension taken as negative
(b) Sway members in non-rectangular frames The amplification factor (s) for
each sway member shall be taken as the value for the frame calculated as
follows:
1
s 
 1  . . . 4.2.2.3(4)
1   
 c 
where the elastic buckling load factor (c) shall be determined from a rational
buckling analysis of the whole frame.
NOTE:  c is the ratio of the elastic buckling load set of the frame to the design load set
for the frame, and hence will vary with each design load set.
4.2.3 Residual stresses
The design strengths determined by the methods defined in this Standard may be assumed
to allow for residual stresses due to rolling, handling, transportation and normal welding
procedures. Allowance may however need to be made for the effects of residual stresses in
the calculation of initial deflections.
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4.3 MEMBER BUCKLING ANALYSIS

4.3.1 Member elastic buckling load
The elastic flexural buckling loads of braced (Nomb) and sway (Noms) members shall be
determined as follows:
 2 EI
N omb , N oms  . . . 4.3.1
k e L 2
where
ke = member effective length factor, determined in accordance with Clause 4.3.2
L = member length from centre-to-centre of its intersections with supporting
members
For composite compression members, the value of (EI)e determined in accordance with
Clause 10.6.2.3 shall be used for EI.
4.3.2 Member effective length factor
4.3.2.1 General
The value of the member effective length factor (ke), depends on the rotational restraints
and the translational restraints at the ends of the member.
The value of the member effective length factor (ke) shall be determined in accordance
with—
(a) Clause 4.3.2.2 for members with idealized end restraints;
(b) Clause 4.3.2.3 for braced members in frames; or
(c) Clause 4.3.2.3 for sway members in rectangular frames with regular loading and
negligible axial forces in the beams.
4.3.2.2 Members with idealized end restraints
Values of the member effective length factor (ke), which shall be used for some idealized
conditions of end restraint for members, are given in Figure 4.3.2.2.
B r ac e d m e m b er S way m e m b er
P P P P P P
Buckled
shape
Ef fe c t i ve l e n g t h
0.70 0.8 5 1.0 0 1. 20 2. 20 2. 20
fac tor (K e)
FIGURE 4.3.2.2 EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTORS FOR MEMBERS FOR IDEALIZED

CONDITIONS OF END RESTRAINT
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4.3.2.3 Members in frames

For a compression member that forms part of a rigid-jointed frame, the member effective
length factor (ke) shall be obtained from Figure 4.3.2.3(A) for a braced member and from
Figure 4.3.2.3(B) for a sway member. In Figures 4.3.2.3(A) and 4.3.2.3(B), 1 and 2 are the
ratios of the compression member stiffness to the end restraint stiffness. The -values shall
be obtained from the following equation:
I
  L 
 c
. . . 4.3.2.3
I
 e  
 L b
Except that—
(a) for a compression member whose base is not rigidly connected to a footing, the
-value shall not be taken as less than 10 unless a rational analysis would justify a
different value; and
(b) for a compression member whose end is rigidly connected to a footing, the -value
shall not be taken as less than 0.6, unless a rational analysis would justify a different
value;
where
 (I / L)c = sum of the stiffnesses in the plane of bending of all the
compression members rigidly connected at the end of the
member under consideration, including the member itself
 e (I / L)b = sum of the stiffnesses in the plane of bending for all the beams
rigidly connected at the end of the member under consideration
The contributions of any beams pin-connected to the member
shall be neglected
e = modifying factor that accounts for end conditions at the far
ends of the beams, as given in Table 4.3.2.3
TABLE 4.3.2.3
STIFFNESS MODIFYING FACTORS (e)
Fixity conditions at far end of beam Beam restraining a Beam restraining a
braced member sway member
Rigidly connected to a column 1.0 1.0
Pinned 1.5 0.5
Fixed 2.0 0.67
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0
0
50
0.
10
95
6
0.
90
3
0.
2
85
1
ST IFFN ES S R AT I O AT EN D 1,
1. 5
0.
1. 2
80
1.0 ke
0.
75
0.
70
0. 5
0.
65
0.
60
0.
55
0
0
0 0. 5 1.0 1. 2 1. 5 2 3 4 6 10 50
ST IFFN ES S R AT I O AT EN D 2, 2
NOTE: For a braced member, the translational restraint stiffness has been assumed to be infinite.
FIGURE 4.3.2.3(A) EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTORS FOR BRACED MEMBERS
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0
0
50
4
10
3
2.
5
6
2.
0
4
1.
8
3
1.
6
2
1.
5
1
ST IFFN ES S R AT I O AT EN D 1,
1. 5
1.
4
1. 2 ke
1.0
1.
3
1.
25
1.
20
1.
0. 5
15
1.
10
1.
05
0
0
0 0. 5 1.0 1. 2 1. 5 2 3 4 6 10 50
ST IFFN ES S R AT I O AT EN D 2, 2
NOTE: For a sway member, the translational restraint stiffness has been assumed to be zero.
FIGURE 4.3.2.3(B) EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTORS FOR SWAY MEMBERS
4.4 ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITE BEAMS, GIRDERS AND COLUMNS

4.4.1 Effective width of flanges for shear lag
Allowance shall be made for the flexibility of composite flanges affected by shear in their
plane (shear lag) either by means of rigorous analysis, or by using an effective width of
flange (see Clause 4.4.2).
4.4.2 Effective width of concrete flanges—Simplified method
The effective width of concrete flanges for shear lag shall be determined in accordance with
the following:
(a) When elastic global analysis is used, an effective width shall be assumed over the
whole of each span. This value shall be taken as the value beff,1 at midspan for a span
supported at both ends, or the value beff,2 at the support for a cantilever.
(b) At midspan or an internal support, the total effective width (beff,i) (see Figure 4.4.2),
shall be determined as follows:
beff,i = b0 + ∑bei . . . 4.4.2(1)
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where
b0 = distance between the centres of the outstand shear connectors
bei = value of the effective width of the concrete flange on each side of the
web and taken as Lef,i /8 (but not greater than the geometric width bi)
The geometric breadth (bi) of each portion shall be taken as half the
distance to the adjacent beam, measured to the centre-line of the web,
except that at a free edge the actual breadth is the distance from the
beam to free edge.
For typical continuous composite beams, where a moment envelope
from various load arrangements governs the design (and for
cantilevers), the equivalent span Lef,i shall be assumed to be as shown in
Figure 4.4.2
The effective width at an end support shall be determined as follows:
beff,i = b0 + ∑ibei . . . 4.4.2(2)
with
i = (0.55 + 0.025 Lef.i / bei)  1.0 . . . 4.4.2(3)
where
bei = effective width of the end span at midspan
Lef,i = equivalent span of the end span according to Figure 4.4.2
The distribution of the effective width between supports and midspan regions shall be
assumed to be as shown in Figure 4.4.2.
NOTE: For composite members not shown in Figure 4.4.2 (e.g., cross-beams and trusses), their
relevant effective widths should be used.
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CL of beam
b eff
b0
2 4 b1 b2
1 3 b e1 be2
(a) El evat i o n an d (b) Cro s s - s e c t i o n

seg m ent num b er
L1 L2 L3
L 1 /4 L 1 /2 L 1 /4 L 2 /4 L 2 /2 L 2 /4
b e f f,1 b e f f,4 b e f f, 3 CL of beam
(c) Ef fe c t i ve b eam w i d t h s h ow n in p l an
LEGEN D:
L e f1 = 0.8 5 L 1 for b e f f1 in se g m e nt 1
L e f 2 = 0. 25 (L 1 + L 2 ) for b e f f 2 in se g m e nt 2
L e f 3 = 0.70 L 2 for b e f f 3 in se g m e nt 3
L e f4 = 2 L 3 for b e f f4 in se g m e nt 4
FIGURE 4.4.2 EQUIVALENT SPANS FOR EFFECTIVE WIDTH OF CONCRETE FLANGE
4.4.3 Elastic modulus of concrete

For calculation of the transformed moment of inertia of a composite girder under short-term
loading, the modulus of elasticity of the concrete shall be determined in accordance with
AS 5100.5. This modulus shall be used to determine the steel to concrete modular ratio.
For composite girders that have permanent loads acting on the composite section, allowance
shall be made for the effect of concrete creep. Effects produced by the permanent loads on
the composite section shall be the maximum values computed using either—
(a) the modulus of elasticity of the concrete derived in accordance with AS 5100.5; or
(b) the value from Item (a)—
(i) divided by 3 for flexural members; or
(ii) divided by 2 for concrete-filled compression members.
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4.4.4 Continuous composite girders

The analysis for longitudinal moments and associated shear forces and reactions in a
continuous composite girder bridge due to loads applied to the composite section after the
concrete has achieved a strength of 0.75 f c may be calculated using the transformed
moment of inertia of the composite section assuming—
(a) the concrete is uncracked in both positive and negative moment regions; and
(b) the concrete slab has an effective width as determined in accordance with
Clause 4.4.2.
Where, under the serviceability limit state, including the effects of differential temperature
and shrinkage, this analysis results in a tensile stress ( ftc) at the top surface of the concrete
slab at internal supports, which is greater than 0.1 f c , the positive moments from this
analysis in each adjacent span shall be increased by a factor of 0.4 f tc f c to allow for the
redistribution of moments caused by transverse cracking of the concrete at the support.
Reduction shall not be made to the design moment in the negative region and shear
connectors in the negative moment region shall be designed on the basis that the concrete is
uncracked, as specified in Clause 6.4.3.
Alternatively, the stiffening effect of the concrete over 15% of the length of the span on
each side of each internal support may be neglected. In this case, the area of longitudinal
reinforcement in the effective width of the concrete slab over the support shall be included
in the determination of the flexural stiffness of the section.
4.4.5 Calculation of deflections
In calculating deflections, consideration shall be given to the sequence of construction and,
where appropriate, proper account shall be taken of the deflections of the steel section due
to loads applied to it prior to the development of composite action and of partial composite
action where deck slabs are cast in stages.
Deflections may be calculated by first order elastic theory assuming full interaction
between the concrete and steel beam, and neglecting the effect of the concrete in tension.
Allowance for shear lag effects in flanges shall be made by using effective flange widths in
calculations.
4.5 ANALYSIS OF BOX GIRDERS

4.5.1 Allowance for shear lag
The effect of shear lag shall be taken into account when the flexural stresses in a flange
need to be calculated, and in the analysis of erection conditions of continuous box girders.
4.5.2 Distortion and warping stresses
When considering the strength limit state of a box girder, stresses due to transverse bending
of the cross-section, and of torsional and distortional warping may be calculated by linear
elastic analysis.
4.5.3 Redistribution of web stresses in a longitudinally stiffened beam
The longitudinal stresses in any web panel, or panels, of a beam with longitudinal stiffeners
either in the compression flange or the web or both, may be assumed to be reduced by not
more than 60% by shedding any appropriate part of the moment or axial force, or both, to
the flanges, provided that the assumed stress distribution, after such shedding, is such that
the whole of the applied bending moment and axial force is transmitted and equilibrium is
maintained. The percentage reduction in stress so assumed shall be uniform, within any one
panel of web plate bounded on each longitudinal edge by a longitudinal stiffener, or by a
flange, but may vary from panel to panel.
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No shedding shall be made from any panel containing a hole or opening having a diameter
in any direction greater than six times the thickness of the web, or one-fifth of the smaller
dimension of the panel, whichever is less, nor from any panel, any part of which is within a
distance from the nearest edge of such hole or opening equal to the largest diameter of the
hole or opening.
4.5.4 Effective web thickness for bending stress analysis
For beams with longitudinally stiffened webs that are designed in accordance with
Clauses 7.3 and 7.4, the effective web thickness may be taken to be the full thickness of the
web plate where adequate stiffeners are provided perpendicular to the compression flange.
4.5.5 Stiffener continuity
The area of longitudinal stiffeners may be included for stress analysis only if the stiffeners
are continuous on either side of the section under consideration over a distance equal to the
depth of the beam.
4.6 STAGED CONSTRUCTION

4.6.1 General
When the cross-section of a beam and the applied loading increase by stages (for example,
in the situation where a steel section initially carries its own self-weight and the weight of
the concrete deck but then acts compositely with the concrete flange for subsequently
applied loadings), checks for adequacy shall be made for each stage of construction. In
global analysis, account shall be taken of whether the steel section is compact or not
compact at the stage considered.
4.6.2 Strength limit state
4.6.2.1 Compact sections
The effects of sequence of construction may be neglected in analysis for ultimate limit
states, other than fatigue, for composite members where all cross-sections are compact and
in which no allowance for lateral-torsional buckling is necessary.
4.6.2.2 Sections that are not compact
Appropriate analysis shall be made to cover the effects of staged construction including,
where necessary, separate effects of actions applied to structural steel and to wholly, or
partially, composite members.
4.6.3 Serviceability limit state
The stresses in each flange at each stage of construction shall be calculated and added
together. The section properties used in this calculation shall be the elastic section
properties.
In the summation of stresses, stresses resulting from both action effects (serviceability load)
and non-action effects (shrinkage, differential temperature and imposed displacements)
shall be included.
4.7 CONNECTIONS
4.7.1 General
Each element in a connection shall be designed so that the structure is capable of resisting
all design actions. The design capacities of each element shall be not less than the
calculated design action effects.
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Connections and the adjacent area of members shall be designed by distributing the design
action effects so that they comply with the following:
(a) The distributed design action effects are in equilibrium with the design action effects
acting on the connection.
(b) The deformations in the connection are within the deformation capacities of the
connection elements.
(c) All of the connection elements and the adjacent areas of members are capable of
resisting the design action effects acting on them.
(d) The connection elements shall remain stable under the design action effects and
deformations.
Residual actions due to the installation of bolts need not be considered.
4.7.2 Analysis of a bolt group subject to in-plane loading
The design actions in a bolt group shall be determined by an analysis based on the
following assumptions:
(a) The connection plates shall be considered to be rigid and to rotate relative to each
other about a point known as the instantaneous centre of the bolt group.
(b) In the case of a bolt group subject to a pure couple only, the instantaneous centre of
rotation shall be taken to coincide with the bolt group centroid.
In the case of a bolt group subject to an in-plane shear force applied at the group
centroid, the instantaneous centre of rotation is at infinity and the design shear force
is uniformly distributed throughout the group.
In all other cases, either the results of independent analyses for a pure couple alone
and for an in-plane shear force applied at the bolt group centroid shall be
superimposed, or a recognized method of analysis shall be used.
(c) The design shear force in each bolt shall be assumed to act at right angles to the
radius from the bolt to the instantaneous centre, and shall be taken as proportional to
that radius.
4.7.3 Analysis of a bolt group subject to out-of-plane loading
The design actions in any bolt in a bolt group subject to out-of-plane loading shall be
determined in accordance with Clause 4.7.1.
4.7.4 Analysis of a bolt group subject to a combination of in-plane and out-of-plane
loading
The design actions in any bolt in a bolt group shall be determined in accordance with
Clauses 4.7.2 and 4.7.3.
4.7.5 Analysis of a weld group subject to in-plane loading
4.7.5.1 General method of analysis
The design force per unit length in a fillet weld group subject to in-plane loading shall be
determined in accordance with the following:
(a) The connection plates shall be considered to be rigid and to rotate relative to each
other about a point known as the instantaneous centre of rotation of the weld group.
(b) In the case of a weld group subject to a pure couple only, the instantaneous centre of
rotation shall be taken to coincide with the weld group centroid.
In the case of a weld group subject to an in-plane shear force applied at the group
centroid, the instantaneous centre of the rotation is at infinity and the design force per
unit length ( v w* ) is uniformly distributed throughout the group.
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In all other cases, either the results of independent analyses for a pure couple alone
and for an in-plane shear force applied at the weld group centroid shall be
superposed, or a recognized method of analysis shall be used.
(c) The design force per unit length ( v w* ) at any point in the fillet weld group shall be
assumed to act at right angles to the radius from that point to the instantaneous centre,
and shall be taken as proportional to that radius.
4.7.5.2 Alternative analysis
The design force per unit length of weld ( v w* ) in the fillet weld group may be determined by
considering the fillet weld group as an extension of the connected member and
proportioning the design force per unit length in the fillet weld group to satisfy equilibrium
between the fillet weld group and the elements of the connected member.
4.7.6 Analysis of a weld group subject to out-of-plane loading
4.7.6.1 General method of analysis
The design force per unit length of weld ( v w* ) in a fillet weld group subject to out-of-plane
loading shall be determined in accordance with the following:
(a) The fillet weld group shall be considered in isolation from the connected element.
(b) The design force per unit length of weld ( v w* ) in the fillet weld resulting from a
design bending moment shall be considered to vary linearly with the distance from
the relevant centroidal axes. The design force per unit length in the fillet weld group
resulting from any shear force or axial force shall be considered to be uniformly
distributed over the length of the fillet weld group.
4.7.6.2 Alternative analysis
The design force per unit length of weld ( v w* ) in a fillet weld group may be determined by
considering the fillet weld group as an extension of the connected member and distributing
the design forces among the welds of the fillet weld group so as to satisfy equilibrium
between the fillet weld group and the elements of the connected member.
4.7.7 Analysis of a weld group subject to a combination of in-plane and out-of-plane
loading
The design force per unit length shall be determined from analyses in accordance with
Clauses 4.7.5.1 and 4.7.6.1, or Clauses 4.7.5.2 and 4.7.6.2, as appropriate.
4.8 LONGITUDINAL SHEAR

For a composite beam, whether simply supported or continuous, the design longitudinal
shear force per unit length on a particular shear plane shall be calculated as follows:
V * At y c
vL*  . . . 4.8
It
where
V* = design shear force at the cross-section under consideration
At = area of the section to one side of the shear plane under consideration
This shall be the transformed concrete area for concrete in compression or for
concrete in tension, either the area of embedded steel and uncracked concrete
or the area of embedded steel taken on its own
yc = distance from the neutral axis of the transformed composite cross-section to
the centroid of area At
It = second moment of area of the transformed composite cross-section
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The effective width of the concrete flange may be calculated in accordance with
Clause 4.4.2. Where the section properties of a composite section varies significantly along
the length of any span, account shall be taken of the variation of section properties when
calculating the longitudinal shear flow.
4.9 SHRINKAGE AND DIFFERENTIAL TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

4.9.1 General
4.9.1.1 Differential temperature effects
The primary effects of differential temperature through the depth of the cross-section of a
member shall be considered. In addition, the secondary effects in continuous members, due
to redistribution of the moments and support reactions caused by the primary effects shall
also be considered.
Longitudinal stresses and shear forces due to differential temperature effects shall be
calculated by elastic theory assuming full interaction between the concrete slab and the
steel beam. The stiffness shall be based on the transformed composite cross-section using a
modular ratio appropriate to short-term loading and assuming the concrete slab to have an
effective width calculated in accordance with Clause 4.4.2.
4.9.1.2 Shrinkage effects
When the effects of shrinkage modified by creep adversely affect the structure, they shall
be calculated in the manner described for differential temperature effects, but using a
modular ratio appropriate to long-term loading. The beneficial effects of the creep of
concrete shall be taken into account.
4.9.2 Serviceability limit state
4.9.2.1 General
The effects of shrinkage and differential temperature shall be considered at the
serviceability limit state for composite beams with sections that are not compact at internal
supports.
Account shall be taken of the longitudinal shear forces arising from shrinkage and
differential temperature effects in the design of all composite beams for the serviceability
limit state.
4.9.2.2 Longitudinal shear
Longitudinal shear forces due to the primary effects of shrinkage or differential temperature
shall be assumed to be transmitted across the interface between the steel beam and the
concrete slab by shear connectors at each end of the beam, ignoring the effects of bond.
In the absence of a more accurate analysis, the forces on the connectors may be calculated
by assuming that the rate of transfer of longitudinal force varies linearly from a maximum
at the end of the beam to zero at a distance from the end equal to the total effective width of
the slab. Alternatively, where stud shear connectors are used, the rate of transfer of force
may be assumed to be constant over a distance from each end of the beam equal to one fifth
of the span of the beam.
4.9.3 Strength limit state
4.9.3.1 General
The effects of shrinkage and differential temperature need only be considered at the
strength limit state when the cross-section of the steel member is not compact.
4.9.3.2 Longitudinal shear
The longitudinal shear forces arising from the effects of shrinkage and differential
temperature shall be considered in the design of the longitudinal and transverse
reinforcement in the concrete slab.
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4.10 RIGOROUS STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

4.10.1 General
This Clause sets out the criteria for finite element (FE) methods for ultimate limit state (e.g.
strength) and fatigue and serviceability limit state of structures.
The choice of the FE-method depends on the problem to be analysed and is based on the
assumptions given in Table 4.10.1.
NOTE: The criteria in this Clause are intended for engineers who are experienced in the use of FE
methods.
TABLE 4.10.1
ASSUMPTIONS FOR FE-METHODS
Material Geometric Imperfections
No Example of use
behaviour behaviour (see Clause 4.10.5)
1 linear linear no elastic shear lag effect, elastic resistance
2 non linear linear no plastic resistance in ULS
3 linear non linear no critical plate buckling load
4 linear non linear yes elastic plate buckling resistance
5 non linear non linear yes elastic-plastic resistance in ULS
4.10.2 Use of finite element model

In using FE models for design, particular care shall be paid to the following:
(a) Modelling of the structural component and its boundary conditions.
(b) Choice of software and documentation.
(c) Use of imperfections.
(d) Modelling of material properties.
(e) Modelling of loads.
(f) Modelling of the limit state under consideration.
(g) Capacity reduction factors to be applied.
4.10.3 Modelling
The choice of FE-models (shell models or volume models) and the size of mesh determine
the accuracy of results. For validation, sensitivity checks with successive refinement shall
be carried out.
The FE-modelling shall be carried out for either—
(a) the component as a whole; or
(b) a substructure as a part of the whole structure (see Note 1).
Geometric properties shall be taken as nominal.
All imperfections shall be based on the shapes and amplitudes as given in Clause 4.10.5.
NOTES:
1 An example for a component could be the web and/or the bottom plate of continuous box
girders in the region of an intermediate support where the bottom plate is in compression. An
example for a substructure could be a subpanel of a bottom plate subject to biaxial stresses.
2 The boundary conditions for supports, interfaces and applied loads should be chosen such that
results obtained are conservative.
3 For material properties, see Clause 4.10.6.
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4.10.4 Choice of software and documentation

The software shall be suitable for the task and be proven reliable.
NOTE: Reliability can be proven by appropriate benchmark tests.
The mesh size, loading, boundary conditions and other input data as well as the output shall
be documented in a way that they can be reproduced by third parties.
4.10.5 Use of imperfections
Where imperfections need to be included in the FE-model these imperfections shall include
both geometric and structural imperfections.
Unless a more refined analysis of the geometric imperfections and the structural
imperfections is carried out, equivalent geometric imperfections may be used.
NOTES:
1 Geometric imperfections may be based on the shape of the critical plate buckling modes with
amplitudes equivalent to 80 % of the geometric fabrication tolerances.
2 Structural imperfections in terms of residual stresses may be represented by a stress pattern
from the fabrication process with amplitudes equivalent to the mean (expected) values.
The direction of the applied imperfection shall be such that the lowest resistance is
obtained.
For applying equivalent geometric imperfections Table 4.10.5(A), Table 4.10.5(B) and
Figure 4.10.5 may be used.
In combining imperfections, a leading imperfection shall be chosen and the accompanying
imperfections may have their values reduced to 70%.
NOTES:
1 Any type of imperfection should be taken as the leading imperfection and the others may be
taken as the accompanying imperfections.
2 Equivalent geometric imperfections may be substituted by the appropriate fictitious forces
acting on the member.
TABLE 4.10.5(A)
EQUIVALENT GEOMETRIC IMPERFECTIONS
Type of imperfection Component Shape Magnitude
global member with length ℓ bow e 0 /ℓ from Table 4.10.5(B)
global longitudinal stiffener with length a bow min (a/400, b/400)
local panel or subpanel with short span a buckling shape min (a/200, b/200)
or b
local stiffener or flange subject to twist bow twist 1/50
TABLE 4.10.5(B)
DESIGN VALUES OF INITIAL LOCAL BOW IMPERFECTION e0 /ℓ
Compression member section constant b e 0 /ℓ

from Table 10.3.3(A) or Table 10.3.3(B) Elastic analysis Plastic analysis
1.0 1/350 1/300
0.5 1/300 1/250
0 1/250 1/200
0.5 1/200 1/150
1.0 1/150 1/100
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Type of
Component
imperfection
ee00 zz
global member
l
with length ℓ
ee00 yy
e 0w
global
longitudinal
stiffener with
length a a
b
e 0w
e 0w
local panel or
b b
subpanel
a
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Type of
Component
imperfection
1
50
local stiffener or
flange subject b
to twist
a
FIGURE 4.10.5 (in part) MODELLING OF EQUIVALENT GEOMETRIC IMPERFECTIONS
4.10.6 Material properties for steel

Material properties shall be taken as nominal (characteristic) values.
Depending on the accuracy and the allowable strain required for the analysis, the following
assumptions for the material behaviour shall be used (see Figure 4.10.6):
(a) Elastic-plastic without strain hardening.
(b) Elastic-plastic with a nominal plateau slope.
(c) Elastic-plastic with linear strain hardening.
(d) True stress-strain curve is evaluated from the test results as follows:
σtrue = σnom(1+εnom) . . .4.10.6(1)
εtrue = ℓn(1+εnom) . . .4.10.6(2)
where
σtrue = true stress
εtrue = true strain
εnom = nominal strain
σnom = nominal stress
NOTE: Often material test data are supplied using nominal stress and strain values, which might
have to be converted to true stress and true strain.
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Model
σ σ
fy fy 1
with yielding
plateau
t an -1(E) t an -1(E)
ε ε
1 t an -1(E /10 0 0)
(or s im il ar ly s m all valu e)
a) b)
σ σ 1
fy t an -1(E /10 0) fy
2
with strain-
hardening
t an -1(E) t an -1(E)
ε ε
1 tr ue stres s - strain c ur ve
2 stres s - strain c ur ve from te sts
c) d)
NOTE: For the elastic modulus E the nominal value is relevant.
FIGURE 4.10.6 MODELLING OF MATERIAL BEHAVIOUR
4.10.7 Loads
The loads applied to the structures shall include relevant load factors and load combination
factors. For simplicity, a single load multiplier α may be used.
4.10.8 Limit state criteria
The ultimate limit state criteria shall be used as follows:
(a) For structures susceptible to buckling—attainment of the maximum load.
(b) For regions subjected to tensile stresses—attainment of a limiting value of the
principal membrane strain.
4.10.9 Load factors
The load magnification factor (u) to the ultimate limit state shall be sufficient to achieve
the required reliability.
The magnification factor αu shall consist of two factors as follows:
(a) α1 to cover the model uncertainty of the FE-modelling used. It shall be obtained from
evaluations of test calibrations, as set out in AS/NZS 1170.0;
(b) α2 to cover the scatter of the loading and resistance models. It shall be taken as the
reciprocal of the appropriate capacity reduction factor from Table 3.2 (i.e. α2 = 1/ϕ).
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The magnification factor (αu) shall satisfy the following:

αu  α1 α2 . . .4.10.9
A rigorous structural analysis shall take into account the relevant material properties,
geometric effects, three-dimensional effects and interaction with the foundations specified
in Clauses 4.10.2 to 4.10.4.
4.10.10 Geometric effects
Equilibrium of the structure in its deformed condition shall be taken into account whenever
deflections within the length of an axially loaded member, or relative end displacements,
influence the magnitude and distribution of action effects in the structure.
4.10.11 Three-dimensional effects
The three-dimensional nature of the structure shall be taken into account in the
interpretation of the results of the analysis and, if relevant, in the analysis itself.
4.10.12 Interaction with the foundations
Interaction with the foundations shall be taken into account in a rigorous structural analysis.
4.10.13 Modelling of concrete slab
4.10.13.1 General
In modelling the concrete slab (or flange) which is supported by steel I-sections, there are
two modelling approaches:
(a) Shell modelling of the concrete slab and steel I-section.
(b) Volume modelling of the concrete slab (i.e. 3D solid modelling) and shell or 3D
volume modelling of steel I-section.
The choice of modelling is dependent on the size of the engineering problem being
modelled, accuracy required, available FE software, hardware and analyst capabilities. The
FE software should have a brittle material model that adequately represents the concrete
non-linear material behaviour in compression and tension. The concrete slab might be
subjected to tension in some parts of the structure (e.g. over the support of a continuous
composite beam).
NOTE: As a guideline, it is good practice to compare the simpler modelling approach (a) to the
more realistic and detailed approach (b) on a small representative model/problem.
4.10.13.2 Material properties for concrete
Generic uniaxial concrete stress-strain curves in tension and compression are given in
Figure 4.10.13.3. The concrete tensile strength is generally assumed to be 5 to 10% of its
compressive strength and its use is optional.
Tension stiffening is related to the interaction of the reinforcement and the concrete and has
a significant effect on the deflection of reinforced concrete members.
4.10.13.3 Shell modelling of the concrete slab
The representative concrete shell shall account for the spacing of the reinforcement and its
position in relation to the concrete slab thickness.
Shear studs are often omitted from modelling; however, there shall be appropriate
representation of the bond (or tie) between the steel I-section top flange upper face and
shell modelled concrete slab bottom face.
NOTE: Use shell elements to model structures in which one dimension (the thickness) is
significantly smaller than the other dimensions and in which the stresses in the thickness direction
are negligible. A structure whose thickness is less than 1/10 of a typical global structural
dimension generally can be modelled with shell elements. The following are examples of typical
global dimensions:
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(a) The distance between supports.

(b) The distance between stiffeners or large changes in section thickness.
(c) The radius of curvature.
(d) The wavelength of the highest vibration mode of interest.
4.10.13.4 Volume modelling of the concrete slab
Volume modelling of the concrete slab (i.e. 3D solid modelling) shall be considered a more
realistic representation of the concrete section. Reinforcing bars (and stirrups) shall be
modelled by 3D beam or truss elements, embedded within the concrete. Rebar elements
within solid elements may also be modelled as smeared reinforcement within the shell
elements as a first approximation. Shear studs shall be within the concrete and have 3D
solid or beam approximation.
NOTES:
1 Care should to be taken to ensure that the shear studs are rigidly connected to the top flange
of the steel I-section.
2 It is conservative to model contact between the concrete slab bottom face and steel I-section
top flange upper face. If full composite action is assumed this interface can be rigid (i.e. bond
or tie).
3 It is often sufficient to represent the steel I-section by shell modelling, but 3D modelling is
also acceptable.
4.10.13.5 Sensitivity of analysis to input data, modelling approach and material
parameters
A clear problem description and scope of work shall be given prior to the commencement of
the FE modelling.
NOTE: The choice of concrete slab modelling approach is also influenced by the FE analysis
objectives.
Checks shall be made to investigate the influence of key input data and mesh sensitivity on
the analysis results. Attention shall be paid to the meshing of the concrete shell or 3D
volume in relation to the spacing of the reinforcement.
NOTE: Results of reinforced concrete structures are often dependent on the amount and
specification of concrete tension stiffening, reinforcement bar per finite element ratio, embedded
reinforcement and other data.
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σt
σ t0
E0
(1- d t ) E 0
εt
~ ~
ε pt l ε et l
(a) In te n s i o n
σc
σ cu
σ c0
E0 (1- d c ) E 0
εc
~ ~
ε pc l ε ec l
(b) In c o m pre s s i o n
NOTES:
1 Under uniaxial tension the concrete engineering stress-strain response follows a linear elastic relationship
until the value of the failure stress, σ t0, is reached. The post failure behaviour for direct straining is
modelled with tension stiffening, which permits the strain-softening behaviour for cracked concrete to be
defined. ~tpl and ε t el are tensile equivalent plastic and elastic strains, respectively.
2 Under uniaxial compression the concrete engineering response is linear until the value of initial yield, σ c0.
In the plastic regime, the response is typically characterized by stress hardening followed by strain
softening beyond the ultimate stress, σ cu . This representation, although somewhat simplified, captures the
main features of the response of concrete. ~cpl and ε c el are compressive equivalent plastic strains and
elastic strains, respectively.
3 E 0 is the initial (undamaged) elastic stiffness of the concrete in tension and compression. The modelling of
stiffness degradation of concrete in tension and compression is denoted by uniaxial damage variables, d t
and d c . Including damage in the material model is optional.
FIGURE 4.10.13.3 RESPONSE OF CONCRETE TO UNIAXIAL LOADING
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SECTI ON 5 STEEL BEAMS
5.1 DESIGN FOR BENDING MOMENT

5.1.1 General
The cross-section of the steel beam shall be classified as either compact or not compact in
accordance with Clauses 5.1.3 and 5.1.4 and designed for bending moment in accordance
with Clause 5.1.6 or Clause 5.1.7, as appropriate.
5.1.2 Section slenderness
For a section with flat compression plate elements, the section slenderness ( s) shall be
taken as the value of the plate element slenderness (e) for the element of the cross-section
that has the greatest value of—
e
ey
where
e = plate element slenderness
= b f
y
  . . . 5.1.2(1)
 t  250
b = clear width of the element outstand from the face of the supporting
plate element or the clear width of the element between the faces of
supporting plate elements
NOTE: A longitudinal stiffener that complies with Clause 5.1.5 may be
considered to be a supporting plate element for the purposes of calculating
b.
t = element thickness
ey = plate element yield slenderness limit (see Table 5.1.2)
The section plasticity and yield slenderness limits (sp) and (sy) respectively shall be taken
as the values of the element plasticity and yield slenderness limits (ep) and (ey)
respectively, given in Table 5.1.2 for the element of the cross-section that has the greatest
value of e/ey.
For circular hollow sections, the section slenderness (s) shall be calculated as follows:
 do  f y 
s    
 . . . 5.1.2(2)
 t  250 
where do is the outside diameter of the section.
The section plasticity and yield slenderness limits (sp) and (sy), respectively, shall be
taken as the values of the element plasticity and yield slenderness limits (ep) and (ey),
respectively, given in Table 5.1.2.
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TABLE 5.1.2
VALUES OF PLATE ELEMENT SLENDERNESS LIMITS
Plate Longitudinal Residual Plasticity Stress Yield limit Stress Deformation
element edges stress limit distribution (  ey ) distribution limit
type supported (see Notes) (  ep ) (  ed )
Flat One SR 10 Compression 16 Compression 35
HR 9 16 35
LW, CF 8 15 35
HW 8 14 35
(Uniform compression)
Flat One SR 10 25 —
HR 9 25 —
LW, CF 8 22 —
HW 8 22 —
(Maximum compression
at unsupported edge, zero
stress or tension at
supported edge)
Flat Both SR 30 Compression 45 Compression 90
HR 30 45 90
LW, CF 30 40 90
HW 30 35 90
(Uniform compression)
Flat Both Any 82 115 —
(Compression at one
edge, tension at the other,
neutral axis at mid
height)
Flat Both Any For r p d 1 C o m p. For re d 1 C o m p.
1.0  r p  0.5 1.0  r e  0
d1 d1
111 60
4.7 rp  1 Te n s i o n re Te n s i o n
(Web of beam with For rp < 0.5

neutral axis not at mid 41
height) rp
Circular hollow sections SR 50 120 —

HR 50 120 —
LW, CF 42 120 —
HW 42 120 —
LEGEND:
SR = stress relieved
HR = hot-rolled or hot-finished
CF = cold-formed
LW = lightly welded longitudinally
HW = heavily welded longitudinally
rp = ratio of the distance from the plastic neutral axis to the compression edge of the web to the depth of the
web
re = ratio of the distance from the elastic neutral axis to the compression edge of the web to the depth of the
web
NOTE: Welded members whose compressive residual stresses are less than 40 MPa may be considered to be lightly
welded.
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5.1.3 Compact sections

Compact sections are those in which the full plastic moment can be developed before, and
maintained after, the onset of local buckling.
For sections that satisfy s  sp, the effective section modulus (Ze) shall be the lesser of S
or 1.5Z, where S and Z are the plastic and elastic section moduli respectively, determined in
accordance with Clause 5.1.5.
5.1.4 Sections that are not compact
A section that is not compact is one for which local buckling prevents the development of
the full plastic moment and which is liable to local buckling before the onset of yielding.
NOTE: Non-compact and slender sections as defined in AS 4100 and NZS 3404.1 are considered
as not compact sections in this Standard.
For sections with flat plate elements in uniform compression, which satisfy s > sy, the
effective section modulus (Ze) shall be calculated for the effective cross-section determined
by omitting from each flat compression element the width in excess of the width
corresponding to ey for that element. Flat plate elements in non-uniform compression may
conservatively be assumed to be in uniform compression.
When the web of an I-section or channel section member is not compact, the effective
cross-section shall be determined by ignoring a section of the web in the compression zone.
The section to be ignored shall be a height (x) of the web as shown in Figure 5.1.4.
For elements where e > ed in which ed is the plate element deformation slenderness limit
given in Table 5.1.2, noticeable deformations may occur under service loading.
C o m pre s s i o n fl a n g e
25 0
28 t w
fy
El a s t i c c e ntr o i d a x i s
25 0
28 t w
fy
tw
FIGURE 5.1.4 EFFECTIVE PORTION OF A STEEL BEAM

WITH A NOT COMPACT WEB
5.1.5 Elastic and plastic section moduli

For sections without holes or for sections with holes that reduce either of the flange areas
by not more than 100{1  [f y/(0.85fu)]}%, the elastic and plastic section moduli may be
calculated using the gross-section.
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For sections with holes that reduce either of the flange areas by more than
100{1  [f y/(0.85fu)]}%, the elastic and plastic section moduli shall be calculated using
either—
(a) (An/Ag) times the value for the gross section, in which An is the sum of the net areas of
the flanges and the gross area of the web, and Ag is the gross area of the cross-section;
or
(b) the net section.
When net areas are calculated, any deductions for fastener holes shall be made in
accordance with Clause 12.4.
For rail bridges, the net areas shall be used in all cases.
5.1.6 Design of compact sections for bending moment
A member with compact cross-sections bent about the section principal x-axis shall
satisfy—
(a) M x*   Msx; and . . . 5.1.6(1)
(b) M x*   Mbx . . . 5.1.6(2)

where
M x* = design bending moment about the principal x-axis, determined in accordance
with Clause 4.2
 = capacity reduction factor (see Table 3.2)
Msx = nominal section moment capacity, as specified in Clause 5.2.1, for bending
about the principal x-axis
Mbx = nominal member moment capacity, as specified in Clause 5.3 or Clause 5.6,
for bending about the principal x-axis
A member bent about the section principal y-axis shall satisfy—
M y*   Msy . . . 5.1.6(3)
where
M y* = design bending moment about the principal y-axis determined in accordance
with Clause 4.2
Msy = nominal section moment capacity, as specified in Clause 5.2, for bending
about the principal y-axis
A member whose deflections are constrained to a non-principal plane shall be analysed in
accordance with Clause 5.7.1 and shall satisfy Clause 11.3.4.
A member that is bent about a non-principal axis and whose deflections are unconstrained
shall be analysed in accordance with Clause 5.7.2 and shall satisfy Clauses 11.3.4
and 11.4.4.
A member subjected to combined bending and shear shall satisfy this Clause and
Clause 5.11.
A member subjected to combined bending and axial compression or tension shall satisfy
Clause 11.4.
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5.1.7 Design of sections that are not compact for bending moment
A member with sections that are not compact bent about the section principal x-axis shall
satisfy—
(a) f x*   f y; and . . . 5.1.7(1)
(b) f x*   fb . . . 5.1.7(2)
where
f x* = summation of stresses about the x-axis, determined in accordance with
Clause 4.2, at the stage of construction under consideration, determined using
the elastic section modulus based on effective section, appropriate for that
stage of construction and calculated separately for each flange
fb = bending strength for bending about the x-axis
M bx
=  fy determined for the higher stressed flange . . . 5.1.7(3)
Z enx
Mbx = nominal member moment capacity, as specified in Clause 5.3 or
Clause 5.6, using Msx as specified in Clause 5.2.2 for bending about
the principal x-axis
Zenx = effective elastic section modulus of the tension and compression
flange, as appropriate, determined in accordance with Clauses 5.1.4
and 5.1.5
A member with sections that are not compact bent about the section principal y-axis shall
satisfy—
f y*   f y . . . 5.1.7(4)
where
f y* = summation of stresses about the principal y-axis determined in accordance
with Clause 4.2, at the stage of construction under consideration, determined
using the elastic section modulus based on effective section, appropriate for
that stage of construction and calculated separately for each flange
A member whose deflections are constrained to a non-principal plane shall be analysed in
accordance with Clause 5.6.1 and shall satisfy Clause 11.3.4.
A member that is bent about a non-principal axis and whose deflections are unconstrained
shall be analysed in accordance with Clause 5.7.2 and shall satisfy Clauses 11.3.4
and 11.4.4.
A member subjected to combined bending and shear shall satisfy this Clause and
Clause 5.11.
A member subjected to combined bending and axial compression or tension shall satisfy
Clause 11.4.
5.1.8 Hybrid beams
5.1.8.1 General
Hybrid beams are steel beams where the web is of lower strength steel than the flanges.
Hybrid beams comprising compact sections shall be designed for bending moment in
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Hybrid beam sections that are not compact shall be designed for bending moment such
that—
(a) f*   rn f y; and . . . 5.1.8.1(1)
(b) f   fb
*
. . . 5.1.8.1(2)
where
f* = as specified in Clause 5.1.7
rn = hybrid factor specified in Clauses 5.1.8.2 and 5.1.8.3, as appropriate
fy = yield stress of the flanges
fb = as specified in Clause 5.1.7
For homogenous sections, rn shall be taken as 1.0.
5.1.8.2 Hybrid factors for sagging moment regions
In sagging moment regions, the hybrid factor (rn) shall be taken as follows:
  1   2 3      
rn  1    . . . 5.1.8.2(1)
 6   (3   ) 
where
 = ratio of web to bottom flange area for a hybrid girder
= Aw/Afb . . . 5.1.8.2(2)
Aw = area of the web, in square millimetres
Afb = area of the bottom flange, in square millimetres
 = ratio of section depths for a hybrid girder
= dn/d . . . 5.1.8.2(3)
dn = distance from outer fibre of bottom flange to the centroidal axis of the
section (or transformed composite section)
d = depth of steel section
 = ratio of yield stresses of web to bottom flange for a hybrid girder
= fyw/f yb . . . 5.1.8.2(4)
fyw = nominal yield stress of the web material
fyb = nominal yield stress of the bottom flange material
5.1.8.3 Hybrid factor for hogging moment regions
In hogging moment regions, the hybrid factor (rn) shall be taken as either one of the
following:
(a) Where the elastic neutral axis of the full section (including composite section)
determined from the algebraic sum of stresses in the steel (and composite section) is
located within 10% of the web depth from mid-depth of the web—
rn 

12   3   3  . . . 5.1.8.3(1)
12  2
where
 = 2Aw/Atf . . . 5.1.8.3(2)
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 = fyw/ffl . . . 5.1.8.3(3)
Atf = total area of both steel flanges and the longitudinal reinforcement
included in the section
ffl = lesser of the yield stress used in design, or the design stress in
either flange
(b) For other hybrid sections—
M yr
rn  . . . 5.1.8.3(4)
My
where
Myr = section moment capacity (elastic) when web yielding is accounted for
My = section moment capacity (elastic) when web yielding is disregarded
5.2 SECTION MOMENT CAPACITY FOR BENDING ABOUT A PRINCIPAL AXIS

The nominal section moment capacity (Ms) of a compact section shall be calculated as
follows:
Ms = f yZ e . . . 5.2.1
where the effective section modulus (Ze) shall be as specified in Clause 5.1.3.
5.2.2 Not compact sections
The nominal section moment capacity (Ms) of a not compact section shall be calculated as
follows:
Ms = fyZen . . . 5.2.2
where the effective elastic section modulus of the not compact section (Zen) is the smaller
value calculated for both flanges in accordance with Clause 5.1.4.
5.3 MEMBER CAPACITY OF SEGMENTS WITH FULL LATERAL RESTRAINT

5.3.1 Member capacity
The nominal member moment capacity (Mb) of a segment with full lateral restraint shall be
taken as the nominal section moment capacity (Ms), specified in Clause 5.2, of the critical
section specified in Clause 5.3.3. A segment in a member subjected to bending is the length
between adjacent cross-sections that are fully or partially restrained, as specified in
Clauses 5.4.2.1 and 5.4.2.2, or the length between an unrestrained end, as specified in
Clause 5.4.1, and the adjacent cross-section that is fully or partially restrained.
5.3.2 Segments with full lateral restraint
5.3.2.1 General
A segment may be considered to have full lateral restraint, provided it satisfies
Clause 5.3.2.2, Clause 5.3.2.3 or Clause 5.3.2.4, or if its nominal member moment capacity
(Mb) calculated in accordance with Clause 5.6 is greater than the nominal section moment
capacity (Ms) at the critical section.
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5.3.2.2 Segments with continuous lateral restraints

A segment with continuous lateral restraints may be considered to have full lateral restraint,
provided that—
(a) both ends are fully or partially restrained, as specified in Clause 5.4.2.1 or
Clause 5.4.2.2; and
(b) the continuous restraints act at the critical flange, as specified in Clause 5.5.
5.3.2.3 Segments with intermediate lateral restraints
A segment with intermediate lateral restraints, as specified in Clause 5.4.2.4, which divide
the segment into a series of sub-segments, may be considered to have full lateral restraint,
provided that—
(a) both ends are fully or partially restrained, as specified in Clause 5.4.2.1 or
Clause 5.4.2.2;
(b) the length (L) of each sub-segment satisfies Clause 5.3.2.4; and
(c) the lateral restraints act at the critical flange, as specified in Clause 5.5.
5.3.2.4 Segments with full or partial restraints at both ends
A segment with full or partial restraints at both ends, as specified in Clauses 5.4.2.1 and
5.4.2.2, may be considered to have full lateral restraint, provided its length (L) satisfies—
L 250
(a)  80  50 m  if the segment is of equal flanged I section;
ry fy
L 250
(b)  60  40 m  if the segment is an equal flanged channel;
ry fy
L 2  Ad f 250
(c)  80  50 m  if the segment is an I section with unequal flanges;
ry 2.5 Z ex fy
L b  250  if the segment is a rectangular or square hollow

(d)  1800  1500  m  f  
ry  f y  section; or
 bw  
L  b  250 
(e)  210  175 m  2   if the segment is of angle section
t  b  f 
 1  y 
where
ry = radius of gyration about the principal y-axis
 = proportion of stress redistributed from an unrestrained web panel
= Icy/I y . . . 5.2.3.4
Icy = second moment of area of the compression flange about the section
principal y-axis
Iy = second moment of area of the section about the section principal y-
axis
A = area of cross-section
df = distance between flange centroids
Zex = effective section modulus about the principal x-axis, as specified in
Clause 5.1
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bf,bw = flange width and web depth, respectively

t = thickness of an angle
b1, b2 = greater and lesser leg lengths of an angle section, respectively
The ratio (m) shall be taken as the ratio of the smaller to the larger bending moments in the
length L, positive when the segment is bent in reverse curvature and negative when bent in
single curvature. This may be taken conservatively as 1.0 or Figure 4.2.2.2 shall be
referred to for other distributions of bending moment.
5.3.3 Critical section
The critical section in a segment shall be taken as the cross-section which has the largest
value of the ratio of the design bending moment (M*) to the nominal section capacity in
bending (Ms), as specified in Clause 5.2 for a compact section, or the largest value of the
ratio of design stress (f*) to the design yield stress (f y) as specified in Clause 5.1.7 for a not
compact section.
5.4 RESTRAINTS
5.4.1 General
A cross-section may be considered to be fully, partially, rotationally or laterally restrained
if its restraints satisfy Clause 5.4.2, as appropriate.
Restraints against lateral deflection, twist rotation, or lateral rotation shall be designed in
Any cross-section of a member, which does not satisfy any of Clauses 5.4.2.1 to 5.4.2.4,
shall be considered to be unrestrained, for example in Figure 5.4.1, unless the member
capacity in bending is determined by the method of design by buckling analysis specified in
Clause 5.6.6.
L ater al d efl e c t i o n Pin

connection
C
Tw i st
r ot at i o n C
N o cr iti c al flang e restraint, no t w ist restraint
FIGURE 5.4.1 UNRESTRAINED CROSS-SECTIONS
5.4.2 Restraints at a cross-section

5.4.2.1 Fully restrained
A cross-section of a member may be considered to be fully restrained, if either—
(a) the restraint or support effectively prevents lateral deflection of the critical flange as
specified in Clause 5.5, and effectively prevents twist rotation of the section, as
shown in Figure 5.4.2.1(a), or partially prevents twist rotation of the section, as
shown in Figure 5.4.2.1(b); or
(b) the restraint or support effectively prevents lateral deflection of some other point in
the cross-section, and effectively prevents twist rotation of the section, as shown in
Figure 5.4.2.1(c).
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We b
s t i f fe n er
N OTE: Eit h er fl an g e m ay b e c r it i c al
(a) Cr it i c al fl an g e re str aint , ef fe c t i ve t w i st re str aint
C C
Fl ex i b l e Fl ex i b l e
C
Fly br ac e
(b) Cr it i c al fl an g e re str aint , par t i al t w i st re str aint
Stiff Stiff
C We b C
s t i f fe n er Fly br ac e
(c) N o n - cr iti c al flang e restraint, ef fe c t ive t w ist restraint

LEGEN D:
Pin c o n n e c t i o n
M o m e nt c o n n e c t i o n
C Cr it i c al fl an g e
FIGURE 5.4.2.1 FULLY RESTRAINED CROSS-SECTIONS
5.4.2.2 Partially restrained

A cross-section of a member may be considered to be partially restrained if the restraint or
support effectively prevents lateral deflection of some point in the cross-section other than
the critical flange, and partially prevents twist rotation of the section, as shown in
Figure 5.4.2.2.
Stiff Fl ex i b l e
C Fl ex i b l e
C
C Fly br ac e
N o n - cr iti c al flang e restraint, par t ial t w ist restraint

LEGEN D:
FIGURE 5.4.2.2 PARTIALLY RESTRAINED CROSS-SECTIONS
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5.4.2.3 Rotationally restrained

A cross-section of a member, which may be considered to be fully or partially restrained,
may be considered to be rotationally restrained if the restraint or support provides
significant restraint against lateral rotation of the critical flange, as specified in Clause 5.5,
out of the plane of bending, as shown in Figure 5.4.2.3.
L ater al
r ot at i o n
Restrained Ef fe c t i ve
s e g m e nt s l e n g t h (l e )
Restrained
s e g m e nt
R ot at i o n a l
restraint L ater al Ef fe c t i ve
r ot at i o n l e n g t h (l e )
TOP VIE W
S e g m e nt w i t h f u l l
lateral sup p or t
C C
FRO NT VIE W TOP VIE W

(a) M e m b er s w it h tr an sver se re str aint (b) C o nt inu ou s m e m b er s
LEGEN D:
FIGURE 5.4.2.3 ROTATIONALLY RESTRAINED CROSS-SECTIONS
5.4.2.4 Laterally restrained

A cross-section of a segment whose ends are fully or partially restrained may be considered
to be laterally restrained if the restraint effectively prevents lateral deflection of the critical
flange, as specified in Clause 5.5, but is ineffective in preventing twist rotation of the
section, as shown in Figure 5.4.2.4.
Cross-sections in member segments with one end unrestrained shall not be considered to be
laterally restrained.
C r i ti c a l f l a n g e r e s tr a i nt, n o t wi s t r e s tr a i nt
L EG EN D:
Pi n c o n n e c ti o n
C C r i ti c a l f l a n g e
FIGURE 5.4.2.4 LATERALLY RESTRAINED CROSS-SECTIONS
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5.4.2.5 Intermediate torsional restraints

Where intermediate torsional restraints are provided between two or more beams and the
intermediate restraints are flexible, consideration shall be given to the possibility of lateral
instability of the combined cross-section as shown in Figure 5.4.2.5.
NOTE: The mode of buckling is with one or two half wavelengths over the span, with the
restraint positions in each half wavelength being displaced by the buckling. This mode occurs in
multi-girder and ladder deck bridges during construction when there is no plan bracing; the only
bracing is in planes (triangulated bracing or stiff cross girders) between beam pairs. These planes
offer torsional restraint to the main beams, by virtue of the vertical stiffness of the main beams
themselves. The buckling mode shown in Figure 5.4.2.5 is illustrated with stiff cross-girders, but
could equally be for beams with triangulated bracing. With some configurations, the second mode
of buckling, with two half waves in the span, might occur at a lower load.
Displacement at midspan
M a i n g i r d e r r ot a te s ,
d i s p l a c e s u pwa r d
a n d l ate r a ll y
FIGURE 5.4.2.5 BUCKLING MODE WITH INTERMEDIATE TORSIONAL RESTRAINTS
5.5 CRITICAL FLANGE

5.5.1 General
The critical flange at any cross-section is the flange, which, in the absence of any restraint
at that section, would deflect further during buckling.
The critical flange may be determined by an elastic buckling analysis as specified in
Clause 5.6.6, or as specified in Clauses 5.5.2 and 5.5.3.
5.5.2 Segments with both ends restrained
The critical flange at any section of a segment restrained at both ends shall be the
compression flange.
5.5.3 Segments with one end unrestrained
When gravity loads are dominant, the critical flange of a segment with one end unrestrained
shall be the top flange.
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5.6 MEMBER CAPACITY OF SEGMENTS WITHOUT FULL LATERAL

RESTRAINT
5.6.1 Segments fully or partially restrained at both ends
5.6.1.1 Open sections with equal flanges
For open sections with equal flanges, the following shall be considered:
(a) Segments of constant cross-section The nominal member moment capacity (Mb)
M b = α mα s M s  M s . . . 5.6.1.1(1)
where
α m = moment modification factor for bending
αs = slenderness reduction factor
Ms = nominal section moment capacity, determined in accordance with
Clause 5.2 for the gross section
The moment modification factor (α m) shall be taken as one of the following:
(i) 1.0.
(ii) A value obtained from Table 5.6.1.
1.7 M m*
(iii) αm =  2.5 ; or . . . 5.6.1.1(2)
 M *  2   M *  2   M *  2 
 2 3 4 
where
M m* = maximum design bending moment in the segment
M 2* , M 4* = design bending moments at the quarter points of the segment
M 3* = design bending moment at the midpoint of the segment.

or
(iv) A value obtained from an elastic buckling analysis in accordance with
Clause 5.6.6, except that for sub-segments formed by intermediate lateral
restraints in segments fully or partially restrained at both ends, the sub-segment
moment distribution shall be used instead of the segment moment distribution
when using Item (ii) or Item (iii).
The slenderness reduction factor (αs) shall be determined as follows:
  M 2
  M
  
 s  0 .6   s   3   s  . . . 5.6.1.1(3)
  M oa    M oa 

in which the amended elastic buckling moment (Moa) shall be taken as either—
(A) Moa = Mo, where Mo is the reference elastic buckling moment; or
(B) the value determined from an elastic buckling analysis in accordance with
Clause 5.6.6.
The reference buckling moment (Mo) shall be determined as follows:
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  2 EI y     2 EI   
M o   2  GJ   2 w    . . . 5.6.1.1(4)
 
 le    le   
where
E, G = elastic moduli
Iy, J, Iw = section constants (see Appendix A)
le = effective length, determined in accordance with Clause 5.6.3,
Clause 5.6.4 or Clause 5.6.5
NOTE: Expressions for J and I w are given in Appendix A.
(b) Segments of varying cross-section The nominal member moment capacity (Mb) shall
be determined in accordance with Clause 5.6.1.1(a) using any of the following:
(i) The properties of the minimum cross-section.
(ii) The properties of the critical cross-section as specified in Clause 5.3.3,
provided the value of Moa, determined in accordance with Clause 5.6.1.1(a), is
reduced, before it is used in the expression for αs by multiplying it by the
reduction factor αst as follows:
αst = 1.0  [1.2rr (1  rs)] . . . 5.6.1.1(5)
where
rr = ratio
= Lr/L for stepped members . . . 5.6.1.1(6)
= 0.5 for tapered members
Lr = length of the segment over which the cross-section is reduced
L = length of the segment
rs = ratio
Afm   0.4d m 
rs = 0.6    . . . 5.6.1.1(7)
Afc   dc 
Afm, Afc = flange areas at the minimum and critical cross-sections,
respectively
d m, d c = section depths at the minimum and critical cross-
sections, respectively
(iii) The method of design by buckling analysis as specified in Clause 5.6.6.
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TABLE 5.6.1
MOMENT MODIFICATION FACTOR (α m) FOR SEGMENTS FULLY OR
PARTIALLY RESTRAINED AT BOTH ENDS
Moment
Beam segment Moment distribution modification Range
f a c to r,  m
1.75+1.0 5  m +0. 3 m 2 -1 < < 0.6

M m
M M m
m
M 2. 5 0.6 < m
< 1
Fl 2a
F F 2
1-( l )
2
2a
(
1.0+0. 3 5 1-
l
) 0 < 2a < 1
l
2a
Fl 2a 2
F 4 [ ( )]
1-
l 2
1.0+0.4 ( 2la ) 0 < 2a < 1
l
a
Fl 2
F
3 m
Fl 4 ( 1- 8
m
) 1. 3 5 + 0.15 0 < < 0.9
m m
16
l l 3 m
Fl
-1. 2 + 3.0 0.9 < < 1
2 2 16 m m
Fl Fl Fl
m F m
4 ( 1- 2
m
)
8 8 1. 3 5 + 0. 3 6 0 < < 1
l l m
Fl m m
2 2 8
wl2 2
w m
wl 2
8
(
1- m
4
) 1.13 + 0.10 0 < m
< 0.7
m
8
m wl 2 -1. 25 + 3. 5 m
0.7 < m
< 1
8
wl2 2 m
m
wl 2 w m
wl 2
8
1-( 3
) 1.13 + 0.12 m 0 < < 0.75
12 12 m
2
m wl -2. 3 8 + 4. 8 m 0.75 < m
< 1
12
M M M 1.0 0
Fl 1.75
w
wl2
3.50
2
N OT E: f u l l o r p a r ti a l r e s t r a i n t
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5.6.1.2 I-sections with unequal flanges

The nominal member moment capacity (Mb) shall be determined in accordance with
Clause 5.6.1.1(a), except that the reference buckling moment (Mo) shall be determined by
using either of the following:
  2 EI y      2 EI w    x  EI y
2
    2 EI y  
(a) Mo   2
 L     
GJ  2

  2    x  2   . . . 5.6.1.2(1)
 e     Le   4 Le   2  Le  
(b) The method of design by buckling analysis, as specified in Clause 5.6.6.

The monosymmetry section constant (x) shall be determined using either of the following:
 2 I cy  
(i)  x  0.8d f    1 . . . 5.6.1.2(2)
 I y  
 
where
Icy = second moment of area of the compression flange about the section
principal y-axis
 x 
1
(ii) x  2
y  y 3 dA  2 y o . . . 5.6.1.2(3)
Ix
where yo is the coordinate of the shear centre and x and y are the major and minor axis
coordinates.
NOTE: The values of  x are positive when the larger flange is in compression, and negative when
the smaller flange is in compression.
5.6.1.3 Angle sections
The nominal member moment capacity (Mb) of an angle section shall be determined in
accordance with Clause 5.6.1.1(a), using Iw = 0.
5.6.1.4 Hollow sections
The nominal member moment capacity (Mb) of a rectangular hollow section shall be
determined in accordance with Clause 5.6.1.1(a), using Iw = 0.
5.6.2 Segments unrestrained at one end
The nominal member moment capacity (Mb) of a segment unrestrained at one end and at the
other end both—
(a) fully or partially restrained; and
(b) laterally continuous or restrained against lateral rotation, shall be determined using
either—
(i) the provisions of Clause 5.6.1.1(a) with Moa equal to the appropriate value of
Mo and the appropriate value of α m given in Table 5.6.2; or
(ii) Mb = αsMs  Ms, where the slenderness reduction factor (αs) shall be determined
as follows:
  2
  M 
  Ms  
 s  0.6    3   s  . . . 5.6.2
  M ob    M ob 
 
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where the nominal section moment capacity (Ms) shall be determined in accordance
with Clause 5.2 for the gross section, and the elastic buckling moment ( Mob) shall be
determined by an elastic buckling analysis in accordance with Clause 5.6.6.
TABLE 5.6.2
MOMENT MODIFICATION FACTORS (α m) FOR SEGMENTS
UNRESTRAINED AT ONE END
M o m e n t m o d i f i c a ti o n
Member segment M o m e nt d i s t r i b u ti o n
fa c to r, m
M M M 0. 25
Fl 1. 25
w
wl 2
2. 25
2
N OT E: Fu ll o r p a r ti a l r e s tr a i nt
5.6.3 Effective length for beams restrained by U-frames

When determining the nominal moment capacity of the steel beam ( Mb) in accordance with
Clause 5.6, the effective length (Le) shall be taken as follows:
Le = 2.5k1(EIcLuΔu)0.25  Lu . . . 5.6.3(1)
where
k1 = U-frame restraint effective length factor
The value may be taken as 1.0. This is conservative where the compression
flange is restrained against rotation in plan at the supports
Ic = second moment of area of the compression flange about its centroidal axis
parallel to the web of the beam at the point of maximum bending moment
Lu = longitudinal spacing of U-frames
Δu = lateral deflection that would occur, in the U-frame, at the level of the centroid
of the flange being considered, when a unit force acts laterally to the U-frame
only at this point on the other flange or flanges connecting to the same U-
frame
The direction of each unit force shall be such as to produce the maximum
aggregate value of Δu.
The U-frame shall be taken as fixed in position at each point of intersection of
deck and web, and as free and unconnected at all other points
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In cases of symmetrical U-frames, where cross-members and verticals are each of constant
moment of inertia throughout their own length, it may be assumed that—
d13 ubd 22
u    fd 22 . . . 5.6.3(2)
3EI1 EI 2
where
d1 = distance from the centroid of the compression flange to the nearer face of the
cross-member of the U-frame [see Figure 5.6.3(a)]
I1 = second moment of area of the effective section of the vertical about its axis of
bending
A width of web plate of up to 16 times the web thickness may be included on
each side of the centre-line of its connection when determining the effective
section of the vertical
u = a factor
= 0.5 for an outer beam
= 0.33 for an inner beam, if there are three or more beams interconnected by
U-frames
b = distance between centres of adjacent beams, or the maximum distance when
the beams are not exactly parallel
d2 = distance from the centroid of the compression flange to the centroidal axis of
the cross-member of the U-frame [see Figure 5.6.3(a)]
I2 = second moment of area of the cross-member of the U-frame about an axis
perpendicular to the plane of the U-frame
A width of deck on either side of the U-frame equal to b/8 or Lu/2, whichever
is less, may be taken as the effective cross-member when no other discrete
member is present, or may be taken together with a cross-member if
structurally connected to it. In calculating the transformed area of a concrete
deck, the gross area of concrete within the effective width may be considered
f = flexibility of the joint between the cross-member and the verticals of the
U-frame, expressed in radians per unit moment. The value f may be taken as—
(a) 0.5  1010 rad/Nmm, when the cross-member is bolted or riveted through
unstiffened end plates or cleats
(b) 0.2  1010 rad/Nmm, when the cross-member is bolted or riveted through
stiffened end plates; or
(c) 0.1  1010 rad/Nmm, when the cross-member is welded right around its
cross-section, or the connection is by bolting or riveting between stiffened
end plates on the cross-member and a stiffened part of the vertical
The U-frames shall be designed in accordance with Clause 8.4.6.
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Compression
f l a n g e of b e a m
b b
d1
d2 d1 d2
S t r u c tu r a l c o n n e c ti o n
b e t we e n we b a n d d e c k
(a) M a i n b e a m s r e s tr a i n e d by U -f r a m e s ( b) M a i n b e a m s c o n ti n u o u s l y r e s t r a i n e d by d e c k
FIGURE 5.6.3 RESTRAINT OF COMPRESSION FLANGE BY U-FRAMES OR DECK
5.6.4 Effective length for beams continuously restrained by a deck not at compression
flange level
When determining the beam moment capacity of the beam in accordance with Clause 5.6,
the effective length (Le) shall be taken as follows:
Le = 2.5k1(EIcΔu)0.25 . . . 5.6.4(1)
where
Δu = lateral deflection that would occur in an effective U-frame, at the level of the
centroid of the flange being considered when a unit force acts laterally to the
effective U-frame only at this point, and simultaneously at each corresponding
point on the other flange or flanges connecting to the same effective U-frame
The direction of each unit force shall be such as to produce the maximum
aggregate value of Δu. The effective U-frame shall be taken as fixed in
position at each point of intersection of deck and web, and as free and
unconnected at all other points
In cases where the deck and webs of the beam are of constant thickness throughout the
span, and the beam is of constant depth, it may be assumed that—
d13 ubd 22
u   . . . 5.6.4(2)
3EI1 EI 2
where
d1 = distance from the centroid of the compression flange to the nearest surface of
the structural deck [see Figure 5.6.3(b)]
I1 = second moment of area of the web to the beam
= t w3 . . . 5.6.4(3)
12
tw = thickness of the web to the beam
d2 = distance from the centroid of the compression flange to the centroidal axis of
the structural deck [see Figure 5.6.3(b)]
I2 = second moment of area of the deck per unit length, about its axis of bending,
with the gross concrete area being transformed in terms of steel
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The deck restraint and its connection details shall be designed in accordance with
Clause 8.4.6.
5.6.5 Effective length
The effective length (Le) of a segment or sub-segment shall be determined as follows:
Le = kt kL kr L . . . 5.6.5
where
kt = twist restraint factor given in Table 5.6.5(A)
kL = load height effective length factor given in Table 5.6.5(B)
kr = lateral rotation restraint factor given in Table 5.6.5(C)
and the length (L) shall be taken as either—
(a) the segment length, for segments without intermediate restraints, or for segments
unrestrained at one end, with or without intermediate lateral restraints; or
(b) the sub-segment length for sub-segments formed by intermediate lateral restraints, as
specified in Clause 5.4.2.4, in a segment that is fully or partially restrained at both
ends.
The lateral rotation restraint factor (kr) shall be taken as less than unity when effective
rotational restraints, complying with Clause 8.4.5, act at one or both ends of a segment that
is fully or partially restrained at both ends. The lateral rotation restraint factor shall be
taken as unity for all segments that are unrestrained at one end.
TABLE 5.6.5(A)
TWIST RESTRAINT FACTORS (k t)
Restraint arrangement kt
FF, FL, LL, FU 1.0
FP, PL, PU  d  t 
3

 1  f  
 L  2t w  
1  
nw
PP  d  t 
3

 2 1  f  
   L  2t w   
1  

 nw 
 
 
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TABLE 5.6.5(B)
LOAD HEIGHT FACTORS (k L) FOR GRAVITY LOADS
Longitudinal position Load height position

Restraint arrangement
of the load Shear centre Top flange
FF, FP, FL, PP, PL, LL 1.0 1.4
Within segment
FU, PU 1.0 2.0
FF, FP, FL, PP, PL, LL 1.0 1.0
At segment end
FU, PU 1.0 2.0
TABLE 5.6.5(C)
LATERAL ROTATION RESTRAINT FACTORS (k r)
Restraint arrangement Ends with lateral rotation kr
restraints (see Clause 8.4.5)
FU, PU Any 1.0
FF, FP, FL, PP, PL, LL None 1.0
FF, FP, PP One 0.85
FF, FP, PP Both 0.70
NOTE: A more accurate value of k r , allowing for the degree of restraint in plan, may
be obtained from Figure 5.6.5.
LEGEND to TABLES 5.6.5(A), 5.6.5(B) and 5.6.5(C),

d1 = clear depth between flanges, ignoring fillets or welds
tf = thickness of critical flange
tw = thickness of web(s)
nw = number of webs
F = fully restrained
L = laterally restrained
P = partially restrained
U = unrestrained,
and two of the symbols F, L, P, U are used to indicate the conditions at the two ends. For F,
L, P and U restraint requirements, see Clause 5.4.2.
5.6.6 Design by buckling analysis
When a member is designed in accordance with this Clause, the elastic buckling bending
moment (Mob) at the most critical section of the member shall be determined by using the
results of an elastic flexural-torsional buckling analysis. This analysis shall take proper
account of the member support, restraint, and loading conditions.
The value of Moa to be used in Clause 5.6.1.1(a) shall be taken as follows:
M ob
M oa  . . . 5.6.6(1)
m
The moment modification factor (α m) shall be determined by using either—
(a) Clause 5.6.1.1(a); or . . . 5.6.6(2)
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M os
(b) m  . . . 5.6.6(2)
M oo
where
Mos = elastic buckling moment for a segment, fully restrained at both ends, which is
unrestrained against lateral rotation and loaded at the shear centre
Moo = reference elastic buckling moment specified in Clause 5.6.1.1(a) or
Clause 5.6.1.2 as appropriate, with Le = L
5.7 BENDING IN A NON-PRINCIPAL PLANE

5.7.1 Deflections constrained to a non-principal plane
When the deflection of a member is constrained to a non-principal plane by continuous
lateral restraints that prevent lateral deflection, the forces exerted by the restraints shall be
determined, and the principal axis bending moments acting on the member shall be
calculated from these forces and the applied forces by a rational analysis.
The calculated principal axis bending moments shall satisfy Clause 11.3.4.
5.7.2 Deflections unconstrained
When the deflections of a member loaded in a non-principal plane are unconstrained, the
principal axis bending moments shall be calculated by a rational analysis.
The calculated principal axis bending moments shall satisfy Clauses 11.3.4 and 11.4.4.
5.8 DESIGN OF WEBS

5.8.1 General
This Clause applies to beam webs with no more than two longitudinal stiffeners. Where
webs have more than two sets of longitudinal stiffeners the design shall comply with the
requirements of Clause 7.4.
The geometry and arrangement of beam webs, including any transverse or longitudinal
stiffeners, shall satisfy Clause 5.9.
A web subject to shear force shall satisfy Clause 5.10.
A web subject to shear force and bending moment shall satisfy Clause 5.11.
A web subject to bearing load shall satisfy Clause 5.12.
Loadbearing stiffeners and end posts shall satisfy Clause 5.13.
Intermediate transverse stiffeners shall satisfy Clause 5.14.
Longitudinal stiffeners shall satisfy Clause 5.15.
5.8.2 Definition of web panel
A web panel of thickness (tw) shall be considered to extend over an unstiffened area of a
web plate with longitudinal dimension (s) and clear transverse dimension (dp). The web
panel may be bounded by flanges, transverse or longitudinal stiffeners, or free edges.
5.8.3 Minimum thickness of web panel
Unless a rational analysis would warrant a lesser value, the thickness of a web panel shall
satisfy Clauses 5.9.1, 5.9.3 and 5.9.4.
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5.9 ARRANGEMENT OF WEBS

5.9.1 Unstiffened webs
The thickness of an unstiffened web bounded on both longitudinal sides by flanges shall be
not less than—
 d1  f y
 
 180  250
where d1 is the clear depth of the web between flanges, ignoring fillets or welds.
The thickness of an unstiffened web bounded on one longitudinal side by a free edge shall
be not less than—
 d1  f y
 
 90  250
where d1 is the clear depth of the web, ignoring fillets or welds.
5.9.2 Loadbearing stiffeners
Loadbearing stiffeners shall be provided where the design compressive bearing forces
applied through a flange by loads or reactions exceed the design bearing capacity (R b) of
the web alone specified in Clause 5.12.2, or when required to form an end post as specified
in Clause 5.14.9.
5.9.3 Transversely stiffened webs
The thickness of a web transversely stiffened but without longitudinal stiffeners shall be not
less than—
 d1  f y
(a)   when 1.0  s/d1  3.0;
 200  250
 s  fy
(b)   when 0.74  s/d1  1.0; or
 200  250
 d1  f y
(c)   when s/d1  0.74.
 270  250
All web lengths for which s/dp > 3.0 shall be considered to be unstiffened, where dp is the
greatest panel depth in the length.
5.9.4 Webs with longitudinal and transverse stiffeners
The thickness of a web with a set of longitudinal stiffeners placed on one or both sides of
the web at a distance 0.2d2 from the compression flange shall be not less than—
 d1  f y
(a)   when 1.0  s/d1  2.4;
 250  250
 s  fy
(b)   when 0.74  s/d1  1.0; or
 250  250
 d1  f y
(c)   when s/d1  0.74.
 340  250
where d2 is twice the clear distance from the neutral axis to the compression flange.
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The thickness of a web with an additional set of longitudinal stiffeners placed on one or
both sides of the web at the neutral axis shall be not less than—
 d1  f y
  when s/d1  1.5.
 400  250
5.9.5 Openings in webs
Except for a castellated member, an opening in a web may be unstiffened, provided the
greatest internal dimension of the opening (Lw) satisfies either—
(a) Lw/d1  0.10 for webs without longitudinal stiffeners; or
(b) Lw/d1  0.33 for longitudinally stiffened webs,
provided that the longitudinal distance between boundaries of adjacent openings is at least
three times the greatest internal dimension of the opening.
In addition, not more than one unstiffened opening shall be provided at any cross-section
unless a rational analysis shows that stiffeners are not necessary.
The design of a castellated member or a member with stiffened openings shall be based on a
rational analysis.
5.10 SHEAR CAPACITY OF WEBS

5.10.1 Shear capacity
A web subject to a design shear force (V*) at the cross-section shall satisfy the following:
V *  V v . . . 5.10.1
where
Vv = nominal shear capacity of the web determined in accordance with Clause 5.10.2
or Clause 5.10.3
5.10.2 Approximately uniform shear stress distribution
The nominal shear capacity of a web (Vv) where the shear stress distribution is
approximately uniform shall be taken as follows:
Vv = Vu . . . 5.10.2(1)
where Vu is the nominal shear capacity of a web with a uniform shear stress distribution and
shall be determined as follows:
(a) When the maximum web panel depth to thickness ratio (dp/tw) satisfies the following:
dp 82

tw fy . . . 5.10.2(2)
250
the nominal shear capacity of the web (Vu) shall be taken as follows:
Vu = Vw . . . 5.10.2(3)
where the nominal shear yield capacity of the web (Vw) is specified in Clause 5.10.4.
(b) When the maximum web panel depth to thickness ratio (dp/tw) satisfies the following:
dp 82

tw fy . . . 5.10.2(4)
250
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the nominal shear capacity of the web (Vu) shall be taken as follows:
Vu = Vb . . . 5.10.2(5)
where the nominal shear buckling capacity of the web (Vb) is specified in
Clause 5.10.5.
5.10.3 Non-uniform shear stress distribution
The nominal shear capacity of a web (Vv) with a non-uniform shear stress distribution, such
as in a member with unequal flanges, varying web thickness or holes not used for fasteners,
2Vu
Vv   Vu
 f*  . . . 5.10.3
0.9   vm *


 f va 
where
Vu = nominal shear capacity of a web with a uniform shear stress distribution
determined in accordance with Clause 5.10.2
*
f vm , f va* = maximum and average design shear stresses in the web determined by a
rational elastic analysis
For a circular hollow section, Vv shall be taken as the nominal shear yield capacity (Vw)
specified in Clause 5.10.4.
5.10.4 Shear yield capacity
The nominal shear yield capacity (Vw) of a web shall be calculated as follows:
Vw = 0.6fyAw . . . 5.10.4(1)
where Aw is the gross sectional area of the web.
The nominal shear yield capacity (Vw) of a circular hollow section shall be calculated as
follows:
Vw = 0.36fyAe . . . 5.10.4(2)
where the effective area of the cross-section (Ae) shall be taken as the gross area of the
circular hollow section provided that either there are no holes larger than those required for
fasteners, or that the net area is greater than 0.9 times the gross area, otherwise Ae shall be
taken as the net area of the cross-section.
5.10.5 Shear buckling capacity
5.10.5.1 Unstiffened web
The nominal shear buckling capacity (Vb) for an unstiffened web or a web considered to be
unstiffened, as specified in Clause 5.9.1, shall be calculated as follows:
Vb = vVw  Vw . . . 5.10.5.1(1)
where
v = shear buckling coefficient for the web
2
 
 
 82 
=   . . . 5.10.5.1(2)
  d p  f y 
  t w  250 
 
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5.10.5.2 Stiffened web

The nominal shear buckling capacity (Vb) for a stiffened web with s/dp  3.0 shall be
Vb = vdfVw  Vw . . . 5.10.5.2(1)
where
 
2
 
   
 82   0.75  s
v     2
 1.0  1.0 if 1.0   3 .0 . . . 5.10.5.2(2)
dp
  d p  f y   s  
  t w  250     
    d p  
 
2
 
   
 82   1 .0  s
v     2
 0. 75   1.0 if  1 .0 . . . 5.10.5.2(3)
dp
  d p  f y   s  
  t w  250     
    d p  
d = tension field coefficient for web shear buckling
1v
 1
2 . . . 5.10.5.2(4)
 s 
1.15 v 1  
 dp 
 
= 1.0 when required by Clause 5.14.2.2
dp = the depth of the deepest web panel
Values of the product vd are given in Table 5.10.5.2.
The flange restraint factor (f) shall be taken as either—
(a) f = 1.0; or . . . 5.10.5.2(5)
0.6
(b) f  1.6  for webs without longitudinal . . . 5.10.5.2(6)
  40bfo tf 2   stiffeners, in which bfo is the least of
1   2 
  d1 tw   all of the following:
(i) 12tf
;
f y / 250 
(ii) the distance from the mid-plane of the web to the nearer edge of the flange
(taken as zero if there is no flange outstand);
(iii) half the clear distance between the webs if there are two or more webs.
Alternatively, the flange restraint factor (f) shall be determined from a rational
buckling analysis.
NOTE: Guidance on the shear buckling capacity of a web which contains an axial load is given in
Appendix A.
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TABLE 5.10.5.2
VALUES OF αv αd
 s 
 dp  fy  

t

 250  dp 
 w 
0.3 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0 > 3.0
90 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.991 0.952 0.927 0.830
100 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.998 0.946 0.907 0.877 0.833 0.803 0.672
110 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.989 0.919 0.866 0.825 0.792 0.744 0.711 0.556
120 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.930 0.859 0.805 0.762 0.728 0.677 0.642 0.467
130 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.883 0.812 0.757 0.713 0.678 0.625 0.587 0.398
140 1.000 1.000 0.960 0.846 0.775 0.719 0.674 0.638 0.583 0.544 0.343
150 1.000 1.000 0.926 0.816 0.745 0.689 0.643 0.606 0.550 0.510 0.299
160 1.000 1.000 0.898 0.792 0.721 0.664 0.617 0.579 0.522 0.481 0.263
170 1.000 1.000 0.875 0.772 0.701 0.643 0.596 0.558 0.499 0.458 0.233
180 1.000 0.997 0.855 0.755 0.684 0.626 0.578 0.539 0.480 0.438 0.208
190 1.000 0.974 0.839 0.740 0.669 0.611 0.563 0.524 0.464 0.421 —
200 1.000 0.955 0.825 0.728 0.657 0.598 0.550 0.511 0.450 0.407 —
210 1.000 0.939 0.813 0.718 — — — — — — —

220 1.000 0.924 0.803 0.709 — — — — — — —
230 1.000 0.912 0.793 0.701 — — — — — — —
240 1.000 0.901 0.785 0.694 — — — — — — —

250 1.000 0.891 0.778 0.687 — — — — — — —
260 1.000 0.883 0.772 0.682 — — — — — — —
270 1.000 0.875 0.767 0.677 — — — — — — —
5.11 INTERACTION OF SHEAR AND BENDING

5.11.1 General
The nominal web shear capacity in the presence of bending moment (Vvm) shall be
calculated using the provisions of either Clause 5.11.2 or Clause 5.11.3.
5.11.2 Proportioning method
When the bending moment is assumed to be resisted only by the flanges and the design
bending moment (M*) satisfies—
M*  Mf . . . 5.11.2(1)
the member shall satisfy—
V*  Vvm . . . 5.11.2(2)
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where
Mf = nominal moment capacity calculated for the flanges alone and determined as
follows:
= Afmdf fy . . . 5.11.2(3)
Afm = lesser of the flange effective areas, determined in accordance with
Clause 10.2.2 for the compression flange and the lesser of Afg and 0.85Afnfu/f y
for the tension flange
Afg = gross area of the flange
Afn = net area of the flange
Vvm = nominal web shear capacity in the presence of bending moment, determined in
accordance with either Clause 5.10.2 or Clause 5.10.3
= Vv
5.11.3 Shear and bending interaction method
When the bending moment is assumed to be resisted by the whole of the cross-section, the
member shall be designed for combined bending and shear, and shall satisfy—
V*  Vvm . . . 5.11.3(1)
where
Vvm = Vv for M*  0.75Ms . . . 5.11.3(2)
  1.6 M * 
= V v 2.2   
 for 0.75 Ms < M*  Ms . . . 5.11.3(3)
   M s  
Vv = nominal shear capacity of a web in shear alone as specified in
Clause 5.10.1
Ms = nominal section moment capacity determined in accordance with
Clause 5.2
NOTE: Guidance on stiffened web panels required to resist bending moment, shear, axial and
transverse loading is given in Appendix B.
5.12 COMPRESSIVE BEARING ACTION ON THE EDGE OF A WEB

5.12.1 Dispersion of force to web
Where a force is applied to a flange either as a point load or through a stiff bearing of width
bs, it shall be considered as dispersed uniformly through the flange at a slope of 1:2.5 to the
surface of the flange, as shown in Figure 5.12.1(A), and for rectangular and square hollow
sections as shown in Figure 5.12.1(C). The stiff bearing length is that length that cannot
deform appreciably in bending. The dispersion of load to the flange shall be taken at a slope
of 1:1 through solid material, as shown in Figure 5.12.1(B).
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bs
R*
tf
2. 5 1
1 1
d2
2
b bw b bf b bw
N e u tr a l
bb
axis
b b f = b s + 5t f
d2
b bw =
2
(a) Inte r i o r fo r c e
bs
R*
tf
2. 5 1
d2 1 1
2
bo b bf b bw
N e u tr a l a x i s
bb
b b f = b s + 5t f
d2
b bw =
2
( b) En d fo r c e
FIGURE 5.12.1(A) DISPERSIONS OF FORCE THROUGH FLANGE AND WEB
1 1
1 1
bs
bs
1
1
FIGURE 5.12.1(B) STIFF BEARING LENGTH ON FLANGE
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b rex t
d d 5 = d - 2r e x t
rex t
(a) S e c ti o n
bd bs
rex t
2. 5
1
b b = b b f + 2 b bw
1
1 b b f = b b s + 5 rex t
d5
b bw b bf b bw
2 d5
b bw =
2
bb
( b) I nte r i o r fo r c e
bs
rex t
2. 5
1
b b = b b f + b bw
1
1
b b f = b s + 2. 5 r e x t
d5
b bf b bw
2 d5
b bw =
2
bb
(c) En d fo r c e
FIGURE 5.12.1(C) RECTANGULAR AND SQUARE HOLLOW SECTIONS

DISPERSION OF FORCE THROUGH FLANGE, RADIUS AND WEB
5.12.2 Bearing capacity

The design bearing force on a web (R*) shall satisfy—
R *  R b . . . 5.12.2
where
Rb = nominal bearing capacity of the web under concentrated or patch loading
Rb shall be taken as the lesser of its nominal bearing yield capacity (Rby)
specified in Clause 5.12.3, and its nominal bearing buckling capacity (Rbb)
specified in Clause 5.12.4
5.12.3 Bearing yield capacity
The nominal bearing yield capacity of a web (Rby) shall be calculated as follows:
Rby = 1.25bbftwfy . . . 5.12.3(1)
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where bbf is the width shown in Figure 5.12.1(A), except that for square and rectangular
hollow sections to AS 1163, the nominal bearing yield capacity (Rby) of both webs shall be
Rby = 2bbtfyp . . . 5.12.3(2)
where
bb = bearing width [see Figures 5.12.1(C)(b) and 5.12.1(C)(c)]
p = coefficient used to calculate the nominal bearing yield capacity (Rby) for square
and rectangular hollow sections to AS 1163.
The coefficient (p) shall be determined as follows:
(a) For interior bearing, where bd is greater than or equal to 1.5d5—
0.5 
p 
k s 

1  1   pm
2
1  kk  1    0k.25 
s 2
pm 2 . . . 5.12.3(3)
 v v 
where
bd = distance from the stiff bearing to the end of the member [see
Figure 5.12.1(C)(b)]
d5 = flat width of the web [see Figure 5.12.1(C)(a)]
pm = coefficient used to calculate p
= 1 0.5
 . . . 5.12.3(4)
ks k v
ks = ratio used to calculate p and pm

2rext
= 1 . . . 5.12.3(5)
t
kv = ratio of flat width of web (d5) to thickness (t) of section
d5
= . . . 5.12.3(6)
t
rext = outside radius of the section [see Figure 5.12.1(C)(a)]
The bearing width (bb) shall be calculated as follows:
bb = bs + 5rext + d5 . . . 5.12.3(7)
(b) For end bearing, where bd is less than 1.5 d5:
 p  2  k s2  k s . . . 5.12.3(8)
The bearing width (bb) shall be calculated as follows:

d5
bb  bs  2.5rext  . . . 5.12.3(9)
2
NOTE: Guidance on the nominal yield capacity of a stiffened web in bearing in the presence of
bending moment and axial load is given in Appendix B.
5.12.4 Bearing buckling capacity
The nominal bearing buckling capacity (Rbb) of an I-section or C-section web without
transverse stiffeners shall be taken as the axial compression capacity determined in
accordance with Section 6 using the following parameters:
(a) b = 0.5
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(b) kf = 1.0
(c) area of web = twbb
(d) geometrical slenderness ratio taken as 2.5d1/tw when the top and bottom flanges are
effectively restrained against lateral movement out of the plane of the web or 5.0d1/tw
when only one flange is effectively restrained against lateral movement
(e) bb is the total bearing width obtained by dispersions at a slope of 1:1 from bbf to the
neutral axis (if available), as shown in Figure 5.12.1(A)
The nominal bearing buckling capacity (Rbb) of a square or rectangular hollow section web
to AS/NZS 1163 without transverse stiffeners shall be taken as the axial compression
capacity determined in accordance with Section 6 using the following parameters:
(i) b = 0.5
(ii) kf = 1.0
(iii) area of web = twbb
(iv) geometrical slenderness ratio taken as 3.5d5/tw for interior bearing (bd  1.5d5) or
3.8d5/tw for end bearing (bd  1.5d5)
(v) bb is the total bearing width as shown in Figure 5.12.1(C)
5.12.5 Combined bending and bearing of rectangular and square hollow sections
Rectangular and square hollow sections to AS 1163 subjected to combined bending and
bearing force shall satisfy Clauses 5.2 and 5.12.2, together with either—
 R*   M*  b d
(a) 1.2 
  M
  1.5 for s  1.0 and 5  30; or
 . . . 5.12.5(1)
 Rb   s  b tw
 R*   M* 
(b) 0.8 
  M
  1.0 otherwise
 . . . 5.12.5(2)
 Rb   s 
where
bs = stiff bearing width
b = total length of the section
Rb = nominal bearing capacity of the web as specified in Clause 5.12.2
Ms = nominal section moment capacity determined in accordance with Clause 5.2
5.13 DESIGN OF LOADBEARING STIFFENERS

5.13.1 Yield capacity
When a loadbearing stiffener is required, it shall satisfy:
R*  Rsy . . . 5.13.1(1)
where
R* = design bearing force or design reaction at the bearing, including the effects of
any shear forces applied directly to the stiffener
Rsy = nominal yield capacity of the stiffened web
= Rby + As fys . . . 5.13.1(2)
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Rby = nominal bearing yield capacity (see Clause 5.12.3)

As = area of the stiffener in contact with the flange
fys = nominal yield stress of the stiffener
5.13.2 Buckling capacity
When a loadbearing stiffener is required, it shall satisfy—
R*  Rsb . . . 5.13.2(1)
where
Rsb = nominal buckling capacity of the stiffened web and stiffener, determined in
accordance with Section 10, using b equals 0.5 and kf equals 1.0, for a
compression member whose radius of gyration is taken about the axis parallel to
the web
The effective section of the compression member shall be taken as the area of the stiffener,
together with a length of web on each side of the centre-line not greater than—
17.5t w
; or
(a) fy
250
(b) s/2, if available.
The effective length (Le) of the compression member used in calculating the nominal
buckling capacity (Rsb) shall be determined as either—
where the flanges are restrained by other structural
(i) Le = 0.7d1 . . . 5.13.2(2)
elements against rotation in the plane of the stiffener; or
(ii) Le = d1 if either of the flanges is not so restrained . . . 5.13.2(3)
5.13.3 Outstand of stiffeners
Unless the outer edge of a flat stiffener is continuously stiffened, the stiffener outstand from
the face of a web (bes) shall satisfy—
15ts
bes  . . . 5.13.3
f ys
250
where
ts = thickness of the stiffener
fys = yield stress of the stiffener used in design
5.13.4 Fitting of loadbearing stiffeners
Loadbearing stiffeners shall be attached to the flange through which they are loaded by
welding.
Loadbearing stiffeners shall be provided with sufficient welds or bolts to transmit the entire
bearing force or design reaction at the bearing (R*) to the web.
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5.13.5 Design for torsional end restraint

When loadbearing stiffeners are the sole means of providing torsional end restraint at the
supports of a member, the second moment of area of a pair of stiffeners (Is) about the
centre-line of the web shall be such that—
   d t f R 
3 *
I s   t  *  . . . 5.13.5(1)
 1000  F 
where
s = factor for torsional end restraint
230
 0.60 and 0   t  4
=
Le / ry . . . 5.13.5(2)
tf = thickness of the critical flange, as specified in Clause 5.5

R* = design reaction at the bearing
F* = total design load on the member between supports
Le = effective length of the loadbearing stiffener, as specified in Clause 5.13.2
r y = radius of the gyration about the principal y-axis
5.13.6 Eccentricity effects
Load effects due to eccentricities arising from the following causes shall be taken into
account, when relevant:
(a) Movements of the beam relative to the bearing due to changes in temperature.
(b) Changes in the point or line of contact at the spherical or cylindrical surface of a
bearing due to slope of the beam when deflected by load.
(c) Uneven seating which may occur on a flat bearing surface.
(d) Inaccuracy which may occur in the positioning of the beam relative to the bearing.
The following values of eccentricity shall be deemed to satisfy the provisions of Items (c)
and (d):
(i) Half the width of the flat bearing surface plus 10 mm for a flat-topped rocker bearing
in contact with a flat bearing surface.
(ii) 3 mm for a radiused upper bearing resting on a flat or radiused lower part.
(iii) 10 mm for a flat upper bearing resting on a radiused lower part.
5.14 DESIGN OF INTERMEDIATE TRANSVERSE WEB STIFFENERS

5.14.1 General
Intermediate transverse web stiffeners shall extend between each flange and shall terminate
no further from a flange than four times the web thickness.
Additionally transverse stiffeners, distortion-induced fatigue, transverse connection plates
and lateral connection plates shall comply with AASHTO’s LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications.
5.14.2 Spacing
5.14.2.1 Interior panels
The spacing(s) of intermediate web stiffeners that define internal panels shall satisfy
Clause 5.9.3 or Clause 5.9.4.
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5.14.2.2 End panels

An end panel shall be provided with an end post that satisfies Clause 5.14.9, unless the
longitudinal dimensions of the end panel is reduced so that its shear buckling capacity (Vb)
calculated using d = 1.0 specified in Clause 5.10.5.2 satisfies Clauses 5.10.1 and 5.11.
5.14.3 Minimum area
An intermediate web stiffener not subject to external loads or moments shall have an area
As that satisfies—
 2 
  s  
 
*    dp  
 V  s  
As  0.5 Aw 1   v   
 
  . . . 5.14.3

 Vu   d p   s 
2 
 1   
  dp  
   
where
 = factor for transverse stiffener arrangement
= 1.0 for a pair of stiffeners
= 1.8 for a single angle stiffener
= 2.4 for a single plate stiffener
v = shear buckling coefficient for the web, determined in accordance with
Clause 5.10.5.2
5.14.4 Buckling capacity
An intermediate web stiffener shall satisfy—
V*  (Rsb + Vb) . . . 5.14.4
where
Rsb = nominal buckling capacity of the web and intermediate stiffener determined in
accordance with Clause 5.13.2
Vb = nominal shear buckling capacity specified in Clause 5.10.5.2 for a stiffened web
using f = 1.0 and d = 1.0
The effective length (Le) of the compression member used in calculating Rsb shall be taken
as the clear depth of the web.
5.14.5 Minimum stiffness
An intermediate web stiffener not subject to external loads or moments shall have a
minimum second moment of area (Is) about the centre-line of the web such that—
s
(a) I s  0.75d1t w3 for  2 ; and . . . 5.14.5(1)
d1
1.5d13t w3 s
(b) Is  2
for  2 . . . 5.14.5(2)
s d1
5.14.6 Outstand of stiffeners
The outstand of an intermediate web stiffener (bes) shall satisfy Clause 5.13.3.
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5.14.7 External forces

5.14.7.1 Increase in stiffness
Where an intermediate stiffener is used to transfer design forces normal to the web or
design moments acting normal to the web, including moments caused by any eccentric force
parallel to the web, the minimum value of Is specified in Clause 5.14.5 shall be increased
by—
 *  M *  Fp*e  
d  2 Fn  
4
 
1  d1 . . . 5.14.7.1
   
 Ed1tw
where
e = distance between the end plate and loadbearing stiffener
5.14.7.2 Increase in strength
When an intermediate stiffener is required to carry a load parallel to the plane of the web, it
shall be designed as a loadbearing stiffener in accordance with Clause 5.13.
5.14.8 Connection of intermediate stiffeners to web
The web connections of intermediate transverse stiffeners not subject to external loading
shall be designed to resist a design shear force per unit length (kN/mm), of not less than—
0.0008  tw  f ys
2
. . . 5.14.8
bes
where
tw = web thickness
bes = outstand width of the stiffener from the face of the web
5.14.9 End posts
Where an end post is required by Clause 5.14.2.2, it shall be formed by a loadbearing
stiffener and a parallel end plate. The loadbearing stiffener shall be designed in accordance
with Clause 5.13, and shall be no smaller than the end plate. The area of the end plate (Aep)
shall satisfy—
d1 V * /     vVw 
Aep  . . . 5.14.9
8ef ys
where
v = shear buckling coefficient for the web specified in Clause 5.10.5.2
Vw = nominal shear yield capacity of the web specified in Clause 5.10.4
5.15 DESIGN OF LONGITUDINAL WEB STIFFENERS

5.15.1 General
Longitudinal web stiffeners shall be continuous or shall extend between and be attached to
transverse web stiffeners.
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5.15.2 Minimum stiffness

When a longitudinal stiffener is required at a distance 0.2d2 from the compression flange, it
shall have a second moment of area (Is) about the face of the web such that—
 4 As  A 
I s  4d 2 t w3 1  1  s  . . . 5.15.2(1)
 d 2 t w  d 2t w 
where
As = area of the stiffener
d2 = twice the clear distance from the neutral axis to the compression flange
When a second longitudinal stiffener is required at the neutral axis of the section, it shall
have a second moment of area (Is) about the face of the web such that—
I s  d 2 t w3 . . . 5.15.2(2)
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SECTI ON 6 COMPOSITE BEAMS
6.1 SCOPE OF SECTION

This Section sets out requirements for bridge elements composed of steel beams or girders
and a concrete deck slab, in which resistance to shear at the interface between the slab and
the beams or girders is provided by mechanical shear connectors.
The requirements of other Parts of the AS(AS/NZS) 5100 series may apply to both steel and
composite members.
6.2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

6.2.1 Design
For composite bridge beams, the connection between the steel beam and the concrete deck
slab shall be designed to give complete shear connection. The slab shall be constructed
using normal weight concrete that conforms to AS 5100.5.
For the purposes of this Section, complete shear connection shall be taken to mean that
condition where the maximum compressive force developed in the concrete is not governed
by the shear capacity of the shear connectors.
6.2.2 Composite action
6.2.2.1 General
Steel beams, which are compact when acting compositely with the slab, may not be
compact when acting alone during construction. In such a case, the checks for the relevant
stage of loading shall be made on the basis of sections that are not compact.
Consideration shall be given to the speed and sequence of concreting the deck slab to
prevent damage occurring to partly matured concrete as a result of limited composite action
due to deformation of the steel beams under subsequent concreting operations.
The steel section shall be proportioned to support all applied loadings before the concrete
compressive strength reaches 0.75 f c' .
6.2.2.2 Compact sections
Where the cross-section is compact at the relevant stage of loading and premature failure of
the steel compression flange by lateral torsional buckling is prevented by satisfying the
requirements of Clause 5.3, composite action may be assumed to exist for the whole of the
loading at the ultimate limit state, even when unpropped construction is used, provided the
shear connectors and transverse reinforcement are designed in accordance with Clause 6.8.
6.2.2.3 Sections that are not compact
Where the cross-section is not compact, at the relevant stage of loading, the equivalent
design bending moment resistance at that stage of construction shall be determined in
accordance with Clause 4.6.3. The adequacy of the cross-section shall then be checked for
that stage of the construction in accordance with Clauses 6.6 and 6.8.
6.2.3 Steel reinforcement in concrete deck slabs
The reinforcement for the concrete deck slab of composite girders shall be designed in
accordance with AS 5100.5.
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The control of cracking due to early thermal and shrinkage effects shall be undertaken
either by a detailed assessment of the concrete using an appropriate model and taking into
consideration the construction method, structural form, local materials and environment, or
by using the following simplified method:
(a) The minimum area of reinforcement in fully restrained slabs, including cast in situ
concrete decks on concrete or steel girders, in the restrained direction shall be not less
than—
(8.0  2.5σcp)bDeff  103 . . . 6.2.3
NOTE: Reinforcement provided for structural reasons may be considered as contributing to
this requirement.
(b) The reinforcement shall be placed equally on each face of the slab and located as
close to each face as cover and detailing permit. D eff shall be taken as—
(i) D, where D is less than 500 mm; or
(ii) 500 + 0.2(D  500), where D is greater than 500 mm.
6.2.4 Permanent formwork
Formwork used for casting the concrete deck slab may be left in place provided it meets the
requirements of this Clause and may be considered either participating or non-participating.
Participating formwork may be considered in calculating the strength and stiffness of the
structure provided it is designed and detailed to act compositely with the concrete deck slab
and meets all other relevant requirements of this Standard.
Non-participating formwork shall be ignored in determining the strength and stiffness of the
structure and in determining the required cover to the permanent reinforcement. Particular
care shall be taken to ensure that the long-term durability of the permanent structure is not
adversely affected by the use of permanent formwork. The durability of the formwork shall
be appropriate to its intended application and the same as the design life of the bridge (refer
to AS 5100.1).
6.2.5 Section properties
Section properties for the composite section shall take into account the effect of shear lag in
the concrete deck slab using an effective width of flange in accordance with Clause 4.4.1.
The elastic modulus of the concrete shall be determined in accordance with Clause 4.4.3.
The cross-section of the steel beam shall be classified as either compact or not compact in
accordance with Clauses 6.2.6 and 6.2.7 using the steel section slenderness values (s )
calculated in accordance with Clause 5.1.2. In the determination of ratios rp and re in
Table 5.1.2, the composite section or steel section shall be used, as appropriate.
6.2.6 Compact composite sections
A composite cross-section for which the steel section satisfies s  sp at the relevant stage
of loading shall be considered as compact. The steel section plasticity slenderness limits sp
shall be determined from Table 5.1.2. In determining rp for the steel web, the plastic stress
distribution for the effective composite section shall be used.
In sagging moment regions, the compression flange plate elements for the steel section need
not satisfy s  sp provided—
(a) the spacing of shear connectors perpendicular to the direction of compression is not
greater than—
250
28t f ; and . . . 6.2.6(1)
f yf
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(b) the spacing of shear connectors in the direction of compression is not greater than—
250
(i) 14t f for unstaggered connector; or . . . 6.2.6(2)
f yf
250
(ii) 21t f for staggered connectors . . . 6.2.6(3)
f yf
where
tf = thickness of the compression flange plate
fyf = nominal yield stress of the flange
6.2.7 Not compact composite sections
A composite cross-section for which the steel section satisfies s > sp at the relevant stage
of loading shall be considered as not compact.
6.3 DESIGN FOR BENDING MOMENT

6.3.1 Compact composite sections
A compact composite beam bent about the section major principal axis shall satisfy both—
(a) M*  Ms; and . . . 6.3.1(1)
(b) M  Mb
*
. . . 6.3.1(2)
where
Ms = nominal section moment capacity, as specified in Clause 6.4
Mb = nominal beam moment capacity, as specified in Clause 6.5
6.3.2 Not compact composite sections
A not compact composite beam bent about the section major principal axis shall satisfy—
(a) f s*   f y ; . . . 6.3.2(1)
(b) f s*   f b ; and . . . 6.3.2(2)
(c) f c*  0.62 f c . . . 6.3.2(3)

where
f s* = summation of stresses in each steel flange, determined in accordance with
Clause 4.6 at the stage of construction under consideration
The effective elastic section modulus of the section (transformed section) shall
be based on the assumptions that the concrete deck slab that is in tension does
not contribute to the section modulus
Reinforcement within the effective width of the concrete deck slab may be
included, provided it is anchored in accordance with AS 5100.5
f c* = concrete compressive stress in regions of sagging moment
fb Mb
=  fy determined for the higher stressed steel flange . . . 6.3.2(4)
Z enc
Mb = nominal member moment capacity, as specified in Clause 6.5 using Ms
as specified in Clause 6.4.4
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Zenc = effective elastic section modulus of the section transformed to steel,

calculated at the extreme fibres of the steel section
The effective cross-section of the steel section shall be calculated in
A composite beam subjected to combined bending and shear shall satisfy Clause 5.11.3
with Mb determined in accordance with Clause 6.5 and the design bending moment (M* )
determined in accordance with Clause 4.6.3 to allow for the sequence of construction.
6.3.3 Reduction for use of high strength steel
When using high strength steel (450 < fy  690 MPa), a reduction in the moment capacity to
allow partial depth yielding of the beam shall be considered according to Figure 6.3.3 by
multiplying β by the moment capacity calculated in Clause 6.3.1.
b eff
0.8 5 ·f ´ c β
- N 1.0
dn
0.8 5
-
h Ms
fy
+ N
dn
M
fy 0.15 0.4 h
FIGURE 6.3.3 REDUCTION IN MOMENT CAPACITY FOR USE OF HIGH STRENGTH

STEEL
6.4 SECTION MOMENT CAPACITY

6.4.1 Sagging moment regions
In sagging moment regions, the steel compression flange shall be attached to the concrete
deck slab by shear connectors.
The compressive force in the concrete shall not exceed the longitudinal shear force that can
be transferred by the shear connection between the steel beam and the concrete deck slab at
the strength limit state.
6.4.2 Hogging moment regions
In hogging moment regions, the nominal section moment capacity of the composite section
shall be the nominal section moment capacity of the steel section alone except that, when
sufficient shear connectors are placed in the hogging moment region, suitably anchored
concrete deck slab reinforcement parallel to the steel section within the design effective
width of the concrete deck slab may be included in computing the properties of the
composite section.
The nominal section moment capacity (Ms) of a compact cross-section in sagging or
hogging bending shall be determined as follows:
Ms = Mp . . . 6.4.3
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where
Mp = nominal section moment capacity,
Mp shall be determined by simple plastic theory using the following
assumptions:
(a) Plane cross-sections of structural steel and of concrete each remain plane.
(b) The effective section of the composite beam replaces an effective width of
the concrete compression flange, determined in accordance with
Clause 4.4.1.
6.4.4 Sections that are not compact
The nominal section moment capacity (Ms) of a cross-section that is not compact shall be
Ms = fyZenc . . . 6.4.4
Ms shall be calculated for both steel flanges and the smaller value taken.
6.5 BEAM MOMENT CAPACITY

6.5.1 Beams continuously restrained by deck at compression flange level
When restraint to the steel compression flange is provided by a deck slab connected to the
flange over the length of the beam in accordance with Clause 8.4.7.1, the nominal beam
moment capacity (Mb ) shall be taken as follows:
Mb = Ms . . . 6.5.1
where
Ms = nominal section moment capacity of the critical section determined in
accordance with Clause 6.4
6.5.2 Beams continuously restrained by deck not at compression flange level
6.5.2.1 Lateral torsional buckling
When restraint to the steel compression flange is provided by a deck slab connected to an
unstiffened web, either directly or via the tension flange over the length of the beam in
accordance with Clause 8.4.7.2, the nominal beam moment capacity (Mb ) shall be taken as
follows:
Z 
M b  M bs  ec  . . . 6.5.2.1
 Z es 
where
Mbs = beam moment capacity (Mb ) of the steel beam alone, determined in accordance
with Clause 5.6 with an effective length (Le) as specified in Clause 5.6.4
Zec = effective section modulus of the transformed composite section. For compact
sections Zec equals Zp
Zes = effective section modulus of the steel section alone
6.5.2.2 Lateral distortional buckling
For the support regions of continuous composite beams where the deck is connected to the
tension flange of the steel beam, the nominal beam capacity (Mb ) shall be taken as follows:
Z 
M b  M ds  ec   M s . . . 6.5.2.2(1)
 Z es 
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where
Mds = nominal moment capacity of the steel section
The nominal moment capacity (Mds) of the steel section allowing for the interaction
between plasticity and elastic lateral distortional buckling shall be calculated as follows:
Mds = d Mss  Mss . . . 6.5.2.2(2)
where
d = distortional buckling reduction factor
Mss = nominal section moment capacity of the steel section in the support region
determined in accordance with Clause 5.2
Ms = nominal section moment capacity of the composite section determined in
The distortional buckling reduction factor (d ) shall be determined as follows:
 d  0.8 4d  3  2d  . . . 6.5.2.2(3)

 
where
d = non-dimensional slenderness for elastic distortional buckling
M ss
= . . . 6.5.2.2(4)
M od
Mod = elastic lateral distortional buckling moment

Mod may be determined by using the results of an elastic lateral distortional buckling
analysis taking proper account of member support, restraint, boundary and loading
conditions.
Alternatively, d may be calculated directly from the following:
1 1
L  2  dw 3
d  0.018 b     0.4 . . . 6.5.2.2(5)
 ry   tw
   
where
Lb = span length of the beam between vertical supports, where the bottom flange is
restrained laterally
r y = radius of gyration of the compression flange about the minor principal y-axis
(web) of the steel section
dw = depth of the steel web
tw = thickness of the steel web
6.6 VERTICAL SHEAR CAPACITY

The vertical shear capacity of a composite section shall be assumed to be resisted by the
steel section alone, and determined in accordance with Clauses 5.8 to 5.11.
6.7 INTERACTION OF SHEAR AND BENDING

A composite beam subjected to combined bending and shear shall satisfy Clause 5.11.3
with Mb determined in accordance with Clause 6.5 and the design bending moment (M* )
determined in accordance with Clause 4.6.3 to allow for the sequence of construction.
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6.8 LONGITUDINAL SHEAR

6.8.1 General
Shear connection and transverse reinforcement shall be provided throughout the length of
the beam to transmit the longitudinal shear force and separation force between the concrete
deck slab and the steel beam, ignoring the effect of bond between the two.
Shear connectors shall be designed to satisfy the serviceability limit state in accordance
with Clauses 6.8.3.2 and 6.8.3.4. The design of the connectors for fatigue shall be in
accordance with Section 13 together with the requirements of Clause 6.8.3.4, as
appropriate.
Except as specified in Clauses 6.8.3.3 and 6.8.3.4, no check on the static capacity of the
shear connectors need be made at the strength limit state.
The transverse reinforcement for resisting longitudinal shear shall be designed as specified
in Clause 6.8.5 using loads factored for the ultimate limit state.
Longitudinal shear force per unit length of the composite beam ( v L* ) shall be determined in
6.8.2 Detailing of shear connection
The shear connectors connecting the steel and concrete sections of a composite girder shall
satisfy the following:
(a) The surface of a connector that resists separation forces, that is, the underside of the
head of a stud or outer top flange of a channel shall extend not less than 40 mm clear
above the bottom transverse reinforcement, nor less than 4 mm into the compression
zone of the concrete flange in regions of positive longitudinal moments.
Alternatively, where a concrete haunch is used between the steel girders and the soffit
of the slab, the surface of the connector that resists separation forces may be placed
not less than 40 mm above the reinforcement in the haunches provided this
reinforcement is sufficient to satisfy the requirements for the transfer of longitudinal
shear specified in Clause 6.8.5.
(b) Where concrete haunches are used between the steel flange and the soffit of the
concrete deck slab, the sides of the haunch shall lie outside a line drawn at 45° from
the outside edge of the base of the connectors.
(c) The clear depth of concrete cover over the tops of the shear connectors shall be not
less than 50 mm. The horizontal clear concrete cover to any shear connector shall be
not less than 60 mm.
(d) Where the shear connection is adjacent to a longitudinal edge of a concrete deck slab,
transverse reinforcement provided in accordance with Clause 6.8.5 shall be fully
anchored in the concrete between the edge of the slab and the adjacent row of
connectors.
(e) The detailing of shear connectors shall be such that concrete can be adequately
compacted around the base of the connector.
(f) At the end of a cantilever, in a cantilever and suspended span structure, sufficient
transverse and longitudinal reinforcement shall be positioned adjacent to the free edge
of the concrete deck slab to transfer the longitudinal shear connector loads back into
the slab.
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(g) The longitudinal spacing of the connectors shall be not greater than 600 mm or three
times the thickness of the slab, or four times the height of the connector, whichever is
the least. Alternatively, connectors may be placed in groups, with the group spacing
greater than that specified for individual connectors, provided consideration is given
in design to the non-uniform flow of longitudinal shear and of the greater possibility
of slip and vertical separation between the slab and the steel member.
(h) The minimum pitch of stud shear connectors in any direction shall be 75 mm. The
pitch of stud shear connectors along a flange shall be not less than 5 times the shank
diameter, and not less than the height of the stud shear connectors.
(i) The clear distance between the edge of a girder flange and the edge of the shear
connectors shall be not less than 25 mm.
(j) The diameter of a stud connector welded to a flange plate subject to tensile stresses
shall be not greater than 1.5 times the thickness of the plate. Where a plate is not
subject to tensile stresses, the diameter of stud connectors shall be not greater than
twice the plate thickness. The height of stud connectors shall be not less than four
times their diameter.
(k) The leg length of the weld joining other types of connectors to the flange plate shall
be not greater than half the thickness of the flange plate. The design and execution of
welding for the shear connectors shall be in accordance with Clause 12.6 and
AS/NZS 1554.1.
(l) The spacing of bottom reinforcing bars designed in accordance with Clause 6.8.5
shall be less than four times the vertical projection of the connectors above the
bottom transverse reinforcement.
(m) The longitudinal spacing of channels shall provide at least 100 mm clear space
between the adjacent edges of the channels.
(n) Where shear connectors are used to make sections act as compact sections,
Clause 6.4.1 shall apply.
(o) The same type of shear connectors shall be used along the entire length of the
composite girder.
6.8.3 Design of shear connectors
6.8.3.1 General
The nominal static shear strengths of stud, channel and bolt connectors shall be in
6.8.3.2 Design for longitudinal shear
The total design longitudinal shear force per unit length ( v L* ) at the serviceability limit state
shall satisfy the following:
vL*   vLs . . . 6.8.3.2(1)
where
vLs = permissible longitudinal shear design force per unit length at the serviceability
limit state
= 0.55nfks . . . 6.8.3.2(2)
n = number of shear connectors per unit length
fks = characteristic shear capacity of the connector specified in Clause 6.8.4.4
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The size and spacing of the shear connectors at the end of each span shall be maintained for
at least 10% of the length of each span.
Elsewhere, the size and spacing of the connectors may be kept constant over any length
where the total design longitudinal shear force per unit length ( v L* ) shall be not greater than
the shear capacity (vLs) by more than 10%. Over every such length, the total design
longitudinal shear force shall be not greater than the product of the number of connectors
and the design static strength (fks) per connector.
6.8.3.3 Design in areas of negative moment
The total horizontal shear ( Fh* ) to be resisted by shear connectors between the point of
maximum negative bending moment and the adjacent point of zero moment, at the
serviceability limit state, shall be taken as the larger of the following:
(a) Fh*  0.55 Ars f sy . . . 6.8.3.3
where
Ars = area of slab reinforcement within the effective width of the slab
fsy = nominal yield stress of tensile reinforcement
(b) The total horizontal shear force determined on the assumption that the concrete is
uncracked in the negative bending moment area.
6.8.3.4 Design for longitudinal shear and tension
Where the shear connectors are subject to significant calculable direct tension due either
to—
(a) forces tending to separate the slab from a girder; or
(b) transverse moments on a group of connectors resulting from transverse bending of the
slab, particularly in the region of diaphragms or transverse cross-bracing,
then additional ties, suitably anchored, shall be provided to resist these forces.
Where headed stud connectors are subject to both tension and shear, the following apply:
(i) If N u*  0.1f ks , the tensile force shall be neglected.
(ii) If N u*  0.1f ks , the following interaction between the design shear and design tension
shall be satisfied:
5 5
 N u*  3
 *  3
   L   1.0 . . . 6.8.3.4
 0.85 f ks    f ks 
where
n = number of shear connectors per unit length
fks = characteristic shear capacity of the connector specified in Clause 6.8.4
N u* = design axial tension on the shear stud at the strength limit state
 L* = design shear force on the shear stud at the strength limit state
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6.8.4 Strength of shear connectors

6.8.4.1 Types
Shear connectors shall be limited to one or more of the following types (see also
Figure 6.8.4.1):
(a) Headed studs.
(b) High-strength structural bolts of strength grade designation 8.8.
(c) Channels.
The mechanical properties and geometry of each type of shear connector shall comply with
the requirements of Section 2 and Clause 6.8.4.2 respectively.
H ead d i am eter
H e ad h e i g ht
G r ad e 8 . 8 b o l t
O ver a l l h e i g ht
(af ter at t ac h m e nt)
O ver a l l h e i g ht m in. 5 x b o lt Ø
(af ter we l d in g) Shank d i ameter d b s
m in. 4 d b s We l d
S te e l b e a m
flang e
Steel beam flang e
(a) H e ad e d s t u d s (b) H i g h - s t r e n g t h s t r u c tu r a l b o l t s
Le n g t h (L)
Par a l l e l f l a n g e
c ha n n e l
5 m m fill et
we l d s S te e l b e a m
(c) Channel shear c o nne c tor s
FIGURE 6.8.4.1 SHEAR CONNECTOR TYPES
6.8.4.2 Mechanical properties

The mechanical properties of the shear connectors shall satisfy the following:
(a) Headed studs The mechanical properties of headed studs shall be in accordance with
AS 1554.2 for shear connectors.
(b) High-strength structural bolts High-strength structural bolts shall be strength grade
designation 8.8, conforming with AS/NZS 1252.
(c) Channels Channel used as shear connectors shall have a yield stress greater than or
equal to 260 MPa.
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6.8.4.3 Geometry
The geometry of the shear connectors shall satisfy the following:
(a) Headed studs Standard-type headed studs shall have nominal shank diameters of
15.9, 19.0 or 22.2, and shall comply with the dimensions and tolerances specified in
AS 1554.2. The minimum size of the fillet welds to the steel beams shall be 8 for 15.9
and 19.00 studs, and 10 for 22.2 studs, and welding shall be in accordance with
AS 1554.2.
The minimum overall height of studs after welding, measured from the top of the stud
to the top surface of the steel beam, shall be 4.0 times the nominal shank diameter
(dbs) (see Figure 6.8.4.1).
(b) High-strength structural bolts High-strength structural bolts shall be fitted with one
nut above and one nut below the top flange of the steel beam. After tightening, at
least one clear thread shall show above the top nut and at least one thread plus the
thread run-on shall show below the bottom nut. The overall height of the bolts,
measured between the top of the bolt head and the top surface of the flange of the
steel beam, shall be not less than 5 times the nominal bolt diameter (see
Figure 6.8.4.1). Tapered washers shall be provided for tapered flanged sections.
6.8.4.4 Characteristic shear capacity of shear connectors
The characteristic shear capacity (fks) of a welded headed stud or a high strength structural
bolt shall be determined as the lesser value from the following equations:
(a) f ks   shear d bs2 f uc ; or . . . 6.8.4.4(1)
(b) f ks  0.29d bs2 f cy Ec . . . 6.8.4.4(2)
where
dbs = nominal shank diameter of a shear stud, where 15.9  dbs  25 mm
fuc = ultimate tensile strength of the shear connector material, not to exceed
500 MPa when substituted into Equations 6.8.4.4(1)
f cy = characteristic strength of the concrete at the age being considered, but not
greater than f c or f cy = 100 MPa
Ec = elastic modulus of slab concrete corresponding to the relevant value of fcmi

=  1.5 0.043 f cmi for fcmi  40 MPa and
 
 1.5 0.024 f cmi  0.12 for fcmi > 40 MPa
ρ = density of concrete, which shall be either—

(a) taken as not less than 2400 kg/m3 for normal weight concrete; or
(b) determined by test in accordance with AS 1012.12.1 or AS 1012.12.2
fcmi = mean value of the in situ compressive strength of the concrete at the age
being considered and given in AS 5100.5
shear = 0.70 for headed stud connectors welded in accordance with Clause 2.6
= 0.50 for high strength structural bolts with threads included in the shear plane
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6.8.4.5 Characteristic shear capacity of channel shear connectors

The characteristic shear capacity (fks) of channel shear connector shall be determined as
follows:
fks = 33.1 tf  0.5tw  Lsc f cy . . . 6.8.4.5
where
tf = average flange thickness of the channel shear connector
tw = web thickness of the channel shear connector
Lsc = length of the channel connector shear connector
6.8.4.6 Design shear capacity
The design shear capacity (fds) of a shear connector shall be calculated as follows:
fds = fks . . . 6.8.4.6
where
6.8.5 Design of transverse reinforcement
6.8.5.1 General
In the design of transverse reinforcement, only reinforcement perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the steel beam and which is fully anchored in accordance with
AS 5100.5 on both sides of a possible plane of longitudinal shear failure (shear plane) shall
be included in the design.
NOTE: A minimum amount of longitudinal reinforcement should also be provided, as specified in
Clause 6.2.3.
The size and spacing of the transverse reinforcement at the end of each span shall be
maintained for not less than 10% of the length of each span. Elsewhere, the size and
spacing of the transverse reinforcement may be kept constant over any length where the
maximum shear force per unit length does not exceed the shear capacity by more than 10%.
Consideration shall be given to the difference between the meaning of the symbols v L* and
*
vLp —
v L* = design longitudinal shear force per unit length of the composite beam at the
steel and concrete interface, determined in accordance with Clause 4.8
* = design longitudinal shear force per unit length of the beam on the particular
vLp
shear plane considered. It may be equal to or different from vL* depending on
the location of the shear plane
6.8.5.2 Design for longitudinal shear
6.8.5.2.1 General
*
The total design longitudinal shear force per unit length ( vLp ) at the ultimate limit state on
any shear plane through the concrete shall satisfy the following requirements:
*
v Lp   u
where
 u    Ats f sy  kco f ct Atc  . . . 6.8.5.2.1
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 lesser of 0.2 f cAtc and 10Atc

where
u = longitudinal shear strength on the surface considered
µ = coefficient of friction given in Table 6.8.5.2.1
kco = cohesion coefficient given in Table 6.8.5.2.1
Ats = effective cross-sectional area of the transverse reinforcement per unit length of
beam, which is fully anchored in accordance with AS 5100.5, and crosses a
shear plane in Figure 6.8.5.2.1 that is assumed to resist shear failure along that
plane
Atc = cross-sectional area of the transverse reinforcement per unit length of beam of
the concrete shear surface under consideration
fsy = yield strength of transverse reinforcement, crossing not exceeding 500 MPa
f ct = characteristic uniaxial tensile strength of concrete and may be taken to be
f ct  0.36 f c at 28 days and standard curing
Where concrete haunches are used, not less than half the reinforcement required to satisfy
Equation 6.8.5.2.1 in respect of shear planes through the haunch (Planes 3-3 and 4-4 shown
in Figure 6.8.5.2.1 shall be placed in the bottom of the slab or haunch at a clear distance not
greater than 50 mm from the nearest surface of the steel beam.
TABLE 6.8.5.2.1
SHEAR PLANE SURFACE COEFFICIENTS
Coefficients
Surface condition of the shear plane
µ k co
A smooth surface; as obtained by casting against a form, or finished to a similar standard 0.6 0.1
A surface deliberately roughened—
(a) by texturing the concrete to give a pronounced profile; 0.9 0.4
(b) by providing mechanical shear keys.
Monolithic construction 0.9 0.5
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Att A bs Att
1 1
ds
4 0 m in.
50 max. 1 1
2 2
A bt
4 0 m in. 4 4
50 max.
A bt
(a) (b)
Att
4 0 m in.
3 3 A bs
S h e ar p l a n e
50 max. Ats
A bt type
1-1 (A t t + A b t ) or (A t t + A b s)
2-2 2 A bt
3-3 2(A b t + A b s)
(c)
4-4 2 A bt
FIGURE 6.8.5.2.1 SHEAR PLANES AND TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT
6.8.5.2.2 Design for longitudinal shear using strut and tie modelling
As an alternative to Equation 6.8.5.2.1, the shear strength of the concrete flange shall be
evaluated using a truss analogy, where it is assumed that successive concrete struts form in
the flange to the beam with the transverse reinforcement acting as ties to maintain
equilibrium and prevent the concrete struts from rotating (see Figure 6.8.5.2.2).
NOTE: For a shear surface passing around the shear connectors (e.g. shear surface 2-2 in
Figure 6.8.5.2.1), the dimension d s should be taken as the length of the shear surface.
The maximum value that shall be assumed for x is half the distance between the section
where the moment is zero and the section where the moment is maximum. Where point
loads are applied, the length x shall not exceed the distance between point loads. The
effective transverse reinforcement per unit length Ats shall be as shown in Figure 6.8.5.2.2
(in which Att, Abt and Abs are areas of reinforcement per unit length of beam from
Figure 6.8.5.2.1), fully anchored in accordance with AS 5100.5. The effective transverse
reinforcement per unit length Ats shall be determined as follows:
 Lp
*
 f c Ats f sy  cot  f . . . 6.8.5.2.2(1)
To prevent crushing of the compression struts in the flange, the following condition shall be
satisfied:
 Lp
*
  f csin  f cos  f ds . . . 6.8.5.2.2(2)
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where
 f c 
  0.6  1   . . . 6.8.5.2.2(3)
 250 
In the absence of more rigorous calculation, the permitted range of the values for cotθf shall
be: 
1.0  cot θf  2.0 for compression flanges (45°  θf  26.5°)
1.0  cot θf  1.25 for tension flanges (45°  θf  38.6°)
Longitudinal tension reinforcement in the flange shall be anchored beyond the strut
required to transmit the force back to the web at the section where this reinforcement is
required (see Section A-A in Figure 6.8.5.2.2).
Where the depth of a haunch is not greater than 50 mm, reinforcement in the bottom of a
slab may be included, provided it is placed at a clear distance greater than 40 mm below
that surface of each shear connector that resists uplift forces and at a clear distance not
greater than 80 mm from the nearest surface of the steel beam.
Ef fe c t i ve
Lo n g i t u d i n a l tr ansver se
bar an c h ore d r e i nfor c e m e nt
b eyo n d t h i s t i e s w i t h are a
m o m e nt or
p o int l o ad
proj e c te d p o int Ats and
M a ximum
s pac in g S
b eff
A
F F + ΔF
1 1
ds
b eff 1 1
1 1
F 1 1F + ΔF
Pote nt i al sur fac e s 1-1 Pote nt i al

A θf
of s h ear failure sur fac es of shear
Δx failure
C o m pre s s i ve s tr u t s
(a) Pl an v i ew (b) Cro s s - se c t i o n w it h

s h ear p l an e t y p e 1-1
FIGURE 6.8.5.2.2 TRUSS MODEL FOR TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT
6.8.5.3 Interaction between longitudinal shear and transverse bending

In the case of combined shear between the flange and the web, and transverse bending, the
area of steel shall be the greater of that given by Equation 6.8.5.2.1 or 6.8.5.2.2(1).
Alternatively, it may be half the area of steel that is given by Equation 6.8.5.2.1 or
6.8.5.2.2(1) in addition to that required for transverse bending.
6.8.5.4 Minimum transverse reinforcement
The cross-sectional area of reinforcement per unit length of beam in the slab transverse to
the steel beam shall be not less than—
0.8d s
. . . 6.8.5.4
f ry
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where
ds = thickness of the concrete deck slab forming the flange of the composite beam
Not less than 50% of this area of reinforcement shall be placed near the bottom of the slab
so that it satisfies Abv, as specified in Clause 6.8.5.3.
6.8.5.5 Minimum transverse reinforcement in haunched beams
The cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement in a haunch per unit length of beam
(Abv) shall be not less than—
0.4u
. . . 6.8.5.5
f ry
where
u = length of the shear plane for shear failure around the connectors (see shear
plane type 3-3 or 4-4 in Figure 6.8.5.2.1)
6.8.5.6 Curtailment of transverse reinforcement
The transverse reinforcement provided to resist longitudinal shear may be curtailed
provided Clause 6.8.5.2 is satisfied in all respects for the shear planes through the slab of
type 1-1 shown in Figure 6.8.5.2.1. For this purpose, the longitudinal shear force per unit
length ( Lp
*
) for such a plane may be assumed to vary linearly from the calculated maximum
force on the relevant plane, which is adjacent to the shear connectors, to zero mid-way
between the centre-line of the beam and that of an adjacent beam, or to zero at an adjacent
free edge.
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SECTI ON 7 BOX AND LONGITUDINALLY

STIFFENED GIRDE RS
7.1 GENERAL
This Section sets out requirements for plated structural elements incorporating longitudinal
stiffeners. This includes box and trough girders and plate I-girders.
The specific rules for the structural elements in this Section complement the rules given in
the remainder of this Part (AS/NZS 5100.6). In particular, the requirements of Clause 4.5
shall be met.
7.2 BOX GIRDERS WITHOUT LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS

Box girders without longitudinal stiffeners shall be designed in accordance with Section 5
together with the requirements of Clause 7.6, as appropriate.
7.3 FLANGES IN BEAMS WITH LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS

7.3.1 General
The provisions of this Clause apply to the design of box sections with stiffened flanges,
having one or more longitudinal stiffeners.
7.3.2 Stresses in longitudinally stiffened compression flanges
Longitudinal stresses in longitudinally stiffened compression flanges shall be determined
both at the mid-plane of the flange plate, when checking for yield, and at the centroid of the
effective section of the stiffener, when checking for buckling.
If the stress varies substantially within the length between transverse stiffeners (a), the
stresses shall be calculated at all sections, when checking for yield, and at a point 0.4a from
the higher stresses end, when checking for buckling.
7.3.3 Strength of stiffened flanges
7.3.3.1 Yielding of flange plate
The design of the flange plate shall satisfy the following yield criterion:
f   f   f
f
* 2
2
* 2 * *
f f2   3 f 
* 2
vf   f yf . . . 7.3.3.1(1)
where
f f* = longitudinal stress at the mid-plane of the flange plate, treated as positive
when compressive
f 2* = co-existent in-plane transverse stress at the mid-plane of the flange plate,
treated as positive when compressive, due to bending of cross-beams or
diaphragms, or due to curvature
f vf* = shear stress in the flange due to torsion and shear force on the beam

= f vt*  0.5 f vj*  . . . 7.3.3.1(2)
f vt* = in-plane shear stress in the flange plate due to torsion on a box beam
f vj* = shear stress in the flange at the junction with the web of the beam due to
shear force on the beam
fvf = nominal yield stress of the flange plate material
 = capacity reduction factor (given in Table 3.2)
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7.3.3.2 Effective section for longitudinal flange stiffeners

The effective section of a longitudinal stiffener shall be taken as the stiffener combined
with a width of flange plate equal to 0.5Kcb, on each side of the stiffener,
where
Kc = plate buckling coefficient for the plate panel obtained from Figure 7.3.3.2 for a
compression flange
= 1.0 for a tension flange
b = spacing of longitudinal stiffeners
When calculating Kc, the relevant curves shown in Figure 7.3.3.2 to be used shall be
(a) When the number of open stiffeners is three or more, or the number of closed
stiffeners is two or more, from the appropriate curve for restrained panels.
(b) When there is only one longitudinal stiffener, or the flange is unstiffened, from the
appropriate curve for unrestrained panels.
(c) When the number of open stiffeners is two, by taking the mean of the values obtained
from the two curves 1 and 2, or from curve 3, as appropriate.
7.3.3.3 Strength of longitudinal flange stiffeners
The design of a longitudinal compression flange shall be such that—
(a) f s*  2.5 f vt* k s1   k L1 f ys ; and . . . 7.3.3.3(1)
(b) f s*  2.5 f vt* k s2   k L2 f ye . . . 7.3.3.3(2)
where
f s* = longitudinal stress, including any redistribution of stresses from the web,
positive when compressive, at the centroid of the effective section of the
stiffener
f vt* = in-plane shear stress in the flange plate due to torsion on the beam, always
to be taken as positive
ks1, ks2 = coefficients used for the design of longitudinal flange stiffeners obtained
from Figure 7.3.3.3
kL1, kL2 = values of the reduction factor kL obtained from Figure 7.3.3.3
fys = normal yield stress of the stiffener material
f yf2  3  f vf*  
2
fye = . . . 7.3.3.3(3)
fyf = nominal yield stress of the flange plate material

*
 *
f vf* = f vt  0.5 f vj  . . . 7.3.3.3(4)
f vj* = shear stress in the flange plate at the junction with the web of the
beam due to shear force on the beam
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7.3.3.4 Longitudinally varying moment

If the longitudinal stress in the flange varies within the length between cross-beams or
diaphragms that restrain the longitudinal stiffeners (Ls), the provisions of Clause 7.3.3.3
shall be satisfied with f taken at a point 0.4Ls from the end where the stress is greater.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Kc
0. 5
0.4
Cur ve 1
0.3
Cur ve 2 Re
R e str
s t r ain
ained
Unre str ain e d

Unrestrained
0. 2
Cur ve 3
0.1
Restrained
Re str ain e d or
unrestrained
u nre str ain e d
0
0 50 10 0 15 0 20 0 25 0 300
FIGURE 7.3.3.2 (in part) COEFFICIENT (Kc) FOR PLATE PANELS

UNDER DIRECT COMPRESSION
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NOTE: The value of Kc shall be the higher of the values obtained from Figure 7.3.3.2, using either—
b fy
(a) curve 1 or 2, as relevant, with   ; or . . . 7.3.3.3(5)
t 355
a fy
(b) curve 3 with   . . . 7.3.3.3(6)
t 355
where
b = panel dimension normal to the direction of the stress being considered
a = panel dimension in the direction of the stress being considered
Item (a) will always give the higher value of K c when a/b  0.5.
(Permission to reproduce extracts from British Standards is granted by BSI Standards Limited (BSI).
No other use of this material is permitted.)
FIGURE 7.3.3.2 (in part) COEFFICIENT (Kc) FOR PLATE PANELS

UNDER DIRECT COMPRESSION
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1.0
0
0.0 25
0.0 5
0.9
0.1
0.8
0. 2
0.3
0.7
0.4
0.6
0.6
k L or k s
0.8
0. 5
1.0
ks
0.4
1. 5
2.0
0.3
0. 2
kL
0.1
0
0 50 10 0 15 0 20 0 25 0 300
Ls fy
λ =
rs e 355
FIGURE 7.3.3.3 (in part) PARAMETERS FOR THE DESIGN

OF LONGITUDINAL FLANGE STIFFENERS
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NOTE:
Ls f ys
 when obtaining k L1 and k s 1 . . . 7.3.3.3(7)
rse 355
Ls f ye
 when obtaining k L2 and k s 2 . . . 7.3.3.3(8)
rse 355
yo 
 when obtaining k L1 . . . 7.3.3.3(9)
rse2
yz 
 when obtaining k L2 . . . 7.3.3.3(10)
rse2
where
 = slenderness ratio
Ls = spacing of cross-beams or diaphragms, or both, which restrain longitudinal stiffeners (for

flanges not stiffened transversely, see Clause 7.3.4)
rse = radius of gyration of the effective section of a longitudinal stiffener about the centroidal axis
parallel to the flange plate
η = compression member imperfection factor
y o = distance from the centroid of the effective stiffener section to the point on the stiffener furthest
from the plate
yz = distance from the centroid of the effective stiffener section to the mid-plane of the flange plate
Δ = imperfection
Ls  rse2 ef
=   . . . 7.3.3.3(11)
625 yBs 2
y Bs = distance from the centroid of the effective stiffener section to the neutral axis of the
effective cross-section of the beam
ef = greatest offset of the flange plate from a straight line of length L s due to a specified
camber or curvature
ξ =  1  1.35 f s* f E  when obtaining k Ll
= 1  1.35 f s
*
f E  when obtaining k L2
fE =  2 E  Ls rse 2
FIGURE 7.3.3.3 (in part) PARAMETERS FOR THE DESIGN

OF LONGITUDINAL FLANGE STIFFENERS
7.3.4 Longitudinally stiffened flanges not stiffened transversely

The longitudinal stiffeners of a flange that is not stiffened transversely, shall satisfy
Clause 7.3.3.3, with Ls taken as the effective length Lse, calculated as follows:
0.75
B 
Lse  1.5 f  I se ns  10.25 . . . 7.3.4
 tf 
where
Bf = total width of the stiffened flange between main beam webs
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tf = thickness of the flange

Ise = second moment of area of the effective section of the stiffener
ns = number of longitudinal stiffeners in width Bf
7.3.5 Curtailment of longitudinal flange stiffeners
Where longitudinal stiffeners are curtailed, the stiffener section shall be extended beyond
the theoretical cut-off point on either side of the section under consideration over a distance
equal to the depth of the beam. This extension shall be ignored for all strength checks.
7.4 WEBS IN BEAMS WITH LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS

7.4.1 General
The design of web panels shall be such that, at all points on the panel, the yield criterion
specified in Clause 7.4.2 and the buckling criterion specified in Clause 7.4.3 are both
satisfied.
Longitudinal web stiffeners shall satisfy Clause 7.4.4, and intermediate transverse stiffeners
shall satisfy Clause 7.4.6.
7.4.2 Yielding of web panels
The following condition shall be satisfied at all points on the panel:
 f   f 
* 2 * 2
 f le* f 2*  3  f v*    f y
2
le 2
. . . 7.4.2(1)
where
f le* = effective longitudinal in-plane stress in the plate panel
f1* , f 2* , f b* , f v* = coexistent components of stress shown in Figure 7.4.2
f1* = mean longitudinal in-plane stress on a cross-section of the panel

after any assumed redistribution in accordance with Clause 4.5.3,
considered positive if compressive
f 2* = in-plane transverse stress, considered positive if compressive
f b* = maximum longitudinal stress due to in-plane bending of the

individual panel after any assumed redistribution in accordance with
Clause 4.5.3, considered positive if compressive
f v* = average design shear stress due to the applied shear force and, in a
closed section, due to the applied torsional moment
The following condition shall also be considered:
(a) In the absence of transverse stresses in the panel ( f 2* = 0):
f le*  f1*  0.77 f b* . . . 7.4.2(2)
NOTE: In this case, it is only necessary to satisfy the criterion at all points along the
longitudinal edges of the panel.
(b) In the presence of transverse stresses ( f 2* ) in the panel:
f le*  f1*  kf b* . . . 7.4.2(3)
where
k = coefficient
= 2y/b or 0.77, whichever is smaller
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y = perpendicular distance from the point being considered to the longitudinal

centre-line of the panel, to be taken always as positive
b = width of panel (see Figure 7.4.2)
f 2*
f b* f v* f b*
a
p =
b y
b
f b* f 1* f v* f 1* f b*
f 2* D i r e c ti o n of m a i n
l o n g i tu d i n a l s t r e s s
a i n th e p l ate p a n e l
FIGURE 7.4.2 STRESSES ON WEB PANELS
7.4.3 Buckling of web panels

7.4.3.1 General
For webs subject to transverse stress as well as other in-plane stresses, in the absence of a
more rigorous analysis, the maximum intensity of transverse stress, acting over part of the
length of a longitudinal edge, shall be assumed to act over the whole length of the panel.
The transverse stress in each panel of the web shall be taken as that at the edge of the panel
nearest to the load, calculated using the dispersion shown in Figure 7.4.3.1.
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w
P*
Pa n e l Tr a n sve r s e
60° s t r e s s f 2*
to b e u s e d
4 5° fo r e a c h p a n e l
1 ove r l e n g th a
a1 tw
P*
1 a 1t w
5 a2
P*
2 a 2t w
2
P*
4 3 a 3t w
a3
b
a4 3 P*
4
a 3t w
a
5 0
(a) Ty p i c a l p a n e l s ( b) Tr e atm e nt of p a n e l s
FIGURE 7.4.3.1 DISPERSAL OF LOAD THROUGH

A LONGITUDINALLY STIFFENED WEB
7.4.3.2 Restraint of web panels

7.4.3.2.1 General
In order to calculate the buckling coefficients (K1), (Kv), (Kb) and (K2) required in
Clause 7.4.3.3, the effective in-plane boundary restraint of the panel shall be determined in
accordance with Clause 7.4.3.2.2 or Clause 7.4.3.2.3, as appropriate.
Any panel not meeting the provisions specified in Clauses 7.4.3.2.2 and 7.4.3.2.3 shall be
deemed to be unrestrained.
7.4.3.2.2 Restraint for derivation of K1, Kv and Kb
All interior web panels, i.e., not adjacent to a flange, may be deemed to be restrained.
Any web panel adjacent to a flange may be deemed to be restrained provided either—
(a) its slenderness ratio () is less than 24; or
 
 
 f yf2  for 24    84, but  taken as 84 for
(b) (i) mfw  0.00025  24  2
 2  f f*    > 84 for this purpose only; and
 f yf     
   
if
    then mfw (the factor for calculating the web plate restraint)
(ii) 28   is greater than the limiting value obtained from
  66  
   2   Figure 7.4.3.2.2
  p 
where
b f yw
 = . . . 7.4.3.2.2(1)
tw 355
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f yf bfe t f2
mfw = . . . 7.4.3.2.2(2)
2 f yw b 2 t w
a, b = length and width of the panel, respectively (see Figure 7.4.2)

tw = thickness of the web
fyf = nominal yield stress of the flange material
bfe = effective width of the flange, taken as smallest of—
355
(A) 10t f
f yf
distance from the mid-plane of the web to the nearer edge of

(B)
the flange, i.e., taken as zero if there is no flange outstand; or
if there are two or more webs, half the clear distance between
(C)
webs
where
tf = thickness of the flange
fvf = nominal yield stress of the flange material
p = aspect ratio a/b as shown on Figure 7.4.2
longitudinal stress in the flange plate, including any redistribution of
f f* =
stresses
For a web without longitudinal stiffeners, both flanges shall satisfy the criteria specified in
this Clause for the web to be taken as restrained.
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0. 5
0.4
F p =10
mfw 0.3
Fp= 5
0. 2
Fp= 3
0.1
Fp=2
F p =1
0 F p = 0. 5
0 50 10 0 15 0 20 0 25 0 300
b fyw
λ =
tw 355
FIGURE 7.4.3.2.2 MINIMUM VALUE OF mtw FOR OUTER PANEL RESTRAINT
7.4.3.2.3 Restraint for derivation of K2

When the plate extends beyond transverse stiffeners bounding a panel by at least a distance
a/2, the panel may be assumed to be restrained.
7.4.3.3 Buckling coefficients
7.4.3.3.1 General
The buckling coefficients K1, Kv, Kb and K2 shall be obtained from Clauses 7.4.3.3.2,
7.4.3.3.3, 7.4.3.3.4 and 7.4.3.3.5 respectively, with the panel assumed to be restrained or
unrestrained in-plane as determined from Clause 7.4.3.2.
7.4.3.3.2 Axial coefficient (K1)
K1 shall be taken as the greater of the values obtained either from—
(a) Figure 7.4.3.3.2 using curve 1 or 2, as appropriate, with—
b f yw
 . . . 7.4.3.3.2(1)
tw 355
unless  is less than 24, when—
2
 t  204500
K1   w  ; or . . . 7.4.3.3.2(2)
 b  f yw
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(b) Figure 7.4.3.3.2, using curve 3 with—
a f yw
 . . . 7.4.3.3.2(3)
tw 355
unless  is less than 4.33, when—
2
 t  6600
K1   w  . . . 7.4.3.3.2(4)
 a  f yw
where
b, a = plate panel dimensions
tw = web thickness
7.4.3.3.3 Shear coefficient (Kv)
Kv shall be taken from Figure 7.4.3.3.3, unless—
2
b f yw b
 35 1    . . . 7.4.3.3.3(1)
tw 355 a
in which case Kv shall be taken as follows:
  b 2 
2
435000 1    
 tw    a   . . . 7.4.3.3.3(2)
Kv   
 b  f yw
7.4.3.3.4 Bending coefficient (Kb)

Kb shall be obtained from Figure 7.4.3.3.4.
7.4.3.3.5 Transverse coefficient (K2)
K2 shall be taken as the greater of the values obtained from the following:
(a) Figure 7.4.3.3.2 using curve 1 or 2 as appropriate with—
a f yw
 . . . 7.4.3.3.5(1)
tw 355
unless  is less than 24, in which case—
2
 t  204500
K2   w  ; or . . . 7.4.3.3.5(2)
 a  f yw
(b) Figure 7.4.3.3.2, using curve 3 with—
b f yw
 . . . 7.4.3.3.5(3)
tw 355
unless  is less than 4.33, in which case—
2
 t  6600
K2   w  . . . 7.4.3.3.5(4)
 b  f yw
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1.0
0.8
Cur ve 1
0.6
Kc
Cur ve 2
0.4
Re
R e str
s t r ain
ained
Unre str ain e d
Unrestrained
0. 2
Cur ve 3
Re str ain e d or unre

Restrained unrestrained
str ain e d
0
0 50 10 0 15 0 20 0 25 0 300
λ
NOT ES
1. For st re s se s show n a s fol lows 2 . For s t r e s s e s show n a s fol lows
a
Fp =
b a
b Fp =
a b b
a
K 1 i s t he g r e at e r va lue of K c obt a i ne d f rom

c u r ve 1 or 2 , a s ap p rop r iat e, w it h:
b fyw K 2 i s t he g r e at e r va lue of K c obt a i ne d f rom

λ =
tw 355 c u r ve 1 or 2 , a s ap p rop r iat e, w it h:
or c u r ve 3 w it h: fyw
a
λ =
a fyw tw 355
λ =
tw 355
or c u r ve 3 w it h:
b fyw
λ =
tw 355
FIGURE 7.4.3.3.2 BUCKLING AXIAL (K1) AND TRANSVERSE (K2) COEFFICIENTS
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1.0
φp
0.9
≤ 0. 5
1.0
0.8 Re
R e str
s t r ain
ained
≥ 2.0
0.7
≤ 0. 5
0.6
Kv
1.0
0. 5
Unre str ain e d

Unrestrained
0.4 2.0
≥3 .0
≥3.0
0.3
0. 2
0.1
0
0 50 10 0 15 0 20 0 25 0 300
b fyw
λ =
tw 355
NOT ES:
1. For i nt e r me d iat e va lue s of φ p .K v m ay b e obt a i ne d by
l i ne a r i nt e r p olat ion b et we e n t wo a dja ce nt va lue s of φ p for t h is
pu r p ose a cu r ve m ay b e ex t e nde d b eyond K v = 1 by t he
ex pre ssion i n 7.4.3.3.3
2 . φ p = a /b show n a s fol lows
FIGURE 7.4.3.3.3 BUCKLING SHEAR (KV) COEFFICIENT
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1.4
1. 2
1.0
Kb
Re
R e str
s t r ain
ained
0.8
Unre str ain e d
Unrestrained
0.6
0.4
0 50 10 0 15 0 20 0 25 0 300
b fyw
λ =
tw 355
FIGURE 7.4.3.3.4 PLATE BUCKLING (Kb) COEFFICIENT UNDER IN-PLANE BENDING
7.4.3.4 Interaction buckling criterion

The following condition shall be satisfied for each panel:
mc + mb + 3 mv  1 . . . 7.4.3.4(1)
where mc, mb and mv are the factors for checking plate panel interaction buckling criterion.
In the absence of transverse stresses in the panel—
f1*
mc  . . . 7.4.3.4(2)
 f yw K1 1   
2
 f b* 
mb    . . . 7.4.3.4(3)
  f yw K b 1    
2
 f v* 
mv   . . . 7.4.3.4(4)
  f yw K v 
 
where
f1* = as specified in Clause 7.4.2 but the algebraically higher of the two
values on the opposite edges shall be used
K1, Kb, Kv = coefficients derived in accordance with Clauses 7.4.3.3.2 to 7.4.3.3.4
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 = proportion of stress assumed to be redistributed from the panel in

accordance with Clause 4.5.3 for an unrestrained panel
= 0 for a restrained panel, irrespective of any redistribution of bending
moment or axial force assumed under the provisions of Clause 4.5.3
f b* , f v* = as specified in Clause 7.4.2
The average values over the whole panel shall be used
In the presence of transverse stresses in the panel:
mc  m1  m2  for positive values of (m1 + m2) . . . 7.4.3.4(5)
mc   m1  m2  for negative values of (m1 + m2) . . . 7.4.3.4(6)

2
 f1* 
m1    shall be taken as negative if f1* is tensile . . . 7.4.3.4(7)
  f yw K1 1    
 
2
 f 2* 
m2   shall be taken as negative if f 2* is tensile . . . 7.4.3.4(8)
  f yw K 2 
 
where
m1, m2 = factors for checking the plate panel interaction buckling criterion
f 2* = specified in Clause 7.4.2 but the algebraically higher of the two values on
the opposite edges shall be used
K2 = coefficient derived in accordance with Clause 7.4.3.3.5
7.4.4 Longitudinal web stiffeners
7.4.4.1 Effective section for longitudinal web stiffeners
The effective stiffener section shall comprise the stiffener with a width of web plate on each
side of the stiffener connection centre-line not exceeding the lesser of—
(a) 16t w (1   ); or
b
(b) 1   
2
where
tw = thickness of the web plate
 = proportion of the longitudinal stress assumed to be redistributed from the
relevant panel in accordance with Clause 4.5.3
b = width of the relevant plate panel adjacent to the stiffener
7.4.4.2 Strength of longitudinal web stiffeners
The design of a longitudinal stiffener shall be such that—
f se*   f Ls . . . 7.4.4.2(1)
where
f se* = equivalent axial stress in the stiffener for buckling

fLs = limiting stiffener stress obtained from Figure 7.4.4.2 using the value of—
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 = slenderness ratio taken as
a f ys
= , and . . . 7.4.4.2(2)
rse 355
  a2  *  bt w k s
f se*  k s f1*   2.5 f v*   2  f2 
  A . . . 7.4.4.2(3)

 b   se
k s = coefficient used in determining the effective stiffener stress
= 1.0 for continuous longitudinal stiffeners
= 2.5ks for discontinuous longitudinal stiffeners
f1* = longitudinal stress along the stiffener connection centre-line derived
without redistribution, taken as positive if compressive
f v* = average shear stress
a = clear distance between transverse web stiffeners
b = mean of the clear widths of the web plate panels above and below
the line of attachment of the stiffener under consideration
f 2* = coexistent transverse stress, if any, taken as positive if compressive
tw = web plate thickness
ks = coefficient obtained from Figure 7.4.4.2 using the value of—
a f ys
 . . . 7.4.4.2(4)
rse 355
rse = radius of gyration of the effective stiffener section about an x-
x axis parallel to the web
Ase = area of effective stiffener section
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1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
f Ls
fys
0. 5
or k s
f Ls
fys
0.4 ks
0.3
0. 2
0.1
0
0 50 10 0 15 0 20 0 25 0 300
a fys
λ =
rs e 355
FIGURE 7.4.4.2 PARAMETERS FOR THE DESIGN OF WEB STIFFENERS
7.4.5 Curtailment of longitudinal web stiffeners

Where longitudinal stiffeners are curtailed, the stiffener section shall be extended beyond
the theoretical cut-off point. The attachment of this extension is required to develop the
load in the stiffener, which shall be calculated at its theoretical cut-off point. This extension
shall be ignored for all other strength checks.
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7.4.6 Transverse stiffeners of longitudinally stiffened webs

The design of the transverse stiffeners of longitudinally stiffened webs shall conform to
Clause 5.14 and, in the absence of a rational analysis, the value of vd shall be taken as
1.0.
A transverse web stiffener shall be provided at all locations where a web connects with a
cross-beam, and where a sloping flange changes direction.
Where cut-outs are provided in transverse stiffeners to allow the passage of longitudinal
stiffeners, at least one side of the opening in the transverse stiffener shall be connected to
the longitudinal stiffener with a full perimeter weld or a double-bolted cleat.
7.5 TRANSVERSE MEMBERS IN STIFFENED FLANGES

7.5.1 General
Transverse members of stiffened flanges shall be designed to have sufficient stiffness and
strength to prevent the overall buckling of the flange, as well as to carry all the loads
directly applied to them. Transverse members of compression flanges shall be supported by
transverse web stiffeners at main beam webs. Transverse members required for a flange
projecting from an outer main beam web shall be continuous with the transverse member
between the main beam webs.
7.5.2 Effective section for transverse members
7.5.2.1 Effective section for stiffness
In determining the stiffness of a transverse member for global analysis and for overall
buckling of a compression flange, an effective width of attached flange shall be assumed to
act with the member, on each side of the web of the cross-member, where available, and
shall be taken as the lesser of—
(a) half the spacing of transverse members; or
(b) either—
(i) one-eighth of the distance between main beam webs, for a portion between such
webs; or
(ii) one-sixth of the cantilever length, for a cantilever portion.
This effective width shall be taken as constant over each relevant portion of the transverse
member.
NOTE: When the flange consists of composite reinforced concrete, the reinforcement within the
effective width, but not the concrete, may be taken into account in calculating the overall
buckling strength of the compression flange, but both reinforcement and concrete may be taken
into account for global analysis.
7.5.2.2 Effective section for strength and stress calculation
For calculating stresses in, or the strength of, a transverse member, the effective section
shall be taken as for stiffness (see Clause 7.5.2.1), but with the following modifications:
(a) When, in a non-composite transverse member, the attached flange is in compression
parallel to its axis, (e.g., in the sagging moment zone of a top flange transverse
member) the effective width on each side of the web of the cross-member shall not
exceed one-quarter of the transverse member spacing.
(b) Between main beam webs, in the portion subjected to hogging bending moments, the
effective width on each side of the web of the cross-member shall not locally exceed
one-fourteenth of the distance between main beam webs.
(c) When the effective widths on two sides of a main beam web are unequal, an average
value shall be taken for the section at the main beam web.
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(d) In the case of composite flanges, the area of concrete in tension shall be ignored.
The capacity of the cross-member web shall be determined in accordance with
Clauses 5.10.4 and 5.10.5.
7.5.2.3 Compact section
Irrespective of the effective width of flange, transverse members attached to a continuous
deck may be taken as compact, provided their webs and flange outstands meet the
appropriate provisions of Clause 5.2.1.
7.5.3 Stiffness of transverse members in compression flanges
7.5.3.1 Stiffness of transverse members in compression flanges
In order to satisfy the stiffness provisions of Clause 7.5.1 for a transverse member
supporting a compression flange, the entire length of the effective member shall be divided,
for analysis, into segments as follows:
(a) Type I segments between interior webs of main beams.
(b) Type II segments comprising any cantilever and the adjacent length to the first
interior beam web.
NOTE: For cross-sections with only two main beam webs, one segment of Type II will
encompass the full length of transverse member, including cantilevers (if any).
7.5.3.2 Stiffness of transverse members
Transverse members shall be designed such that—
I be 
  2
9 f f* aB 4 Aff2
. . . 7.5.3.2
16 K T E 2 I ff
where
Ibe = average second moment of area of the effective transverse member (see
Clause 7.5.2.1) between the webs
f f* = longitudinal compressive stress in the flange of the main beam, averaged
across the width of the segment between main beam webs
a = transverse member spacing (or mean of adjacent spacings)
B = spacing of the main beam webs at the level of the transverse member
Aff = area per unit width of the flange of the box girder (including longitudinal
stiffeners)
Iff = second moment of area per unit width of the flange of the box girder
(including longitudinal stiffeners), taken about the centroidal axis of the
flange
KT = buckling coefficient for transverse members
= 24 for Type I segments (see Clause 7.5.3.1) with open longitudinal stiffeners
(see Note 2 for closed stiffeners); or
for Type II segments (see Clause 7.5.3.1)
KT shall be obtained from Figures 7.5.3.2(a) or 7.5.3.2(b) for cantilever
overhangs on one or both sides respectively, for the appropriate values of
Ibc/Ibe and Bc/B provided the following limitations are taken into account:
(a) Longitudinal stiffeners are of open type (see Note 2 for closed
stiffeners).
(b) Iff and f f* are constant over the whole segment including cantilevers.
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(c) One of the following conditions applies:

(i) There are no edge members at the cantilever tips.
(ii) The edge member is unable to carry longitudinal stress because of
its structural detailing.
(iii) The radius of gyration of the edge member about its centroidal axis
is not less than 1.65 times the radius of gyration of the flange of the
main beam.
Bc, Ibc = length and the average effective second moment of area, respectively, of the
cantilever portion of the transverse member (see Figure 7.5.3.2)
NOTES:
1 Aff and Iff should include any longitudinal stiffeners and, in the case of a concrete or
composite flange, concrete areas divided by the modular ratio. Where there are longitudinal
stiffeners, Aff and Iff are calculated on the basis of the effective section as given in
Clause 7.3.3.2.
2 For closed longitudinal stiffeners, values of the buckling coefficient (KT ) may be either taken
conservatively as given above or be determined more accurately from more detailed analysis.
7.5.4 Strength of transverse members in compression flanges
Transverse members in compression flanges shall be designed for strength in accordance
with the provisions of Section 5, using the effective section defined in Clause 7.5.2.
30
Bc B
20
I bc I be
10 Centre of
main beam we bs
5
3
KT
2
I bc
I be
1
10
2
0. 5 1
0. 5
0.3
0.3 0. 2
0.1
0. 2
0.1
0 0. 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1. 2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Bc
B
(a) W it h c ant il ever s o n o n e s i d e
FIGURE 7.5.3.2 (in part) BUCKLING (KT ) COEFFICIENT FOR TRANSVERSE

MEMBERS
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30
Bc B Bc
20
I bc I be I bc
10 Centreline of
main beam we bs
5
3
KT
2
I bc
I be
1
10
0. 5 2
1
0.3 0. 5
0.3
0. 2 0. 2
0.1
0.1
0 0. 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1. 2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Bc
B
(b) W i t h c ant i l ever s o n b ot h s i d e s
FIGURE 7.5.3.2 (in part) BUCKLING (KT ) COEFFICIENT FOR TRANSVERSE

MEMBERS
7.6 DIAPHRAGMS AT SUPPORTS

7.6.1 General
Diaphragms shall be provided at supports of box girders to transfer the applied loadings to
the bearings. In the absence of a rigorous analysis that demonstrates the adequacy of a
partial diaphragm, they shall extend for the full width and depth of the box girder.
Unstiffened diaphragms shall be designed in accordance with Clause 7.6.5, and stiffened
diaphragms in accordance with Clause 7.6.6, using the effective sections defined in
Clauses 7.6.2 and 7.6.3.
Diaphragm/web junctions shall be designed in accordance with Clause 7.6.7, and deck
cross-beams and cantilevers at diaphragm locations shall conform with the requirements of
Clause 7.6.8.
The geometric notation used shall be as shown in Figure 7.6.1.
The load effects in diaphragms and associated parts of box girders shall be derived from
global analysis.
Diaphragms shall be designed to resist, with due account being taken of any lack of
symmetry in the cross-section or in the bearing arrangement, the combined effects of the
following:
(a) All externally applied loads and the associated bearing reactions.
(b) Changes in bearing reactions and web shears due to:
(i) creep, shrinkage and differential temperature;
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(ii) settlement and other movement of supports.

NOTE: Transverse effects due to (b) (i) may be neglected.
(c) Errors in installation of bearings, comprising:
(i) bearing misalignment in plan;
(ii) errors in level of a single bearing, or in the mean levels of more than one
bearing at any support;
(iii) bearing inclination;
(iv) departures from common planarity of twin or multiple bearings.
(d) Changes in longitudinal slope of box flanges at the diaphragm.
(e) Errors of longitudinal camber in continuous construction.
NOTE: Allowance for this may be made by assuming, at the bearings, a vertical displacement
of a support relative to two adjacent supports of 1/5000 times the sum of the adjacent spans.
(f) Out-of-plane moments due to any or all of the following, as appropriate:
(i) longitudinal movements of the bridge;
(ii) changes in slope of the bridge;
(iii) eccentricity due to bearing misalignment along the span or due to the shape of
the bearing; the combined eccentricity for these may be taken as:
(A) half the width of the flat bearing surface plus 10 mm for flat topped
rocker bearing in contact with flat bearing surface; or
(B) 3 mm for radiused upper bearing resting on flat or radiused lower part; or
(C) 10 mm for flat upper bearing resting on radiused lower part.
(g) Interconnection between deck and diaphragm stiffeners;
(h) Any intended eccentricity of the centroidal axes of the effective section of the bearing
stiffeners with respect to the diaphragm plate.
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b
ss Inter m e d i ate Thickness
stif fe ner s td
d
tw
d/2
B ear in g
s t i f fe n er s tf
wh
D i a p hr ag m / we b
c junction section
bd
Sub
s t i f fe n er s
x 1. 5 t f
td
y
X X
Y 355
12 t d (m a x.)
f yd
j
B ear in g d et ail
FIGURE 7.6.1 GEOMETRIC NOTATION FOR DIAPHRAGMS
7.6.2 Geometric limitations

7.6.2.1 Diaphragms and bearings
This Clause applies to the design of diaphragms in composite box girders that comply with
the following geometric requirements:
(a) The diaphragm shall be in a single plane.
(b) Each diaphragm shall be supported by a single bearing or twin bearings under each
box.
Bearings under unstiffened diaphragms shall be symmetrically placed about the vertical
axis of the diaphragm.
The contact width of a stiffened diaphragm above a bearing (j), as shown in Figure 7.6.1,
shall not exceed half the depth of the diaphragm with a single bearing nor one-quarter of the
depth of the diaphragm with twin bearings.
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A bearing below a stiffened diaphragm shall not extend across the width of the diaphragm
beyond the line of attachment of a bearing stiffener by more than 12 355 / f yd times the
thickness of the diaphragm plate.
Bearing stiffeners shall be symmetrically placed about the diaphragm plate, unless a special
analysis is made of the effects of any eccentricity with respect to that plate.
7.6.2.2 Openings in unstiffened diaphragms
Openings in unstiffened diaphragms shall be in accordance with the following:
(a) Only one circular opening shall be provided on each side of the vertical centre-line of
the diaphragm within the upper-third of the height of the diaphragm.
(b) The diameter of any such opening shall be not greater than any of the following:
(i) 6td
(ii) d/20
(iii) b/20,
where
td = diaphragm plate thickness
d = depth of the diaphragm
b = width of the diaphragm taken as the average of the widths at the top and
bottom flange levels for boxes with sloping webs
(c) Cut-outs for longitudinal stiffeners on the box walls shall have the stiffeners
connected to the diaphragm plate either by—
(i) welding, along at least one-third of the perimeter of the cut-out; or
(ii) cleating to the longitudinal stiffener with at least two bolts per side of the
connection, or by full perimeter welding of the cleat.
In addition, the length of the free edge of any cut-out shall be not greater than—
8t d 355 / f yd
when any part of this free edge is within a distance 10t d 355 / f yd from any part of a
bearing plate.
7.6.2.3 Openings in stiffened diaphragms
Openings in stiffened diaphragms shall be in accordance with the following:
(a) With the exception of cut-outs for longitudinal stiffeners, openings shall not be
positioned within the areas shown in Figure 7.6.2.3.
(b) Unstiffened openings shall be circular and of diameter not greater than or equal to
any of the following:
(i) 6td
(ii) a/20
(iii) b/20,
where a is the length of the plate panel (that is, the distance between transverse
stiffeners), except that when the calculated maximum principal stress is less than half
of the nominal yield stress of the diaphragm plate, the limiting diameter shall be
twice the above limit.
Not more than one opening shall be positioned in a single plate panel.
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(c) Stiffened openings shall—

(i) be framed on all sides by stiffeners;
(ii) have circular corners of radius at least one-quarter of the least dimension of the
hole, with no re-entrant corners; and
(iii) be positioned such that the distance of any edge from an adjacent wall of the
box is not less than 0.7 times the maximum dimension of the hole parallel to the
wall, plus the distance from the wall to the tips of any cut-outs in the diaphragm
for longitudinal stiffeners, unless the adjacent plate is designed for secondary
in-plane stresses, and
(iv) cut-outs for longitudinal stiffeners shall be in accordance with Clause 7.6.2.2.
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355
12 t d
f yd
C o n n e c t i o n l i n e of
b e ar i n g s t i f fe n er s
Single Double
b e ar i n g bear ing
s t i f fe n er s stif fe ner s
d /3
355
12 t d
f yd
(a) Tw in bear ing s
355
12 t d
f yd
C o n n e c t i o n l i n e of
b e ar i n g s t i f fe n er s 0.7d 1 (m in.)
d2
0.7d 2 (m in.)
d1
d
d/3
(b) S in g l e b ear in g an d p o s it i o nin g of l ar g e o p e nin g s

NOTES:
1 Openings not permitted in shaded areas.
2 Dimensions are taken from top of cut-outs, where present.
FIGURE 7.6.2.3 OPENINGS IN STIFFENED DIAPHRAGMS
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7.6.3 Effective diaphragm sections

7.6.3.1 General
The determination of the effective area of diaphragm (Ae) and the effective section modulus
(Ze) of a vertical cross-section of a diaphragm shall be based on the effective areas of box
flanges and diaphragm plates as specified in Clauses 7.6.3.2 to 7.6.3.5.
7.6.3.2 Effective flange width
In calculating an effective area of a box flange, an effective width shall be determined
separately for each side of the diaphragm and shall be not greater than any of the following:
(a) One-quarter of the distance of the section under consideration from the nearest web
and flange junction.
(b) Half the distance to an adjacent diaphragm or cross-beam for any flange in transverse
tension, or for a composite flange in transverse tension, or for a composite flange in
transverse compression.
(c) Outside an end diaphragm, the actual width of plate provided.
355
(d) 12t f for a non-composite flange in transverse compression.
f yf
7.6.3.3 Effective flange area

In calculating the effective area of a box flange, any transverse flange stiffeners shall be
ignored.
In composite construction, the effective flange area may include the area of steel
reinforcement within the total effective width and, if subjected to transverse compression,
may also include the transformed area of concrete within the total effective width.
7.6.3.4 Diaphragm plate
Holes within the vertical section of a diaphragm shall be deducted. Where a stiffened
opening is provided, diaphragm plating extending within the framing stiffeners by more
than 8t d 355 / f yd shall be ignored, where td and fyd are the thickness and nominal yield
stress, respectively, of the diaphragm plate.
7.6.3.5 Inclined webs
In the case of box girders with inclined webs, no part of the webs shall be included in the
vertical section of a diaphragm.
7.6.3.6 Effective shear area
The effective vertical and horizontal shear areas of diaphragm plates (Ave and Ahe), shall be
taken as the net areas of a vertical and horizontal cross-section, respectively, of diaphragm
plating only.
7.6.4 Effective diaphragm stiffener sections
7.6.4.1 Diaphragm stiffeners
The effective section of a stiffener on a diaphragm shall be taken to comprise the stiffener
with widths of diaphragm plate on each side of the stiffener, where available, not greater
than the lesser of—
(a) half the distance from the stiffener to an adjacent stiffener or to the wall of the box;
or
(b) 12t d 355 / f yd .
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Additionally, for a bearing stiffener, the effective width of plate assumed on the side
towards the web shall be not greater than half the distance from the stiffener to the web and
bottom flange junction.
The sectional area of discontinuous diaphragm stiffeners shall be ignored.
7.6.4.2 Diaphragm and web junction
The effective section of a stiffener on a diaphragm shall be taken to comprise the following:
(a) A width of web plating each side of the diaphragm, where available, of up to 16 times
the web thickness.
(b) The area of a stiffener, together with a width of diaphragm plate equal to 25td, where
there is a stiffener on the diaphragm parallel to the web within 25td of the web, or a
width of diaphragm plate equal to 12t d 355 / f yd where there is no stiffener parallel
to the web.
7.6.5 Unstiffened diaphragms
7.6.5.1 General
Unstiffened diaphragms shall be designed to meet the yield criteria specified in
Clause 7.6.5.4, and the buckling criteria specified in Clause 7.6.5.5, using the reference
stress values specified in Clause 7.6.5.2, and the buckling coefficients specified in
Clause 7.6.5.3. Web and flange junctions shall additionally be designed in accordance with
Clause 7.6.7.
7.6.5.2 Reference values of in-plane stresses
7.6.5.2.1 General
The stresses in an unstiffened diaphragm shall be determined at the reference point shown
in Figure 7.6.5.2.1, in accordance with Clauses 7.6.5.2.2 to 7.6.5.2.4, for each of the
appropriate reference stresses required.
7.6.5.2.2 Vertical stresses
The reference value of the in-plane vertical stress in an unstiffened diaphragm ( f RI* ) shall
be taken as follows:
(a) For a diaphragm with a single central bearing
 4e 
Rv* 1  
td   T* j 
 
. . . 7.6.5.2.2(1)
f RI*  0.77 b 
 j  wh td  2I 
 yd 
(b) For a diaphragm with a symmetrical pair of bearings
f RI*  Rv*
1  4e / t d 
. . . 7.6.5.2.2(2)
 j  wh t d
where
Rv* = total vertical load transmitted by the diaphragm to one bearing, including the
effects of torque on twin bearings
e = eccentricity of bearing reaction along the span
NOTE: e should include the effects of—
(a) movements of the beam relative to the bearing due to changes in temperature;
(b) changes in the point or line of contact at the spherical or cylindrical surface of
a bearing due to slope of the beam when deflected by load;
(c) uneven seating which may occur on a flat bearing surface;
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(d) inaccuracy which may occur in positioning of the beam relative to the
bearing.
Values of eccentricity to satisfy Items (c) and (d) may be taken from
Clause 7.6.1 (f) (iii).
td = plate thickness of a diaphragm
j = width of contact of the bearing pad plus 1.5 times the thickness of the bottom
flange at each end if available (see Figure 7.6.1)
wh = sum of the widths of any cut-outs for stiffeners within the width j at the level
immediately above the flange
Tb* = torsional reaction at a single central bearing
Iyd = second moment of area of the diaphragm plate of width j, excluding cut-outs,
about the y-axis (see Figure 7.6.1)
xR
Referen c e
p o int d
wh
T h i c k n e s s of d/2
d i a p hr ag m
p l ate = t d β
tf LR
1. 5 t f 1. 5 t f
j LR Lf
L
j /4
IR
j /4
E x te nt of p o s it i o n
E x te nt of p o s it i o n bd
for A ve b
for A ve b
NOTE: LR shall be taken as the least of—

355 d L
6t d , or
f yd 8 2
FIGURE 7.6.5.2.1 REFERENCE POINT AND NOTATION

FOR UNSTIFFENED DIAPHRAGMS
7.6.5.2.3 Horizontal stresses

The reference value of the in-plane horizontal stress in unstiffened diaphragm f 
*
R2 shall
be taken as follows:
 Rv* T *  L  1 Rv* tan 
*
f R2   C d   x R  Qfv* f   . . . 7.6.5.2.3
 2 b  2  Z e 2 Ae
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where
Cd = factor to allow for the effects of boundary shears
= 2.0 in the absence of any special analysis
Rv* = total vertical force transmitted by the diaphragm to the bearings
T* = torque transmitted to the diaphragm in shear through the box walls and from
cross-beam or cantilever loading, or both
b = width of the diaphragm taken as the average of the widths at the top and
bottom flange levels for boxes with sloping webs
xR = distance parallel to the bottom flange from the reference point to the web
mid-point (see Figure 7.6.5.2.1)
Qfv* = vertical force transmitted to the diaphragm by the portion of the bottom
flange over a width Lf when there is a change of flange slope
Lf = horizontal distance from the reference point to the nearest edge of the bottom
flange
Ze, Ae= effective section modulus and the effective area respectively of the
diaphragm and flanges at the vertical cross-section through the reference
point, derived in accordance with Clause 7.6.2
 = inclination of the box web to the vertical
7.6.5.2.4 Shear stresses
*
The reference value of in-plane shear stress ( f Rv ) shall be determined as follows:
*
(a) Except as required by Item (b), the reference value of the in-plane shear stress ( f Rv )
shall be taken as follows:
 R * T*  1 Qh*
*
f Rv   v  Qfv*    . . . 7.6.5.2.4(1)
 2 2b  Avea Ahe
where
Rv* , Qfv* , T*, b = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.3
Avea = minimum value of the effective vertical shear area, as
specified in Clause 7.6.3 for any section of diaphragm
plating taken between the web and a point j/4 inside the outer
edge of the bearing (see Figure 7.6.5.2.1)
j = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.2
Qh* = shear force due to transverse horizontal loads on the bridge
transmitted from the top flange to the diaphragm
Ahe = effective horizontal shear area, as specified in Clause 7.6.3
for the section of diaphragm plating through the reference
point
(b) In addition, in the case of diaphragms on twin symmetrical bearings where there is a
*
change in slope of the bottom flange, an alternative value f Rv shall be derived from—
 T * Qbv
*
T*  1 Qh*
*
f Rv       . . . 7.6.5.2.4(2)
 c 2 2b  Aveb Ahe
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where
T* = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.3
c = distance between centres of bearings
*
Qbv = total vertical force transmitted to the diaphragm by the portion of the
bottom flange between the inner edges of the bearings when there is a
change in flange slope
Aveb = minimum value of the effective vertical shear area, as specified in
Clause 7.6.3, for any section of diaphragm plating taken within a
distance LR from the inner edge of a bearing, i.e., towards the diaphragm
centre-line and a distance j/4 inside the same inner edge of the bearing
(see Figure 7.6.5.2.1)
LR = as shown in Figure 7.6.5.2.1
*
The value of f Rv
determined in accordance with Item (b) shall be adopted if it is greater
than the value determined in accordance with Item (a).
7.6.5.3 Buckling coefficient
When checking the adequacy of an unstiffened plate diaphragm, the diaphragm buckling
coefficient (KD) shall be calculated, which is given by the following:
KD = KD1KD2KD3KD4 . . . 7.6.5.3(1)
where
KD1, KD2, KD3, KD4 = coefficients used for checking diaphragm buckling
2.2d
K D1  3.4  . . . 7.6.5.3(2)
bd
j
K D2  0.4  for single central bearings . . . 7.6.5.3(3)
2bd
j
c
 0 .4  3 for twin bearings . . . 7.6.5.3(4)
bd

K D3  1.0  . . . 7.6.5.3(5)
100
k d Pd*  2b 
K D4  1.0    1
T*  bd  . . . 7.6.5.3(6)
Rv* 
Lb
d, bd, b and  = as shown in Figure 7.6.5.2.1, (angle in degrees)

c = distance between centres of bearings
kd = 0.55 when d/b  0.7
= 0.86 when d/b  1.5 with immediate values found by linear
interpolation
Rv* , T* = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.3
Lb = j/2 for single central bearings

= c for twin bearings
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Pd* = total vertical load applied to the top of the diaphragm
=  P* 
Wd*    K 

D5 
. . . 7.6.5.3(7)
Wd* = total uniformly distributed load applied to the top of the

diaphragm
P* = any local load applied to the top of a diaphragm
KD5 = coefficient used for checking diaphragm buckling
w
0.4  . . . 7.6.5.3(8)
2b  bd
w = actual width of the load on the diaphragm P*, plus

an allowance for the dispersal through a concrete
flange at an angle of 45° to the vertical, and
through a steel flange at an angle of 60° to the
vertical
7.6.5.4 Yielding of diaphragm plate
*
The value of f R1 and f 
* 2
R2
*
 
 3 f Rv
2
shall not exceed the lesser of—
(a) f yd; or
  * T*  
  R v  d 
 Lb  
(b) 
f yd 1.2  
1.25 K D Et d3 
 
 
where
* * *
f R1 , f R2 , f Rv = reference values of stress as specified in Clauses 7.6.5.2.2, 7.6.5.2.3
and 7.6.5.2.4, respectively
Lb, KD = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.3

d = as shown in Figure 7.6.5.2.1
td, fyd = thickness and nominal yield stress of the diaphragm plate, respectively
7.6.5.5 Buckling of diaphragm plate
The design of the diaphragm plate shall satisfy the following:
T*  0.7 K D Et d3 
 Rv* 
Lv
  
d

 . . . 7.6.5.5
 
where
Lb, KD = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.3

td = thickness of the diaphragm plate
d = as shown in Figure 7.6.5.2.1
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7.6.6 Stiffened diaphragms

7.6.6.1 General
Diaphragms stiffened by an orthogonal system of stiffeners, generally as shown in
Figure 7.6.1, shall be designed to meet the yield criterion specified in Clause 7.6.6.4, and
the buckling criteria specified in Clause 7.6.6.5, using the appropriate stresses determined
in accordance with Clause 7.6.6.2. In addition, all types of stiffeners shall be designed so
that they meet the yield criterion specified in Clause 7.6.6.6, and the buckling criterion
specified in Clause 7.6.6.7, using the appropriate stresses determined in accordance with
Clause 7.6.6.3.
Web and flange junctions shall be designed in accordance with Clause 7.6.7.
Stiffening may consist of any one of the following:
(a) Bearing stiffeners, which span from a box girder flange immediately above a bearing,
to the flange at deck level.
(b) Stub stiffeners, which are short vertical stiffeners above bearings.
(c) Intermediate stiffeners, which may be either primary or secondary.
Stiffeners spanning between box walls or, if horizontal, between a box web and a bearing
stiffener, or between bearing stiffeners, shall be treated as primary. All other stiffeners shall
be treated as secondary.
7.6.6.2 Stresses in diaphragm plates
7.6.6.2.1 General
Relevant stress components shall be calculated at the corners of each plate panel, using the
appropriate section properties obtained from Clause 7.6.2, in accordance with
Clauses 7.6.6.2.2 and 7.6.6.2.4. When considering secondary bending stresses to take into
account the effect of holes in the diaphragms, they shall be added to these components.
7.6.6.2.2 Vertical stresses
Vertical stresses in stiffened diaphragms ( f d1* ) may be neglected with the exception of those
due to—
(a) a change in slope of the main girder flange; and
(b) local wheel loads applied above the diaphragm, which shall be calculated in
accordance with Clause 7.4.3.1.
7.6.6.2.3 Horizontal stresses
Horizontal stresses f d2* shall be calculated under the action of the following:
(a) The in-plane primary moment (M*) on the diaphragm which shall be calculated as
follows:
 Q* L 
   P x   R x
n
M *  C d Qv*  2QT* x w  C d Qc* xc  i
*
i
*
v b   fv f 
 . . . 7.6.6.2.3(1)
l i  2 
where (as shown in Figure 7.6.6.2)
Cd = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.3
Qv* = total vertical component of symmetric shear transmitted into the
diaphragm from one web
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QT* = vertical component of torsional shear transmitted into the diaphragm

from one web, given by T*/2b
NOTE: In calculating the effects in plate panels occurring in a region bounded
by an inclined girder web, a girder top flange, and a vertical line passing
through the bottom of the flange and web junction, Qv* and Qc* should be
taken on the assumption that they are uniformly distributed over the depth of
the girder web.
xw = horizontal distance, from the section under consideration to the mid
point of the web
Qc* = vertical component of any cross-beam or cantilever shear
xc = horizontal distance from the section under consideration to the root of
the cross-beam or cantilever
Pi* = locally applied deck load between the section under consideration and
the web
xi = distance from the section under consideration to the locally applied
deck load Pi*
Rv* = total vertical load transmitted by the diaphragm to one bearing
xb = distance from the section under consideration to the inner edge of the
nearest bearing plus j/4, for sections between twin bearings, or is zero
for all other sections, and for diaphragms with a single bearing
Qfv* Lf = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.3
The horizontal bending stress in a stiffened diaphragm ( f 2b* ) shall be calculated as
follows:
M*
f 2*b 
Ze
where
Ze = the effective section modulus of a vertical cross-section of the diaphragm
and flanges at the point under consideration, derived in accordance with
Clause 7.6.2
(b) The horizontal component of the girder shear when the webs are inclined. The
horizontal stress ( f 2v* ) from this component shall be calculated as follows:
Qv* tan 
f 2*v  . . . 7.6.6.2.3(2)
Ae
where
Qv* = as specified in Item (a)
 = inclination of the box web to the vertical
Ae = effective area of a vertical cross-section of the diaphragm and flanges, at
the point under consideration, derived in accordance with Clause 7.6.2
The total horizontal stress ( f d2* ) at the point under consideration shall be calculated as
follows:
f d2*  f 2b*  f 2v* . . . 7.6.6.2.3(4)
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7.6.6.2.4 Shear stresses

Shear stresses shall be calculated under the action of the shear flow (q*) at the section of the
diaphragm under consideration. This shear flow (q*) shall be taken as constant over the net
depth or width of the diaphragm, and shall be calculated as follows:
(a) In the sections between a box web and an outer bearing stiffener:
Qv*  QT*  Qfv*  Qfv*  Qc*  Pi* Qh*
q*   . . . 7.6.6.2.4(1)
ds be
(b) In sections between inner bearing stiffeners where there are twin bearings:
 Q* Q* T *  1 Q*
q *   v  bv   QT*   h . . . 7.6.6.2.4(2)
 4 2 c  d e be
(c) In sections between pairs of bearing stiffeners above one of a pair of bearings, up to
the height of longitudinal flange stiffener cut-outs:
 5Q * T *  1 Qh*
q *   v    . . . 7.6.6.2.4(3)
 8 2c  d e j  wh
(d) In sections between pairs of bearing stiffeners above a single bearing, up to the height
of longitudinal flange stiffener cut-outs:
 Q* T *  1 Qh*
q *   v   QT*   . . . 7.6.6.2.4(4)
 4 ss  d e j  wh
where
Qv* QT* Qc* , Pi* = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.2.3
Qfv* , T* = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.3
Qh* Qbv
*
,c = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.4
de, be = net depth and width of the diaphragm at the point under
consideration, respectively
j, wh = as specified in Clause 7.6.5.2.2
ss = distance between stiffener centroids
The shear stress ( f v* ) in the sections referred to in Item (a), Item (b), Item (c) or Item (d)
q*
f v*  . . . 7.6.6.2.4(5)
td
where td is the thickness of the diaphragm plate in the panel under consideration.
In sections other than those referred to in Item (a), Item (b), Item (c) or Item (d), f v* may be
disregarded.
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P *i
wi
Q *h
xi
S e c t i o n u n d er xc
c o n s i d er at i o n
xw Q *c
Q *v Q *T
f v* f d1
*
d /2
f d*2 f d*2
f d1
* f v*
xb R*v L
j /4
FIGURE 7.6.6.2 LOAD EFFECTS AND NOTATION FOR STIFFENED DIAPHRAGMS
7.6.6.3 Stresses in diaphragm stiffeners

7.6.6.3.1 General stresses
Stresses in diaphragm stiffeners shall be determined in accordance with Clauses 7.6.6.3.2
to 7.6.6.3.4, using the appropriate effective stiffener sections obtained from Clause 7.6.4.1.
The stiffener types, bearing, stub, primary intermediate and secondary intermediate, are
defined in Clause 7.6.6.1.
7.6.6.3.2 Vertical stresses in bearing stiffeners
The vertical stress in a bearing stiffener ( f1s* ) shall be calculated as follows:
Ps*
f1s*  . . . 7.6.6.3.2(1)
Ase
where
Ps* = total vertical force in the group of bearing stiffeners
Ase = effective cross-sectional area of the group of bearing stiffeners, derived in
accordance with Clause 7.6.4.1
NOTE: Both values are taken at the level under consideration.
In the absence of openings in the diaphragm between the group of bearing stiffeners and the
adjacent web, the vertical force ( Ps* ) may be assumed to vary linearly from the value of the
reaction at the bearing to the value of any reaction transmitted from the deck to the top of
the bearing stiffener.
If there are any openings in the diaphragm between the group of bearing stiffeners and the
adjacent web, no variation of load over the depth of such openings shall be assumed. The
variation over the remaining parts of the diaphragm shall be assumed to be linear of
constant slope. In the case of a diaphragm above a single bearing, an additional vertical
stress ( f1T* ) from torsional reaction in a bearing stiffener shall be calculated as follows:
Ts* x
f1T*  . . . 7.6.6.3.2(2)
I yse
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where
Ts* = value of the moment in the plane of the diaphragm on the group of bearing
stiffeners
x = horizontal distance of the stiffener under consideration from the centroidal axis,
normal to the plane of the diaphragm, of the stiffener group (see Figure 7.6.1)
Iyse = effective second moment of area of the stiffener group about the centroidal axis
of the stiffener group (axis y-y in Figure 7.6.1), derived in accordance with
Clause 7.6.4
NOTE: All values are taken at the point under consideration. Ts* may be assumed to vary
linearly, from the torsional reaction above the bearing, to zero at the top flange level.
Where stub stiffeners are used, the stress calculated in this Clause may be reduced locally
by including the area of such stiffeners, provided their connections to the diaphragm plate
are adequate to transfer their share of the bearing reaction.
7.6.6.3.3 Bending stresses in bearing stiffeners
The bending stress ( f bs* ) in a bearing stiffener due to an out-of-plane moment shall be
M s* y
f bs*  . . . 7.6.6.3.3
I xse
where
M s* = portion of the out-of-plane moment carried by the group of bearing stiffeners
y = distance of the extreme fibre of the stiffener under consideration from the
centroidal axis, parallel to the plane of the diaphragm, of the stiffener group
(see Figure 7.6.1)
Ixse = effective second moment of area of the stiffener group about the centroidal
axis of the stiffener group (axis x-x in Figure 7.6.1), derived in accordance
with Clause 7.6.4
NOTE: All values are taken at the point under consideration.
A proportion of the out-of-plane moment may be assumed to be carried by the flange
longitudinal stiffeners, provided due account is taken of this in their design.
Stub stiffeners shall not be considered to carry any part of the out-of-plane moment carried
by a bearing stiffener group unless they have an adequate out-of-plane shear connection to
the bearing stiffeners or the box walls, or both.
7.6.6.3.4 Equivalent stress for buckling check
The equivalent axial stress in the stiffener ( f se* ), to be used in the buckling check of all
stiffeners in accordance with Clause 7.6.6.7, shall be taken as the maximum value within
the middle-third of the length of the stiffener (Ls) calculated as follows:
1  f q* L2s t d k s  As  
f se*  f a*   1    f vh* t d hh  . . . 7.6.6.3.4(1)
Ase  a max  Ls t d  
where for all stiffeners

Ase = effective cross-sectional area of the stiffener derived in accordance with
Clause 7.6.4
Ls = length of the stiffener between points of effective restraint
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td = plate thickness of the diaphragm

ks = coefficient used in determining effective stiffener stress
= obtained from Figure 7.4.4 using the slenderness parameter (ratio)
Ls f ys
 = . . . 7.6.6.3.4(2)
rse 355
rse = radius of gyration of the effective section of the stiffener about its
centroidal axis parallel to the plane of the diaphragm, derived in
As = sum of the areas of all stiffeners which intersect the stiffeners being designed,
within the length Ls not including any adjacent diaphragm plate
f d2* = specified in Clause 7.6.6.2.3 for the level being considered, and taken as
positive when compressive
f 2s* = average value of f d2* within the middle-third of the length Ls
f a* , f q* , amax, f vh* and hh shall be calculated as follows for the appropriate type of stiffener:
(a) For bearing stiffeners, the total vertical stress:

f a*  f1s*  f1T* . . . 7.6.6.3.4(3)
where
f1s* , f1T* = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.3.2
f q* = stresses in diaphragm stiffeners
= f 2s*
amax. = maximum spacing of vertical stiffeners, which would ensure the

adequacy of the diaphragm plate and any horizontal stiffeners, and
may conservatively be taken as the actual spacing of vertical
stiffeners
f vh* , hh = 0
In calculating amax. and f q* , account shall not be taken of any opening in the
diaphragm adjacent to the stiffener, i.e., it shall be assumed that a plate of thickness td
fills the opening.
(b) For all intermediate stiffeners:
amax. = one-half of the sum of the panel widths on each side of the stiffener
Where the widths vary over the length (Ls), the average value of the
middle-third shall be used
f v* = average shear stress in the panels on either side of the stiffener
f vh* = shear stress which would occur in the plating adjacent to a stiffener if
the opening had been fully plated
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= 0, except in the case of stiffeners framing an opening where f vh* is the

shear stress, which would occur in the plating adjacent to the stiffener if
the opening had been fully plated
hh = 0, except in the case of stiffeners framing an opening where hh is the
dimension of the opening parallel to the stiffener
(c) For horizontal intermediate stiffeners only:
f a*  f d2* . . . 7.6.6.3.4(4)
f q*  f v* . . . 7.6.6.3.4(5)
(d) For vertical intermediate stiffeners only:

f a*  0
f 2*b max .  f 2 b min .

f q*  f v*  f 2*s  . . . 7.6.6.3.4(6)
12
where f 2b* max and f 2b* min are the maximum and minimum values of f 2b* , derived in
accordance with Clause 7.6.6.2.3, within the length (Ls) and taken as positive when
compressive.
7.6.6.4 Yielding of diaphragm plates
Plate panels between stiffeners, or between stiffeners and the box walls, shall be designed
such that all points in every panel—
f   f 
* 2
d1
* 2
d2  
 f d*1 f d*2  3 f v*
2
  f yd . . . 7.6.6.4
where
f d1* = vertical stress in stiffened diaphragm
= f1s*  f1T* for parts of plate panels forming part of the effective section of any
bearing stiffener, or is the vertical in-plane stress due to local deck loads and
change in flange slope, if relevant, for all remaining parts of the plate panels
f1s* = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.3.2
f1T* = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.3.2, but with the value of x in

Clause 7.6.6.3.2 taken as the dimension from the centroidal axis to the
extreme fibre of the effective section of the stiffener group
f d2* = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.2.3
f v* = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.2.4

f yd* = nominal yield stress of the diaphragm plate
7.6.6.5 Buckling of diaphragm plates

Plate panels need not be checked for buckling provided that—
(a) the cross-section of the girder is nominally rectangular;
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(b) the ratio of the depth of the diaphragm (d) to the minimum plate thickness (td) is less
than—
355
80
f yd
(c) the overhang (see Figure 7.6.5.2.1 or Figure 7.6.6.2) from the outer edge of the
bearing to the box web (L) is less than d/2;
(d) stiffening is limited to the bearing stiffeners themselves and any member providing
continuity of cross-beam or cantilever flanges through the diaphragm; and
(e) there is no change in flange slope at the diaphragm.
Where plate panels do not meet the criteria specified in Items (a) to (e), they shall meet the
buckling criteria specified in Clause 7.4.3, but with the following qualifications:
(i) For panels adjacent to an inclined web, the panel dimension (a) shall be taken as the
maximum horizontal dimension of the panel.
(ii) A plate panel of non-constant thickness shall be assumed to be of its minimum
thickness throughout.
(iii) All plate panels adjacent to the box webs or flanges, or to boundary stiffeners shall be
not greater than 25td from the box walls or to large cut-outs shall be treated as
unrestrained.
(iv) For a plate panel without horizontal stiffeners, bounded on three sides by the main
beam web and the two main beam flanges, the shear buckling coefficient (Kv) shall
not be greater than—
1.3  106  td 
2
  b 2 
  1     7.6.6.5
f yd  b    a  
where
fyd, td = nominal yield stress and thickness, respectively, of the diaphragm plate
b, a = width and length of the panel, respectively
(v) f d2* shall be taken as the main longitudinal stress in the plate panel, and hence for the
purposes of meeting the buckling criterion specified in Clause 7.4.3, f d1* and f d2* as
derived in accordance with Clause 7.6.6.4 shall be taken as f 2* and f1* respectively,
in Clause 7.4.3.
7.6.6.6 Yielding of diaphragm stiffeners
A bearing stiffener section shall be designed such that, at any point along its length shall
be—
f1s*  f1T*  f bs*   f ys . . . 7.6.6.6
where
f1s*  f1T* = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.3.2
f bs* = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.3.3

The bearing stress at the point of contact with a flange shall be calculated using the
effective section in accordance with Clause 7.6.2.
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7.6.6.7 Buckling of diaphragm stiffeners

The stiffener section shall be such that, at any point within the middle-third of the length of
the stiffener—
f se* f*
 bs   . . . 7.6.6.7(1)
f Ls f ys
where
f se* = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.3.4
fLs = limiting stiffener stress, obtained from Figure 7.4.4.2 using the slenderness
parameter (ratio)
Ls f ys
 = . . . 7.6.6.7(2)
 se 355
Ls = length of the stiffener between points of effective restraint
se = radius of gyration of the effective section of the stiffener about its
centroidal axis parallel to the plane of the diaphragm, derived in
f bs* = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.3.3, for bearing stiffener, or is taken as zero for an
intermediate stiffener
7.6.7 Diaphragm and web junctions
7.6.7.1 General
The diaphragm and web junction shall be designed as a stiffener to the box web, spanning
between box flanges, unsupported in the plane of the diaphragm, and with effective section
derived in accordance with Clause 7.6.4.2.
7.6.7.2 Loadings in diaphragm and web junctions
The junction shall withstand the effects of the following:
(a) All loads transmitted to the diaphragm from the cross-beams or cantilevers, or both,
in the plane of the diaphragm. Such loads shall be assumed to be applied at the
centroidal axis of the effective section, and to vary linearly from a maximum at the
top of the junction, to zero at the bottom.
(b) The total shear in the web or webs (V*) at the diaphragm under consideration less the
elastic buckling capacity (Vb) of the web or webs as appropriate. The elastic
buckling capacity of the web shall be determined in accordance with Clause 5.10.5.
7.6.7.3 Strength of diaphragm and web junction
The maximum stress at any point on the cross-section of the junction, at any section in its
length, shall not exceed f ys, where f ys is the nominal yield stress of the junction section,
and  is the capacity reduction factor given in Table 3.2.
The effective junction section shall be such that—
P* M*
  . . . 7.6.7.3(1)
Ase f Ls Z se f ys
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where
P*, M* = maximum force on the effective junction section, and the maximum moment
about the centroidal axis parallel to the web due to the loadings specified in
Clause 7.6.7.2 within the middle third of the length of the junction
respectively
Ase = effective area of the diaphragm and web junction (see Clause 7.6.4.2)
fLs = obtained from Figure 7.4.4.2 using the slenderness parameter (ratio)
Ls f ys
 = . . . 7.6.7.3(2)
rse 355
Ls = total length of the junction section
rse = radius of gyration of the effective junction section about its
centroidal axis parallel to the web, derived in accordance with
Clause 7.6.4.2
fys = nominal yield stress of the junction section
Zse = lowest section modulus of the effective junction section about the centroidal
axis parallel to the web (see Clause 7.6.4.2)
7.6.7.4 Junction restraint provided by diaphragm stiffeners
Diaphragm and web junctions shall be designed in accordance with Clauses 7.6.7.1
to 7.6.7.3, except that full width horizontal stiffeners in the diaphragm may be assumed to
offer restraint to the junction in the plane of the diaphragm, provided that the equivalent
axial stress ( f se* ) in such stiffeners (see Clause 7.6.6.3.4) is increased by an amount equal
to—
0.025P *
ns Ase
where
P* = specified in Clause 7.6.7.3
ns = number of full width horizontal stiffeners
Ase = effective area of the horizontal stiffeners derived in accordance with
Clause 7.6.4.1
NOTE: In this case, Ls specified in Clause 7.6.7.3 may be taken as the distance between such
stiffeners.
7.6.8 Continuity of cross-beams and cantilevers
When continuity of cross-beams and cantilevers is provided in the plane of a diaphragm,
that portion within the box walls shall be determined in accordance with the following:
(a) The force in the member providing continuity to the bottom flange of the transverse
member shall be taken as the moment in the transverse member at the box wall
divided by the distance between the mid-plane of the top and bottom flanges of the
member. If the force is different at the two box walls, a linear variation along the
length may be assumed.
(b) If the member providing the continuity in Item (a) is also required as a horizontal
stiffener for a diaphragm designed in accordance with Clause 7.6.6, it shall be
designed to withstand, in addition to the load given in Item (a), an axial force equal to
Ase f se* ;
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where
Ase = effective cross-sectional area of the continuity member derived in
f se* = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.3.4
(c) The member providing the continuity in Item (a) shall be designed as a compression
member and shall be assumed to be unrestrained out of the plane of the diaphragm
unless provided with effective intermediate restraint. If these restraints are provided
by bearing or primary vertical diaphragm stiffeners, such stiffeners shall each be
designed to resist, in addition to all other forces specified in Clause 7.6.6.3, a force
equal to 2.5% of the maximum axial load in the continuity member including that
given in Item (b), if appropriate. This force shall be applied, out of the plane of the
diaphragm, at the point of intersection of the continuity member and the stiffener
providing the restraint. The stiffener shall be designed to satisfy—
f se* f *  f b*2
 bs  . . . 7.6.8
f Ls f ys
where
f se* , f Ls , f bs* , f ys = as specified in Clause 7.6.6.7
f b*2 = bending stress induced in the stiffener by the above force,

taken as the maximum value within the middle-third of the
length of the stiffener
7.7 GEOMETRIC REQUIREMENTS FOR LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS

7.7.1 General
Longitudinal stiffeners to webs and compression flanges shall conform with the geometric
requirements of this Clause. The dimensions of stiffeners shall be as given in Figure 7.7.1.
b b1 b2 b1
t = t f or t w
ts
ts ts ds ts hs
ts ds2 ds2
hs hs
tso d s1
bso bso
bs bs
d s1
FIGURE 7.7.1 GEOMETRIC NOTATION FOR FLANGE AND WEB STIFFENERS
7.7.2 Flat stiffeners

The proportions of flat stiffeners shall be such that—
hs f ys
(a)  10,
ts 355
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or a higher value obtained from Figure 7.7.2, when the following proportions are
achieved
b fy
(b)  31
t 355
where (as shown in Figure 7.7.1)
hs, ts = depth and thickness, respectively, of the stiffener
spacing of stiffeners, or the distance between the stiffener and the beam
b =
flange and web boundary, as appropriate
NOTE: In the case of non-uniform spacing, the average value on the two sides
may be taken.
t = plate thickness tf or tw
fys, f y = yield stresses of the stiffener and web or flange plate sections
7.7.3 Angle stiffeners
Angle stiffeners shall comply with AS 3679.1 and be proportioned such that—
(a) bs  hs;
bs f ys
(b)  11; and
ts 355
hs f ys Ls f ys
(c)  7, or a higher value obtained from Figure 7.7.3, when  50.
ts 355 bs 355
b fy h f ys
NOTE: When  30 , there is no limitation on s ,
t 355 ts 355
where
bs, ts, hs = width, thickness depth of the angle stiffener, as shown in Figure 7.7.1
Ls = span of the stiffener between supporting members
b , t, f ys, f y = as specified in Clause 7.7.2
7.7.4 Tee stiffeners
Tee stiffeners shall be proportioned such that—
bso f ys
(a)  10;
t so 355
ds f ys  f a
(b)  41; and
ts 355
ds f ys
(c)  either 7; or higher value obtained from either—
ts 355
Ls f ys
(i) Figure 7.7.4(A), when  25; or
bs 355
b f ys d
(ii) Figure 7.7.4(B), when both  32; and s  4;
t 355 bs
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where
bso = width of the flange outstand of a stiffener
tso = average thickness of the flange outstand of width bso
fys = as specified in Clause 7.7.2
ds, ts = depth and thickness of the tee stiffener, as shown in Figure 7.7.1
fa = longitudinal stress (positive when compressive for the strength limit
state) at the centroid of the effective section of the stiffener, but may
conservatively be taken as fys
Ls = as specified in Clause 7.7.3
bs = width of the tee stiffener, as shown in Figure 7.7.1
7.7.5 Closed stiffeners
Closed stiffeners shall be proportioned such that—
d s1 f ys
(a)  29; and
ts 355
d s2 f ys  f a
(b)  41
ts 355
where
ds1, = widths of the walls of the stiffeners, as shown in Figure 7.7.1
ds2
ts = thickness of the stiffener, as shown in Figure 7.7.1
fys = as specified in Clause 7.7.2
fa = as specified in Clause 7.7.4
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50 50
45 45
40 40
35 35
30 30
355
fys
355
fy
25 25
bs
Ls
b
t
20 bt fys 20
t s2 355
15 15
10 16 0 10
80
40
20
10
5
5 5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
fys hs fys
hs
ts 355 ts 355
(Permission to reproduce extracts from British (Permission to reproduce extracts from British
Standards is granted by BSI Standards Limited (BSI). Standards is granted by BSI Standards Limited (BSI).
No other use of this material is permitted.) No other use of this material is permitted.)
FIGURE 7.7.2 LIMITING SLENDERNESS FIGURE 7.7.3 LIMITING SLENDERNESS

FOR FLAT STIFFENERS FOR ANGLE STIFFENERS
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50 50
45 45
40 40
2.. 5
2
35 35 2.0
1. 5
30 30
355
fys
355
fys
25 1.0
25
ds
ts
bs
Ls
20 20
0. 5
15 t
15
ts
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
ds fys
b fy
ts 355
t 355
(Permission to reproduce extracts from British (Permission to reproduce extracts from British
Standards is granted by BSI Standards Limited (BSI). Standards is granted by BSI Standards Limited (BSI).
No other use of this material is permitted.) No other use of this material is permitted.)
FIGURE 7.7.4(A) LIMITING FIGURE 7.7.4(B) LIMITING

SLENDERNESS FOR TEE STIFFENERS SLENDERNESS FOR TEE STIFFENERS
(Related to Ls/b s) (Related to b/t)
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SECTI ON 8 TRANSVERSE MEMBERS AND

RESTRAINTS
8.1 GENERAL
Sufficient transverse members and restraint systems shall be provided between members to
ensure that all external loads and load effects can be transmitted to the supporting
structures, and that adequate restraint is provided where such restraint has been assumed in
accordance with Section 5.
8.2 DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of this Section, the definitions below apply.
8.2.1 Cross-girders
Transverse members connecting main members to assist in transverse load distribution
between main beams or to transfer local deck loadings to main beams.
8.2.2 Cross-frames
Triangulated framework of members, either connecting main beams for the distribution of
loads, or placed internally in box girders to resist distortion.
8.2.3 Diaphragm
1 Diaphragm in box girders Either an internal steel plate (stiffened or unstiffened) or
concrete section extending over the full depth and width of the box girder.
2 Diaphragm at the supports of box girders Used to transmit vertical forces from the
applied loadings to the support bearings.
3 Diaphragm between beams such as I-section members or channels Steel plate or
concrete section that distributes reactions or applied loadings between the individual
members.
8.2.4 Permanent lateral bracing
A framework of members set in a lateral (generally horizontal) plane near the plane of the
flanges being braced.
8.2.5 Separator
Member connecting the beams to prevent the premature failure of one beam prior to the
failure of the assembly of beams as a unit, used between two or more beams such as
I-section members or channels.
8.2.6 Temporary cross-bracing
A framework of members connecting main beams to provide stability during transportation,
erection and construction of the deck slab.
8.3 PARTICULAR REQUIREMENTS

8.3.1 General
For multi-beam and girder bridges, transverse members and restraint systems in accordance
with Clause 8.3.2 shall be provided, unless a method of analysis in accordance with
Clause 4 justifies that other arrangements are adequate.
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8.3.2 Restraint at supports

All beams, including cantilever beams, shall be restrained against rotation about their own
axes at each support. In addition to the requirement of Clause 8.4.3, the restraining system
shall be capable of resisting the co-existent effects of wind, frictional and other applied
forces. The transverse force referred to in Clause 8.4.3 shall be taken as 0.025 times the
maximum force in the critical flange either at the support under consideration or in the span
either side of it.
Where such restraint is provided by interconnecting bracing between two or more beams,
consideration shall be given to the possibility of lateral instability of the combined cross-
section, in accordance with Clause 8.4.4.
8.4 DESIGN OF RESTRAINTS TO FLEXURAL MEMBERS

8.4.1 General
The members and connections of beam restraint systems shall be designed to transfer the
forces and moments specified in Clause 8.4.2 to Clause 8.4.6, together with any other forces
or moments that may act simultaneously, from the points where the forces or moments arise
to anchorage or reaction points. The detailing of the connections shall be such as to obviate
fatigue.
8.4.2 Restraint against lateral deflection
The lateral restraint at any cross-section considered to be fully, partially or laterally
restrained in terms of Clause 5.4.2 shall be designed to transfer a transverse force acting at
the critical flange equal to 0.025 times the maximum force in the critical flanges of the
adjacent segments or sub-segments, except where the restraints are more closely spaced
than is required to ensure that M* =  Mb .
Where the restraints are more closely spaced, then a lesser force may be designed for. The
actual arrangement of restraints shall be assumed to be equivalent to a set of restraints that
will ensure that M* =  Mb . Each equivalent restraint shall correspond to an appropriate
group of the actual restraints. This group shall then be designed as a whole to transfer the
transverse force of 0.025 times the maximum force in the critical flanges of the equivalent
adjacent segments or sub-segments.
8.4.3 Restraint against twist rotation
A torsional restraint at a cross-section shall be deemed to provide effective restraint against
twist rotation, provided it is designed to transfer a transverse force equal to 0.025 times the
maximum force in the critical flange from any unrestrained flange to the lateral restraint.
A torsional restraint at a cross-section shall be deemed to provide partial restraint against
twist rotation, provided it is able to provide an elastic restraint against twist rotation
without rotational slip. Flexible elements such as unstiffened webs may form part of such a
restraint, provided they are connected in such a way as to prevent rotational slip.
Any restraint at a cross-section that permits rotational slip shall be deemed to be ineffective
in restraining twist rotation.
8.4.4 Parallel restrained members
At a cross-section where a series of parallel members is restrained by a line of restraints,
each restraining element shall be designed to transfer a transverse force equal to the sum of
0.025 times the flange force from the connected member and 0.0125 times the sum of the
flange forces in the connected members beyond, except that no more than seven members
need be considered.
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8.4.5 Restraint against lateral rotation

A rotational restraint at a cross-section, which is considered to be fully or partially
restrained as specified in Clauses 5.4.2.1, 5.4.2.2 and 5.4.2.3, shall be deemed to provide
restraint against lateral rotation out of the plane of bending, provided its flexural stiffness in
the plane of rotation is comparable with the corresponding stiffness of the restrained beam.
A segment that has full lateral support, as defined in Clause 5.3.2, shall be deemed to
provide rotational restraint to an adjacent segment that is laterally continuous with it.
A segment that does not have full lateral support shall be assumed to be unable to provide
rotational restraint to an adjacent segment, unless the member resistance is determined by
the method of design by buckling analysis in accordance with Clause 5.6.6.
8.4.6 Intermediate U-frame restraints
8.4.6.1 General
Where beams are designed to be restrained by intermediate U-frames, those frames shall be
designed in accordance with the provisions of this Clause (8.4.6).
In addition, an effective system of lateral bracing shall be provided at the level of the
cross-member of the U-frame along the entire length of the span.
8.4.6.2 Design of U-frames
Each intermediate U-frame and its connections shall be designed to resist in addition to the
applied loadings, a nominal horizontal force ( Fu* ), acting normal to the compression flange
at the level of its centroid, using the following equation:
 f f*  Le
Fu*   
*  . . . 8.4.6.2(1)
 f ci  f f  667 u
 f f*  E I c
  
*  2 . . . 8.4.6.2(2)
 f ci  f f  16.7 Lu
where
f f* = maximum compressive stress in the flange
Le, Δu, Ic, Lu = as specified in Clause 5.6.3

fci = equivalent buckling stress in the flange
 2 E p
= . . . 8.4.6.2(3)
L e / ry 
2
p = S/Z for compact sections

= d/2yt for non-compact sections
S = plastic modulus of the section
Z = elastic section modulus with respect to the extreme compression
fibre
d = overall depth of the section
yt = distance from the axis of zero stress to the extreme tension fibre
of the section
For composite construction, with the concrete in tension, the
extreme fibre shall be taken as the outer surface of the tensile
reinforcing steel
r y = radius of gyration about the minor principal y-axis
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Where there are several interconnecting beams, two such forces ( Fu* ) shall be applied in the
same or opposite direction, in such a way as to produce the most severe effect in the part
being considered.
8.4.6.3 U-frames with cross-members subject to vertical loading
Where the cross-member of a U-frame is subjected to vertical loading, an additional force,
Fc* shall be applied to the U-frame, in the same manner as Fu* , resulting from the
interaction between the bending of the cross-members and vertical stiffeners, which shall be
3EI1
Fc*  . . . 8.4.6.3
d 22
where
I1 , d2 = as specified in Clause 5.6.3
 = rotation in radians of the cross-member at its junction with the main beam
under consideration, under the loading used in calculating f f* , in accordance
with Clause 8.4.6.2
NOTE: For all bridges, except deck-type road bridges with cross-members formed entirely of
reinforced concrete, the lateral flexure of a compression flange due to loading on a cross-member
should be considered.
8.4.7 Continuous restraint provided by deck
8.4.7.1 Deck at compression flange level
A deck at the critical flange level may be considered as providing a continuous restraint to
the critical flange, provided the deck and its connections to the beam flange satisfy
Clause 8.4.2. The lateral force determined in accordance with Clause 8.4.2 shall be
uniformly distributed along the span of the main beams.
8.4.7.2 Deck not at compression flange level
The deck and webs and their connections shall be designed to resist, in addition to the
applied loadings, a nominal horizontal force ( Fu* ), per unit length, acting normal to the
compression flange at the level of its centroid, using the following equation:
 f f*  Le
Fu*   
*  . . . 8.4.7.2(1)
f
 ci  f f  667 u
where
f f* , fci = as specified in Clause 8.4.6
Le, Δu = as specified in Clause 5.6.4
When there are several interconnecting beams, two such forces ( Fu* ) shall be applied in the
same or opposite directions, in such a way as to produce the most severe effect in the part
being considered.
In addition, an additional nominal horizontal force ( Fc* ) per unit length shall be applied in
the same manner as Fu* resulting from the interaction between the bending of the deck and
the vertical stiffeners, which shall be determined as follows:
Et w3 
Fc*  . . . 8.4.7.2(2)
4d 22
where
tw, d2 = as specified in Clause 5.6.4
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 = rotation in radians of the deck at its junction with the main beam under
consideration, under the loading used in calculating f f* in Clause 8.4.6.2
For all bridges, except deck-type road bridges with cross-members formed entirely of
reinforced concrete, the lateral flexure of a compression flange due to loading on the deck
shall be considered.
8.5 SEPARATORS AND DIAPHRAGMS

If separators or diaphragms are used to permit two or more I-section members or channels
placed side by side to act together as a unit in the distribution of external loads between
them, the separators and diaphragms shall comply with the following:
(a) Separators, made up of spacers and through bolts, shall not be used to transmit forces
between the members other than those due to transverse forces, if any, and a design
transverse force (Q*), taken as not less than 0.025 times the maximum design force
occurring in the most heavily loaded compression flange of any member forming the
unit. The design transverse force (Q*) shall be taken as being shared equally between
the separators.
(b) Diaphragms shall be used where external forces applied perpendicular to the axis of
the members are to be transmitted from one member to another. The diaphragms and
their fastenings shall be proportioned to distribute the forces applied to them and in
addition, to resist the design transverse force (Q*) specified in Item (a), and the
resulting shear forces. The design transverse force (Q*) shall be taken as being shared
equally between the diaphragms.
8.6 DESIGN OF RESTRAINTS TO COMPRESSION MEMBERS

8.6.1 Restraint systems
The members and the connections of restraining systems designed to brace compression
members and reduce their effective lengths in accordance with Clause 4.3.2 shall be
determined by analysing the structure for its design loads, from the points where the forces
arise to anchorage or restraint points, and by designing the members and connections as
specified in Clauses 8.6.2 and 8.6.3.
8.6.2 Restraining members and connections
At each restrained cross-section of a compression member, the restraining members and
their connections, which are required to brace the compression member, shall be designed
for the greater of—
(a) the restraining member forces specified in Clause 8.6.1; and
(b) 0.025 times the maximum axial compression force in the member at the position of
the restraint,
except where the restraint spacing is less than that for which the nominal member capacity
(Nc) as given in Clause 10.3 is equal to the nominal section capacity (Ns) as given in
Clause 10.2.
When the restraint spacing is less, then a lesser force may be designed for. The actual
arrangement of restraint shall be assumed to be equivalent to a set of restraints that are just
sufficient to ensure that Nc = Ns. Each equivalent restraint shall correspond to an
appropriate group of the actual restraints. This group shall then be designed as a whole to
transfer the transverse force determined for the position of the equivalent restraint.
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8.6.3 Parallel braced compression members

When a series of parallel compression members is restrained by a line of restraints, each
restraining element shall be designed to transfer the transverse force specified in
Clause 8.6.2, except that 0.025 times the axial compression force shall be replaced by the
sum of 0.025 times the axial force in the connected compression member and 0.0125 times
the sum of the axial forces in the connected compression members beyond, with no more
than seven members considered in the summation.
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SECTI ON 9 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO AXIAL

TENSI ON
9.1 DESIGN FOR AXIAL TENSION

A member subject to a design axial tension force (N*) at the ultimate limit state shall
satisfy—
N*   Nt . . . 9.1
where
 = capacity reduction factor (as given in Table 3.2)
Nt = nominal section capacity in tension determined in accordance with Clause 9.2
9.2 NOMINAL SECTION CAPACITY

9.2.1 General
The nominal section capacity of a tension member with end connections that meet the
requirements of Clause 9.2.2.1 or Clause 9.2.2.2 shall be taken as the lesser of—
Nt = Agfy; and . . . 9.2.1(1)
Nt = 0.85ktAnfu . . . 9.2.1(2)
where
Ag = gross area of the cross-section
kt = correction factor defined for distribution of forces determined in accordance
with Clause 9.2.2
An = net area of the cross-section, obtained by deducting from the gross area, the
sectional area of all penetrations and holes, including fastener holes
The deduction for all fastener holes shall be made in accordance with
Clause 12.4
fu = tensile strength used in design
9.2.2 Correction factor
9.2.2.1 End connections providing uniform force distribution
Where for design purposes it is assumed that the tensile force is distributed uniformly to a
tension member, the end connections shall satisfy both the following:
(a) Connections shall be made to each part of the member and shall be symmetrically
placed about the centroidal axis of the member.
(b) Each part of the connection shall be proportioned to transmit at least the maximum
design force carried by the connected part of the member.
For connections satisfying these requirements, the value of kt shall be taken as 1.0.
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9.2.2.2 End connections providing non-uniform force distribution

If the end connections of a tension member do not satisfy the requirements of
Clause 9.2.2.1, the member shall be designed to comply with Section 11 using kt = 1.0.
Clause 9.2.1 may be used for the following members:
(a) Eccentrically connected angles, channels and tees Eccentrically connected angles,
channels and tees may be designed in accordance with Clause 9.2.1 using the
appropriate value of kt given in Table 9.2.2.2.
(b) I-section or channel section connected by both flanges only A symmetrical rolled or
built-up member of solid I-section or channel section connected by both flanges only
may be designed in accordance with Clause 9.2.1 using a value of kt equal to 0.85,
provided—
(i) the length between the first and last row of fasteners in the connection, or when
the member is welded, the length of longitudinal weld provided to each side for
the connected flanges is not less than the depth of the member; and
(ii) each flange connection is proportioned to transmit at least half of the maximum
design force carried by the connected member.
TABLE 9.2.2.2
CORRECTION FACTOR (k t)
Configuration case Correction factor (k t )
(i) 0.75 for unequal angles
connected by the short
leg
0.85 otherwise
(ii)
As for Case (i)
(iii)
0.85
(iv)
0.90
(v)
1.0
(vi)
1.0
(continued)
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TABLE 9.2.2.2 (continued)
Configuration case Correction factor (k t )

(vii)
1.0
9.3 TENSION MEMBERS WITH TWO OR MORE MAIN COMPONENTS

9.3.1 General
A tension member composed of two or more components intended to act as a single member
shall comply with Clauses 9.3.2 to 9.3.5, inclusive.
9.3.2 Design forces for connections
If a tension member is composed of two or more main components, the connections
between the components shall be proportioned to resist the internal actions arising from the
external design forces and bending moments, if any. The design forces for lacing bars, and
design forces and bending moments, if any, for battens, shall be considered as divided
equally among the connection planes parallel to the direction of force.
9.3.3 Tension members composed of two components back-to-back
A tension member composed of two flats, angles, channels or tees, discontinuously
connected back-to-back either in contact or separated by a distance not exceeding that
required for the end gusset connection, shall comply with the following:
(a) Where the components are separated, they shall be connected either—
(i) at regular intervals along their length by welding or bolting, so that the
slenderness ratio of the individual components between connections is not
greater than 300; or
(ii) by connections that comply with Clauses 10.5.1.4 and 10.5.1.5.
(b) Where component members are in contact back-to-back, they shall be connected
together as required by Clauses 10.5.2.4 and 10.5.2.5.
9.3.4 Laced tension member
A tension member composed of two components connected by lacing shall comply with
Clause 10.4.2, except as follows:
(a) The slenderness ratio of the lacing elements shall be not greater than 210.
(b) The slenderness ratio of a main component, based on its minimum radius of gyration
and the length between consecutive points where lacing is attached, shall be not
greater than 300.
For tie plates, the requirements of Clause 10.4.2.7 shall be satisfied except that the
thickness of tie plates shall be not less than 0.017 times the distance between the innermost
lines of connections.
9.3.5 Battened tension member
A tension member composed of two components connected by battens shall comply with
Clause 10.4.3 except for the following:
(a) The spacing of battens shall be such that the maximum slenderness ratio of each main
component based on its minimum radius of gyration and the length between
consecutive battens does not exceed 300.
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(b) Battens attached by bolts shall be connected by not less than two bolts and
Clause 10.4.3.7 shall not apply.
(c) Batten plates shall have a thickness of not less than 0.017 times the distance between
the innermost lines of connections.
(d) Intermediate battens shall have a width of not less than half the effective width of end
batten plates.
9.4 MEMBERS WITH PIN CONNECTIONS

The nominal capacity of a pin connection shall be determined in accordance with
Clause 12.5. A pin connection in a tension member shall comply with the following
additional requirements:
(a) The thickness of an unstiffened element containing a hole for a pin connection shall
be greater than or equal to 0.25 times the distance from the edge of the hole to the
edge of the element measured at right angles to the axis of the member. This limit
does not apply to the internal plies where the connected elements are clamped
together by external nuts.
(b) The net area beyond a hole for a pin, parallel to or within 45° of the axis of the
member, shall be greater than or equal to the net area required for the member.
(c) The sum of the areas at a hole for a pin, perpendicular to the axis of the member, shall
be greater than or equal to 1.33 times the net area required for the member.
(d) Pin plates provided to increase the net area of a member or to increase the bearing
capacity of a pin shall be arranged to avoid eccentricity and shall be proportioned to
distribute the load from the pin into the member.
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SECTI ON 10 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO AXIAL

COMP RESSI ON
10.1 DESIGN FOR AXIAL COMPRESSION

A concentrically loaded member subject to a design axial compression force (N*) at the
strength limit state shall satisfy both—
(a) N*  Nus; and . . . 10.1(1)
(b) N  Nuc
*
. . . 10.1(2)
where
Nus = nominal section capacity for a member in axial compression, determined in
accordance with Clause 10.2 for steel compression members and Clause 10.6.2
for composite compression members
Nuc = nominal member capacity for a member in axial compression, determined in
accordance with Clause 10.3 for steel compression members, and Clause 10.6.3
for composite compression members
10.2 SECTION CAPACITY

10.2.1 General
The nominal section capacity (Nus) of a concentrically loaded compression member shall be
Nus =  Ns . . . 10.2.1(1)
where the nominal section capacity (Ns) of the compression member shall be calculated as
follows:
Ns = kf An fy . . . 10.2.1(2)
where
kf = form factor given in Clause 10.2.2
An = net area of the cross-section
For sections with penetrations or unfilled holes that reduce the section area by
less than 100[1  f y/(0.85fu)]%, the gross area may be used
Deductions for fastener holes shall be made in accordance with Clause 12.4
10.2.2 Form factor
The form factor (kf) for a member subject to axial compression shall be calculated as
follows:
kf = Ae/Ag . . . 10.2.1(2)
where
Ae = effective area of the cross-section, calculated from the gross area by summing
the effective areas of the individual elements whose effective widths are
specified in Clause 10.2.4
Ag = gross area of the section
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10.2.3 Plate element slenderness

The slenderness ( e) of a flat plate element shall be calculated as follows:
b fy
e  . . . 10.2.3(1)
t 250
where
b = clear width of an element outstand from the face of the supporting plate
element, or the clear width of the element between the faces of the supporting
plate elements
t = thickness of the plate
For circular hollow sections, the element slenderness (e) shall be calculated as follows:
do  fy 
e    . . . 10.2.3(2)
t  250 
 
where
do = outside diameter of the section
t = wall thickness of the section
10.2.4 Effective width
The effective width (be) of a flat plate element of clear width (b), or the effective outside
diameter (de) of a circular hollow section outside diameter (do), shall be calculated from the
value of the element slenderness ( e) given in Clause 10.2.3 and the element yield
slenderness limit (ey) given in Table 10.2.4.
The effective width (be) for a flat plate element shall be calculated as follows:
 ey 
be  b   b . . . 10.2.4(1)
  e 
The effective outside diameter (de) for a circular hollow section shall be the lesser of—
ey
(a) de  do  d o ; and . . . 10.2.4(2)
e
2
 3ey 
(b) d e  d o  
 . . . 10.2.4(3)
 e 
Alternatively, the effective width (be) for a flat plate element may be obtained from the
following:
 ey  k b
be  b  b . . . 10.2.4(4)

 e  k bo
where
kb = elastic buckling coefficient for the element
kbo = basic value of kb
= 4.0 for a flat plate element supported along both edges
= 10 for a flat plate element supported along both longitudinal edges and
restrained by concrete
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= 0.425 for flat pates supported along one longitudinal edge, i.e., outstands
= 2.0 for a flat plate element supported along one longitudinal edge (outstand)
and restrained by concrete
The elastic buckling coefficient (kb ) for the plate element shall be determined from a
rational elastic buckling analysis of the whole member as a flat plate assemblage.
TABLE 10.2.4
VALUES OF PLATE ELEMENT YIELD SLENDERNESS LIMIT
Plate element type Edges supported Residual stresses Yield slenderness limit
(see Note) (  ey )
One SR 16
(outstand) HR 16
LW, CF 15
HW 14
Flat
Both SR 45
HR 45
LW, CF 40
HW 35
SR, 82
HR, CF 82
Circular hollow sections
LW 82
HW 82
LEGEND:
SR = Stress relieved
LW = Lightly welded longitudinally
HR = Hot rolled or hot finished
HW = Heavily welded longitudinally
CF = Cold formed
NOTE: Welded members whose compressive residual stresses are less than 40 MPa may be considered to be
lightly welded.
10.3 NOMINAL MEMBER CAPACITY

10.3.1 Definitions
10.3.1.1 Length
The actual length (L) of an axially loaded member shall be taken as the length centre to
centre of intersections with supporting members, or the cantilevered length in the case of
freestanding members.
10.3.1.2 Geometrical slenderness ratio
The geometrical slenderness ratio (Le/r), shall be taken as the effective length (Le) specified
in Clause 10.3.2, divided by the radius of gyration (r) computed for the gross section about
the relevant axis.
The effective length (Le) of a compression member shall be determined as follows:
Le = keL . . . 10.3.2
where
ke = member effective length factor determined in accordance with Clause 4.3.2
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10.3.3 Nominal capacity of a member of constant cross-section

The ultimate member capacity (Nuc) of a steel member of constant cross-section shall be
Nuc = Nc . . . 10.3.3(1)
where the nominal member capacity (Nc) of the member shall be determined as follows:
Nc = cNs  Ns . . . 10.3.3(2)
where
Ns = nominal section capacity, determined in accordance with Clause 10.2
c = compression member slenderness reduction factor
 2
  90  
=  1  1    . . . 10.3.3(3)
    
 
 = compression member factor
=   2 . . . 10.3.4(4)
  1
 90 
2
 
2 
 90 
 = η + ab . . . 10.3.3(5)
η = 0.00326 (  13.5)  0 . . . 10.3.3(6)
 Le   fy 
η =   k f  
 . . . 10.3.3(7)
 r   250 
a = 
2100 η  13.5  . . . 10.3.3(8)
  15.3η  2050
2
η
b = appropriate section constant given in Tables 10.3.3(A) or 10.3.3(B)

kf = form factor determined in accordance with Clause 10.2.2
Alternatively, values of the member slenderness reduction factor (c) may be obtained
directly from Table 10.3.3(C), using the values of the modified member slenderness ( η )
and the appropriate member section constant (b ) given in Table 10.3.3(A) or
Table 10.3.3(B).
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TABLE 10.3.3(A)
VALUES OF MEMBER SECTION CONSTANT (b) FOR k f = 1.0
b Section description
1.0 – Hot-formed RHS sections and CHS sections
– Cold-formed (stress-relieved) RHS sections and CHS sections
0.5 – Cold-formed (non-stress relieved) RHS sections and CHS sections
0 – Hot-rolled UB sections and UC sections (flange thickness up to 40 mm)
– Welded H-sections and I-sections fabricated from flame-cut plates
– Welded box sections
0.5 – Tees flame-cut from universal sections, and angles
– Hot-rolled channels
– Welded H-sections and I-sections fabricated from as-rolled plates (flange
thickness up to 40 mm)
– Other sections not listed in this Table
1.0 – Hot-rolled UB sections and UC sections (flange thickness over 40 mm)
– Welded H-sections and I-sections fabricated from as-rolled plates (flange
thickness over 40 mm)
TABLE 10.3.3(B)
VALUES OF MEMBER SECTION CONSTANT (b) FOR k f < 1.0
b Section description
0.5 – Hot-formed RHS sections and CHS sections
– Cold-formed RHS sections and CHS sections (stress-relieved)
– Cold-formed RHS sections and CHS sections (non-stress-relieved)
0 – Hot-rolled UB sections and UC sections (flange thickness up to 40 mm)
– Welded box sections
0.5 – Welded H-sections and I-sections (flange thickness up to 40 mm)
1.0 – Other sections not listed in this Table
TABLE 10.3.3(C)
VALUES OF MEMBER SLENDERNESS REDUCTION FACTOR ( c)
Modified Compression member section constant,  b
member
slenderness 1.0 0.5 0 0.5 1.0
1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

5 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
10 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
15 1.000 0.998 0.995 0.992 0.990
20 1.000 0.989 0.978 0.967 0.956
25 0.997 0.979 0.961 0.942 0.923
30 0.991 0.968 0.943 0.917 0.888
35 0.983 0.955 0.925 0.891 0.853
40 0.973 0.940 0.905 0.865 0.818
45 0.959 0.924 0.884 0.837 0.782
50 0.944 0.905 0.861 0.808 0.747
55 0.927 0.885 0.838 0.778 0.711
60 0.907 0.862 0.809 0.746 0.676
65 0.886 0.837 0.779 0.714 0.642
70 0.861 0.809 0.748 0.680 0.609
(continued)
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TABLE 10.3.3(C) (continued )

member
slenderness 1.0 0.5 0 0.5 1.0
75 0.835 0.779 0.715 0.646 0.576

80 0.805 0.746 0.681 0.612 0.545
85 0.772 0.711 0.645 0.579 0.516
90 0.737 0.675 0.610 0.547 0.487
95 0.700 0.638 0.575 0.515 0.461
100 0.661 0.600 0.541 0.485 0.435
105 0.622 0.564 0.508 0.457 0.412
110 0.584 0.528 0.477 0.431 0.389
115 0.546 0.495 0.448 0.406 0.368
120 0.510 0.463 0.421 0.383 0.348
125 0.476 0.434 0.395 0.361 0.330
130 0.445 0.408 0.372 0.341 0.313
135 0.416 0.381 0.350 0.322 0.297
140 0.389 0.357 0.330 0.304 0.282
145 0.364 0.336 0.311 0.288 0.268
150 0.341 0.316 0.293 0.273 0.255
155 0.320 0.298 0.277 0.259 0.242
160 0.301 0.281 0.263 0.246 0.231
165 0.283 0.265 0.249 0.234 0.220
170 0.267 0.251 0.236 0.222 0.210
175 0.252 0.238 0.224 0.212 0.200
180 0.239 0.225 0.213 0.202 0.192
185 0.226 0.214 0.203 0.193 0.183
190 0.214 0.203 0.193 0.184 0.175
195 0.204 0.194 0.185 0.176 0.168
200 0.194 0.185 0.176 0.168 0.161
205 0.184 0.176 0.168 0.161 0.154
210 0.176 0.168 0.161 0.154 0.148
215 0.167 0.161 0.154 0.148 0.142
220 0.160 0.154 0.148 0.142 0.137
225 0.153 0.147 0.142 0.137 0.132
230 0.146 0.141 0.136 0.131 0.127
235 0.140 0.135 0.131 0.126 0.122
240 0.134 0.130 0.126 0.122 0.118
245 0.129 0.125 0.121 0.117 0.114
250 0.124 0.120 0.116 0.113 0.110
255 0.119 0.116 0.112 0.109 0.108
260 0.115 0.111 0.108 0.105 0.102
265 0.110 0.107 0.104 0.102 0.099
270 0.106 0.103 0.101 0.098 0.096
275 0.102 0.100 0.097 0.095 0.092
280 0.099 0.096 0.094 0.092 0.089
285 0.095 0.093 0.091 0.089 0.087
290 0.092 0.090 0.088 0.086 0.084
295 0.089 0.087 0.085 0.083 0.081
300 0.086 0.084 0.082 0.081 0.079
305 0.083 0.082 0.080 0.078 0.077
310 0.081 0.079 0.077 0.076 0.074
(continued)
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TABLE 10.3.3(C) (continued)

member
slenderness 1.0 0.5 0 0.5 1.0
315 0.078 0.077 0.075 0.074 0.072

320 0.078 0.074 0.073 0.071 0.070
340 0.067 0.066 0.065 0.064 0.063
370 0.057 0.056 0.055 0.054 0.054
400 0.049 0.048 0.047 0.047 0.046
450 0.039 0.038 0.038 0.037 0.037
500 0.031 0.031 0.031 0.031 0.030
550 0.026 0.026 0.026 0.025 0.025
600 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.021 0.021
10.3.4 Nominal capacity of a member of varying cross-section

The nominal member capacity in compression (Nc) of a member of varying cross-section
shall be determined using the provisions of Clause 10.3.3 provided the following are
satisfied:
(a) The nominal section capacity of a compression member (Ns) is the minimum value for
all cross-sections along the length of the member.
(b) The modified compression member slenderness (η) given in Clause 10.3.3 is
replaced by—
Ns
η  90 . . . 10.3.4
N om
where
Nom = elastic flexural buckling load of the member in axial compression,
determined using a rational elastic buckling analysis
10.4 LACED AND BATTENED COMPRESSION MEMBER

10.4.1 Design forces
If a compression member, composed of two or more main components that are parallel, is
intended to act as a single member, the main components and their connections shall be
proportioned to resist a design transverse shear force (V* ), at the strength limit state, applied
at any point on the length of the member in the most unfavourable direction. The design
transverse shear force (V* ) shall be using the following equation:
 Ns 
 
 1 N *
N . . . 10.4.1(1)
V*   c 
η
 0.01N * . . . 10.4.1(2)
where
Ns = nominal section capacity of the compression member specified in Clause 10.2.1
Nc = nominal member capacity of the compression member specified in Clause 10.3.3
N* = design axial force applied to the compression member
η = modified member slenderness
The modified member slenderness (η) of a battened compression member shall be
determined using Clauses 10.3.3 and 10.4.3.2.
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10.4.2 Laced compression members

10.4.2.1 Slenderness ratio of a main component
The maximum slenderness ratio (Le/r)c of a main component, based on its minimum radius
of gyration and the length between consecutive points where lacing is attached, shall not
exceed the lesser of 50 or 0.6 times the slenderness ratio of the member as a whole.
10.4.2.2 Slenderness ratio of a laced compression member
The slenderness ratio shall be calculated assuming that the main components act as an
integral member but shall not be taken as less than 1.4 (Le/r)c.
10.4.2.3 Lacing angle
The angle of inclination of the lacing to the longitudinal axis of the member shall be within
the following limits:
(a) 50° to 70° for single lacing.
(b) 40° to 50° for double lacing.
10.4.2.4 Effective length of a lacing element
The effective length of a lacing element shall be taken as the distance between the inner
welds or fasteners for single lacing, and 0.7 times this distance for double lacing that is
connected by welds or fasteners.
10.4.2.5 Slenderness ratio limit of a lacing element
The slenderness ratio of a lacing element shall be not greater than 140.
10.4.2.6 Mutually opposed lacing
Single lacing systems mutually opposed in direction on opposite sides of two main
components shall not be used unless allowance is made for the resulting torsional effects.
Double lacing systems and single lacing systems mutually opposed in direction on opposite
sides of two main components shall not be combined with members or diaphragms
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the compression member, except for tie plates as
specified in Clause 10.4.2.7, unless all actions resulting from the deformation of the
compression member are calculated and allowed for in design.
10.4.2.7 Tie plates
Tie plates shall be provided at the ends of the lacing systems, at points where the lacing
system is interrupted, and at connections with other members. End tie plates shall have a
width measured along the axis of the member of not less than the perpendicular distance
between the centroids of their connections to the main components. Intermediate tie plates
shall have a width of not less than three-quarters of this distance.
A tie plate and its connections shall be treated as battens for design purposes and designed
in accordance with Clause 10.4.3. The thickness of a tie plate shall be not less than
0.02 times the distance between the innermost lines of welds or fastenings, except where
the tie plate is effectively stiffened at its free edges. The tie plate shall be deemed to be
effectively stiffened at the free edges when the edge stiffeners have a slenderness ratio of
not greater than 170.
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10.4.3 Battened compression members

10.4.3.1 Slenderness ratio of a main component
The maximum slenderness ratio (Le/r)c of a main component, based on its minimum radius
of gyration and length between consecutive points where battens are attached, shall not
exceed the lesser of 50, or 0.6 times the slenderness ratio of the member as a whole
determined in accordance with Clause 10.4.3.2.
10.4.3.2 Slenderness ratio of battened compression members
The slenderness ratio (L e/r)bn of a battened compression member about the axis normal to
the plane of the battens shall be calculated using the following equation:
2 2
 Le  L  L 
    e   e  . . . 10.4.3.2
 r  bn  r m  r c
where
(Le/r) m= slenderness ratio of the whole battened compression member about the
above axis calculated by assuming that the main components act as an
integral member
(Le/r)c = maximum slenderness ratio of the main component determined in
The slenderness ratio (L e/r)bp of a battened compression member about the axis parallel to
the plane of the battens shall be greater than or equal to 1.4 (Le/r)c.
10.4.3.3 Effective length of a batten
The effective length of an end batten shall be taken as the perpendicular distance between
the centroids of the main components. The effective length of an intermediate batten shall
be taken as 0.7 times the perpendicular distance between the centroids of the main
components.
10.4.3.4 Maximum slenderness ratio of a batten
The slenderness ratio of a batten shall be not greater than 180.
10.4.3.5 Width of a batten
The width of an end batten shall be not less than the greater of the distance between the
centroids of the main components members and twice the width of the narrower main
component.
The width of an intermediate batten shall be not less than the greater of half the distance
between the main components and twice the width of the narrower main component.
10.4.3.6 Thickness of a batten
The thickness of a batten shall be not less than 0.02 times the minimum distance between
the innermost lines of welds or fasteners, except where the batten is effectively stiffened at
the free edges. The batten shall be deemed to be effectively stiffened at the free edges when
the edge stiffeners have a slenderness ratio of not greater than 170, where the radius of
gyration is taken about the axis parallel to the member axis.
10.4.3.7 Loads on battens
The batten and its connections shall be designed to transmit simultaneously to the main
components at the strength limit state a design longitudinal shear force ( VL* ), using the
following equation:
V * sb
VL*  . . . 10.4.3.7(1)
nb d b
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and a design bending moment (M*) using the following equation:

V * sb
M*  . . . 10.4.3.7(2)
2nb
where
V* = design transverse shear force specified in Clause 10.4.1
sb = longitudinal centre-to-centre distance between the battens
nb = number of parallel planes of battens
db = lateral distance between the centroids of the welds or fasteners
10.5 COMPRESSION MEMBERS BACK-TO-BACK

10.5.1 Components separated
10.5.1.1 Application
This Clause applies to compression members composed of two-angle, channel or T-section
components discontinuously separated back to back by a distance not exceeding that
required for the end gusset connection. If such a member is designed as a single integral
member, it shall comply with Clauses 10.5.1.2 to 10.5.1.5.
10.5.1.2 Configuration
The configuration of the main components shall be of similar sections arranged
symmetrically with their corresponding rectangular axes aligned.
10.5.1.3 Slenderness
The slenderness of the compound column about the axis parallel to the connected surfaces
shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 10.4.3.2.
10.5.1.4 Connection
The main components shall be interconnected by fasteners. Where the components are
connected together, the member shall be designed as a battened compression member in
accordance with Clause 10.4.3. The main components shall be connected at intervals so that
the member is divided into at least three bays of approximately equal length. At the ends of
the member, the main components shall be connected by not less than two fasteners in each
line along the length of the member, or by equivalent welds.
10.5.1.5 Design forces
The interconnecting fasteners shall be designed to transmit a design longitudinal shear force
between the components induced by the transverse shear force (V*) as given in Clause
10.4.1. The design longitudinal shear force ( VL* ) per connection shall be calculated as
follows:
L 
VL*  0.25V *  e  . . . 10.5.1.5
 r c
where
 Le 
  = slenderness ratio of the main component between the interconnections
 r c
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10.5.2 Components in contact

10.5.2.1 General
This Clause applies to component members of two-angle, channel or tee-section
components back to back or separated by continuous steel packing. If such a member is
designed as a single integral member, then it shall comply with Clauses 10.5.2.2 to 10.5.2.5.
10.5.2.2 Configuration
The main components shall be similar sections arranged symmetrically with their
corresponding rectangular axes aligned.
The slenderness of the compression member about the axis parallel to the connected
surfaces shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 10.4.3.2.
10.5.2.4 Connection
The main components shall be connected at intervals so that the member is divided into at
least three bays of approximately equal length. At the ends of the member, the main
components shall be interconnected by not less than two fasteners in each line along the
length of the members, or by equivalent welds.
10.5.2.5 Design forces
The interconnecting fasteners or welds shall be designed to transmit a longitudinal shear
force between the components induced by the transverse shear force (V*) in accordance with
Clause 10.4.1. The design longitudinal shear force ( VL* ) per connection shall be as specified
in Clause 10.5.1.5.
10.6 COMPOSITE COMPRESSION MEMBERS

10.6.1 General
10.6.1.1 Scope
This Clause (10.6) provides a method for the design of steel-concrete composite
compression members, taking account of the composite action between the various elements
forming the cross-section.
NOTE: For bending about the two principal axes of the member, see Clause 11.5.
10.6.1.2 Materials
The steel section shall be symmetrical, fabricated from steel with a maximum yield stress of
690 MPa, and have a wall thickness such that the plate element slenderness (e) is less than
the yield slenderness limit (ey) given in Table 10.6.1.5(A) and Table 10.6.1.5(B).
Concrete shall be of normal density and strength, meet the requirements of AS 5100.5, and
have a maximum aggregate size of 20 mm. Reinforcement shall meet the requirements of
AS/NZS 4671.
10.6.1.3 Shear connection
Composite columns shall be designed to have full shear connection.
Mechanical shear connection shall be provided, based on the distribution of the design
value of longitudinal shear, where this exceeds the design shear strength (bond).
Where the available design shear strength is less than the longitudinal shear stress,
additional longitudinal reinforcement bars shall be introduced to compensate for the loss of
steel capacity in calculating the moment resistance.
In absence of a more accurate method, elastic analysis, considering long-term effects and
cracking of concrete, shall be used to determine the longitudinal shear at the interface.
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Provided the surface of the steel section in contact with the concrete is unpainted and free
from oil, grease and loose scale or rust, the values given in Table 10.6.1.3 shall be taken for
bond.
TABLE 10.6.1.3
DESIGN SHEAR STRENGTH (bond)
Type of cross-section  bond, MPa
Completely concrete-encased steel sections 0.30
Concrete filled circular hollow sections 0.55
Concrete filled rectangular hollow sections 0.40
Flanges of partially encased sections 0.20
Webs of partially encased sections 0.00
The value of bond given in Table 10.6.1.3 for completely concrete encased-steel sections
applies to sections with a minimum concrete cover of 40 mm and transverse and
longitudinal reinforcement in accordance with Clause 10.6.1.4. For greater concrete cover,
and with longitudinal reinforcement, higher values of bond may be used. Unless verified by
tests, for completely encased sections the increased value βcbond shall be used, with βc
given by the following:
 cz,min 
βc  1  0.02cz 1    2.5 . . . 10.6.1.3
 cz 
where
cz = is the nominal value of concrete cover in mm
cz,min = minimum concrete cover
= 40 mm
Unless otherwise verified, for partially encased I-sections with transverse shear due to
bending about the weak axis due to lateral loading or end moments, shear connectors shall
always be provided. If the resistance to transverse shear is not to be taken as only the
resistance of the structural steel, then the required transverse reinforcement for the shear
force (Vc) according to 10.6.1.4 shall be welded to the web of the steel section or shall pass
through the web of the steel section.
10.6.1.4 Longitudinal and transverse reinforcement
The longitudinal reinforcement in concrete-encased columns that is allowed for in the
resistance of the cross-section shall be not less than 0.5% of the cross-section of the
concrete. In concrete-filled hollow sections, longitudinal reinforcement is not necessary,
provided design for fire resistance is not required.
The transverse and longitudinal reinforcement in fully or partially concrete-encased
columns shall be designed and detailed in accordance with AS 5100.5.
The clear distance between longitudinal reinforcing bars and the structural steel section
shall be smaller than required as set out in AS 5100.5, even zero. In this case, for bond the
effective perimeter c of the reinforcing bar shall be taken as half or one quarter of its
perimeter, as shown in Figure 10.6.1.4, illustrations (a) and (b) respectively.
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Unless a more accurate analysis is used, V* shall be distributed into Vs acting on the
structural steel and Vc acting on the reinforced concrete section by:
Vs = V*Ms/Ms.comp . . . 10.6.1.4(1)
Vc = V  Vs
*
. . . 10.6.1.4(2)
where
Ms = plastic resistance moment of the steel section
Ms.comp = plastic resistance moment of the composite section
For simplification V* may be assumed to act on the structural steel section alone.
C (a)
C (b)
FIGURE 10.6.1.4 EFFECTIVE PERIMETER OF A REINFORCING BAR (c)
10.6.1.5 Local buckling

This Clause applies to members where the plate slenderness ( e) is less than the yield limit
(ey) specified in Tables 10.6.1.5(A) and 10.6.1.5(B), such that local buckling effects can be
neglected.
The effect of local buckling shall be neglected for a steel section fully encased with
reinforced concrete in accordance with AS 5100.5.
TABLE 10.6.1.5(A)
LIMITING WIDTH-TO-THICKNESS RATIOS FOR COMPRESSION STEEL
ELEMENTS IN COMPOSITE MEMBERS SUBJECT TO AXIAL COMPRESSION
Description Width-to- λ ep λ ey λ ed limit
thickness ratio Compact/ Noncompact/ Maximum
noncompact slender permitted
Walls of rectangular HSS and E E E
boxes of uniform thickness b/t 2.26 3.00 5.00
fy fy fy
0.15E 0.19E 0.31E

Round HSS D/t
fy fy fy
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TABLE 10.6.1.5(B)
LIMITING WIDTH-TO-THICKNESS RATIOS FOR COMPRESSION STEEL
ELEMENTS IN COMPOSITE MEMBERS SUBJECT TO FLEXURE
Description of elements Width-to- λ ep λ ey λ ed limit
thickness ratio Compact/ Noncompact/ Maximum
noncompact slender permitted
Flanges of rectangular HSS E E E
and boxes of uniform thickness b/t 2.26 3.00 5.00
fy fy fy
Webs of rectangular HSS and E E E

boxes of uniform thickness h/t 3.00 5.70 5.70
fy fy fy
0.09E 0.31E 0.31E

Round HSS D/t
fy fy fy
10.6.2 Ultimate section capacity

10.6.2.1 Rectangular concrete-filled sections
The nominal section capacity (Nus) of a concentrically loaded rectangular composite
compression member meeting the requirements of Clause 10.6.1 shall be calculated as
follows:
N us   kf As f y   Ar f ry  c Ac f c . . . 10.6.2.1
where
 = capacity reduction factor for steel given in Table 3.2
kf = form factor
As = cross-sectional area of the structural steel section
fy = nominal yield strength of the structural steel
Ar = cross-sectional area of the reinforcement
fry = nominal yield stress of the reinforcement
c = capacity factor for concrete in compression given in Table 3.2
Ac = area of concrete in the cross-section
f c = characteristic compressive strength of the concrete at 28 days
10.6.2.2 Circular concrete-filled sections
The nominal section capacity (Nus) of a concentrically loaded circular composite
compression member meeting the requirements of Clause 10.6.1 shall be calculated using
Equation 10.6.2.1 for rectangular members. Account may be taken of the increase in
concrete strength caused by the confinement by the steel section, provided the following
requirements are met:
(a) The relative slenderness r, as defined in Clause 10.6.2.4, is not greater than 0.5.
(b) The eccentricity of loading (e) under the greatest design bending moment is not
greater than do/10.
The benefits of the increase in concrete strength caused by confinement may be taken into
account, and the nominal section capacity (Nus) of the member may be calculated as
follows:
 1tf y 
N us   kf As2 f y   Ar f ry  c Ac f c1   . . . 10.6.2.2(1)
 d o f c 
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where
 = capacity reduction factor for steel given in Table 3.2
kf = form factor
fy = nominal yield strength of the structural steel measured parallel to Nus
fry = nominal yield stress of the reinforcement
c = capacity factor for concrete in compression given in Table 3.2
f c = characteristic compressive strength of the concrete at 28 days
t = wall thickness of the steel tube

do = outside diameter of the circular hollow section
η1, η2 = coefficients
The values of η1 and η2 for the case where eccentricity of loading e = 0, i.e., η10 and η20,
may be calculated from the following equations:
(i) 10  4.9  18.5r  17r 2 (but  0) . . . 10.6.2.2(2)
(ii)  20  0.253  2r  (but  1) . . . 10.6.2.2(3)
Typical values of η10 and η20 are given in Table 10.6.2.2.
If the eccentricity of loading (e) lies in the range 0  e   do / 10  , η1 and η2 shall be calculated
as follows:
 10e 
(A) 1  10 1   . . . 10.6.2.2(4)
 do 
10e
(B)  2   20  1   20  . . . 10.6.2.2(5)
do
TABLE 10.6.2.2
VALUES OF η10 AND η 20 WHEN e = 0
r 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4  0.5
η 10 4.90 3.22 1.88 0.88 0.22 0.00
η 20 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00
10.6.2.3 Encased composite members

The plastic resistance of an encased or partially encased steel section shall be calculated as
the sum of the resistances of the components as follows:
N u   Ase f y  c c Ac f c   As fsy . . . 10.6.2.3(1)
where
Ase = effective cross-sectional areas of structural section
Ac = cross-sectional areas of concrete
Ar = cross-sectional areas of reinforcing steel
fy = yield strength of the steel section measured parallel to Nu
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fc = characteristic compressive strength of the concrete

fry = yield strength of the reinforcing steel
 = capacity reduction factor for structural steel at ULS, which shall be taken as
 = 0.9
c = capacity reduction factor for concrete at ULS, which shall be taken as
c = 0.6
s = capacity reduction factor for reinforcement at ULS, which shall be taken as
s = 0.8
c = strength coefficient for concrete
= 0.85 for fully and partially concrete-encased steel sections
The steel contribution ratio , shall be defined as follows:
Asefy
 . . . 10.6.2.3(2)
Vs
The column shall be classified as composite if the steel contribution ratio falls within the
range of 0.2    0.9. If  is less than 0.2, the column shall be designed as a reinforced
concrete column in accordance with AS 5100.5. If  is greater than 0.9, the column shall be
designed as a bare steel column.
10.6.2.4 Effective flexural stiffness
The effective elastic flexural stiffness of a composite column, (EI)e shall be calculated as
follows:
 EI e  EIs  EI r  Ec,eff I c(t) . . . 10.6.2.4(1)
where
E = modulus of elasticity for the structural steel and the reinforcement
Is = second moment of area of the structural steel section
Ir = second moment of area of the reinforcement
Ec,eff = modulus of elasticity of concrete at time t, calculated in accordance with
AS 5100.5
Ic(t) = second moment of area of the uncracked concrete section at time t
Account shall be taken to the influence of long-term effects on the effective elastic flexural
stiffness. The modulus of elasticity of concrete [Ec(t) ] shall be reduced to the value Ec,eff
using the following equation:
1
Ec,eff  Ec(t) . . . 10.6.2.4(2)
 NG 
1   cc
 N G  N Q 
where
NG = unfactored axial load components due to permanent action (dead load)
NQ = unfactored axial load components due to imposed action (live load)
cc = creep coefficient calculated in accordance with AS 5100.5
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10.6.2.5 Relative slenderness

The relative slenderness (r) for a composite column in a given plane of bending shall be
calculated using the following equation:
Ns
r  . . . 10.6.2.5(1)
N cr
where
Ns = value of Nus determined in accordance with Clause 10.6.2.1, Clause 10.6.2.2 or
Clause 10.6.2.3, as appropriate, but taking the values of  and c to be 1.0
Ncr = elastic critical load
  2 EI e 
=  2

 . . . 10.6.2.5(2)
 Le 
(EI)e = effective elastic flexural stiffness determined in accordance with
Clause 10.6.2.4
Le = effective length of the member determined in accordance with
Clause 10.3.2
10.6.3 Ultimate member capacity
For a composite compression member the radius of gyration (r) shall be calculated as
follows:
EI s  EI r  Ec I c
r . . . 10.6.3.1
EAs  EAr  Ec Ac
where
E = modulus of elasticity for the structural steel and the reinforcement
Is = second moment of area of the structural steel section
Ir = second moment of area of the reinforcement
Ec = modulus of elasticity for concrete, calculated in accordance with Clause 4.4.2
Ic = second moment of area of the uncracked concrete section
10.6.3.2 Effective length
The effective length (Le) of a composite compression member shall be determined as
follows:
Le = keL . . . 10.6.3.2
where
ke = member effective length factor determined in accordance with Clause 4.3.2
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10.6.3.3 Nominal capacity of composite members of constant cross-section

The nominal member capacity (Nuc) of a composite member of constant cross-section shall
be determined as follows:
Nuc = c Nus  Nus . . . 10.6.3.3(1)
where
Nus = nominal section capacity determined in accordance with Clause 10.6.2
c = compression member slenderness reduction factor, calculated as follows:
 2 
 90 
=  1  1     . . . 10.6.3.3(2)
    
 
2
 
  1
 90 
 = 2 . . . 10.6.3.3(3)
 
2 
 90 
 = η + a b . . . 10.6.3.3(4)
η = 0.00326(  13.5)  0 . . . 10.6.3.3(5)
η = 90r

2100 η  13.5 
a = . . . 10.6.3.3(6)
  15.3η  2050
2
η
b = the appropriate section constant given in Table 10.3.3(A) or

Table 10.3.3(B)
Alternatively, values of the member slenderness reduction factor (c) may be obtained from
Table 10.6.3.3(C) using the values of the modified member slenderness ( η) and the
appropriate member section constant (b) given in Table 10.6.3.3(A) or Table 10.6.3.3(B).
TABLE 10.6.3.3(A)
VALUES OF MEMBER SECTION CONSTANT (αb) FOR k f < 1.0
Cross-section αb
buckling about strong axis 0.5
buckling about weak axis 1.0
p s  3% 0
3% < ps  6% 0
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TABLE 10.6.3.3(B)
VALUES OF MEMBER SECTION CONSTANT (αb) FOR k f = 1.0
Cross-section αb
buckling about strong axis 0
buckling about weak axis 0.5
p s  3% 0.5
3% < ps  6% 0
TABLE 10.6.3.3(C)
VALUES OF MEMBER SLENDERNESS REDUCTION FACTOR ( c)
Modified member Compression member section constant ( b )
slenderness (   )
 0.5 0 0.5 1.0
1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
5 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
10 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
15 0.998 0.995 0.992 0.990
20 0.989 0.978 0.967 0.956
25 0.979 0.961 0.942 0.923
30 0.968 0.943 0.917 0.888
35 0.955 0.925 0.891 0.853
40 0.940 0.905 0.865 0.818
45 0.924 0.884 0.837 0.782
50 0.905 0.861 0.808 0.747
55 0.885 0.838 0.778 0.711
60 0.862 0.809 0.746 0.676
65 0.837 0.779 0.714 0.642
70 0.809 0.748 0.680 0.609
75 0.779 0.715 0.646 0.576
80 0.746 0.681 0.612 0.545
85 0.711 0.645 0.579 0.516
90 0.675 0.610 0.547 0.487
95 0.638 0.575 0.515 0.461
100 0.600 0.541 0.485 0.435
105 0.564 0.508 0.457 0.412
110 0.528 0.477 0.431 0.389
115 0.495 0.448 0.406 0.368
120 0.463 0.421 0.383 0.348
125 0.434 0.395 0.361 0.330
130 0.408 0.372 0.341 0.313
(continued)
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TABLE 10.6.3.3(C) (continued)
Modified member Compression member section constant ( b )

slenderness (   )
 0.5 0 0.5 1.0
135 0.381 0.350 0.322 0.297
140 0.357 0.330 0.304 0.282
145 0.336 0.311 0.288 0.268
150 0.316 0.293 0.273 0.255
155 0.298 0.277 0.259 0.242
160 0.281 0.263 0.246 0.231
165 0.265 0.249 0.234 0.220
170 0.251 0.236 0.222 0.210
175 0.238 0.224 0.212 0.200
180 0.225 0.213 0.202 0.192
185 0.214 0.203 0.193 0.183
190 0.203 0.193 0.184 0.175
195 0.194 0.185 0.176 0.168
200 0.185 0.176 0.168 0.161
205 0.176 0.168 0.161 0.154
210 0.168 0.161 0.154 0.148
215 0.161 0.154 0.148 0.142
220 0.154 0.148 0.142 0.137
225 0.147 0.142 0.137 0.132
230 0.141 0.136 0.131 0.127
235 0.135 0.131 0.126 0.122
240 0.130 0.126 0.122 0.118
245 0.125 0.121 0.117 0.114
250 0.120 0.116 0.113 0.110
255 0.116 0.112 0.109 0.108
260 0.111 0.108 0.105 0.102
265 0.107 0.104 0.102 0.099
270 0.103 0.101 0.098 0.096
275 0.100 0.097 0.095 0.092
280 0.096 0.094 0.092 0.089
285 0.093 0.091 0.089 0.087
290 0.090 0.088 0.086 0.084
295 0.087 0.085 0.083 0.081
300 0.084 0.082 0.081 0.079
305 0.082 0.080 0.078 0.077
310 0.079 0.077 0.076 0.074
315 0.077 0.075 0.074 0.072
320 0.074 0.073 0.071 0.070
340 0.066 0.065 0.064 0.063
370 0.056 0.055 0.054 0.054
400 0.048 0.047 0.047 0.046
450 0.038 0.038 0.037 0.037
500 0.031 0.031 0.031 0.030
550 0.026 0.026 0.025 0.025
600 0.022 0.022 0.021 0.021
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10.6.3.4 Nominal capacity of a composite member of varying cross-section

The nominal member capacity (Nuc) of a composite member of varying cross-section shall
be determined using the provisions of Clause 10.6.3 provided the following are satisfied:
(a) The nominal section capacity (Nus) is the minimum value for all cross-sections along
the length of the member.
(b) The modified member slenderness ( η) given in Clause 10.6.3.2 is replaced by the
following:
Ns
η  90 . . . 10.6.3.4
N om
where
Ns = value of Nus determined in accordance with Clause 10.6.2.1,
Clause 10.6.2.2 or Clause 10.6.2.3, as appropriate, but taking the values
of  and c to be 1.0
Nom = elastic flexural buckling load of the member in axial compression
determined using a rational elastic buckling analysis
10.7 DETAILING PROVISIONS—MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT

10.7.1 Limitations on longitudinal steel
The cross-sectional area of the (continuous) longitudinal reinforcement in a column shall—
(a) be not less than 0.005Ag, and at a minimum four continuous longitudinal bars shall be
used; and
(b) not exceed 0.04Ag, unless the amount and disposition of the reinforcement will not
prevent the proper placing and compaction of the concrete at splices and at junctions
of the members.
10.7.2 Diameter and spacing of fitments and helices
The spacing of fitments, or the pitch of a helix, shall not exceed the smaller of—
(a) 15db/n for bundling of n-bars;
(b) 48 tie bar diameters; or
(c) 0.5Dc.
where
Dc = smaller column cross-sectional dimension if rectangular or the column
diameter if circular
db = diameter of the smallest bar in the column
n = number of bars in bundle (n = 1 for single bars)
NOTE: Requirement (c) does not apply for concrete-filled steel sections.
10.7.2.2 Concrete cover to reinforcement
The cover to longitudinal reinforcement shall be in accordance with AS 5100.5.
10.7.2.3 Splicing of longitudinal reinforcement
The splicing of longitudinal reinforcement shall be in accordance with AS 5100.5.
10.7.2.4 Splicing of embedded steel sections
The splicing of embedded sections shall be in accordance with Section 12.
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10.8 VERIFICATION OF COMPOSITE COLUMNS FOR SERVICEABILITY

LIMIT STATES
10.8.1 General
The deformations of a composite column shall be determined in accordance with
10.8.2 Column deformation by refined calculation
The calculation of the deformation of a column by refined calculation shall make allowance
for the following:
(a) Cracking and tension-stiffening of the concrete.
(b) Shrinkage and creep properties of the concrete, accounting for the presence of the
steel section.
(c) Expected load history and construction procedure.
10.8.3 Column deformations by simplified calculation
10.8.3.1 General
Short-term, creep and shrinkage deformations shall be calculated in accordance with
Clauses 10.8.3.2, 10.8.3.3 and 10.8.3.4, respectively.
When the concrete component is subjected to tensile stresses, the influence of concrete
cracking shall be included in the calculations.
10.8.3.2 Short-term deformations
The short-term deformations occur immediately on the application of the external loads.
They shall be calculated using the value of Ecj (where Ecj is the mean value of the modulus
of elasticity of the concrete determined at the time under consideration) determined in
10.8.3.3 Creep deformations
The incremental deformations due to creep shall be determined from a long-term analysis
where the modulus of elasticity of the concrete is replaced by the effective modulus of
elasticity (Eef.cc) calculated according to AS 5100.5 and Clause 10.8.4, as appropriate.
10.8.3.4 Shrinkage deformations
The incremental deformations due to shrinkage shall be determined from a long-term
analysis where the modulus of elasticity of the concrete is replaced with the effective
modulus of elasticity (Eef.cs) calculated according to AS 5100.5.
The shrinkage strain (εcs) shall be taken as follows:
(a) Equal to the chemical (autogenous) shrinkage strain (εcse) specified in AS 5100.5 for
composite columns where the concrete is encased within the steel section (i.e.
concrete is sealed by the steel member).
(b) Equal to the shrinkage strain (εcs) specified in AS 5100.5 for other typologies of
composite columns.
10.8.4 Creep properties for concrete within a steel hollow section
The deformations of a composite column shall be determined in accordance with
The creep coefficient (cc) for composite columns where the concrete is within the steel
section (i.e. concrete is sealed by the steel member) shall be calculated as follow:
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0.3
 
0.8  
 1   t  t0   1 
cc = 34.2    . . . 10.8.4
 f c  8   8874.1  0.2
 0.1  t 0 
  t  t 0 
 f c  8 
where
t0 = time of first loading, in days
t = instant in time at which creep effects are calculated, in days
Selected values for the creep coefficient cc shall be as given in Table 10.8.4.
NOTE: These values have been evaluated for t0 = 28 days and t = 30 years.
TABLE 10.8.4
DAYSCREEP PROPERTIES FOR CONCRETE-FILLED WITHIN STEEL HOLLOW
SECTIONS
f
20 25 30 32 40 50 60 65 70 80 90 100
MPa
cc 1.11 0.98 0.88 0.84 0.73 0.63 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.45 0.42 0.39
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SECTI ON 11 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO

COMBINED ACTIONS
11.1 GENERAL
A member subject to combined axial and bending actions shall be proportioned so that its
design actions, as specified in Clause 11.2 in combination with its nominal section and
member capacities, as specified in Sections 5, 9 and 10, satisfy Clauses 11.3 and 11.4.
Composite members subject to combined axial and bending actions shall satisfy
Clause 11.5, using the design actions specified in Clause 11.2 and the section and member
capacities defined in Section 6 and Section 10.
Eccentrically loaded double-bolted or welded angles in trusses shall be proportioned to
satisfy Clause 11.3 and either Clause 11.4.3 or Appendix D.
11.2 DESIGN ACTIONS

For checking the section capacity at a section, the design axial force (N* ), which may be
tension or compression, shall be the force at the section, and the design bending moments
( M x* , M y* ) shall be the bending moments at the section about the major (x-) and minor (y-)
principal axes, respectively.
For checking the member capacity, the design axial force (N* ) shall be the maximum axial
force in the member, and the design bending moments ( M x* , M y* ) shall be the maximum
bending moments in the member.
M x* and M y* are the design bending moments resulting from frame action and transverse
loading on the member, and include the second-order design bending moments resulting
from the design loads acting on the structure and its members in their displaced and
deformed configuration.
The design bending moments ( M x* , M y* ) shall be determined from one of the following
methods of analysis:
(a) First-order linear elastic analysis Modifying the first-order design bending
moments by using the appropriate moment amplification factors determined in
(b) Second-order elastic analysis Wherein the design bending moments (M* ) are
obtained either directly, or by modifying the second-order end moments by using
moment amplification factors determined in accordance with Appendix C.
11.3 SECTION CAPACITY

11.3.1 General
The member shall satisfy Clauses 11.3.2, 11.3.3 and 11.3.4, as follows:
(a) For bending about the major principal x-axis only, sections at all points along the
member shall have sufficient capacity to satisfy Clause 11.3.2.
(b) For bending about the minor principal y-axis only, sections at all points along the
member shall have sufficient capacity to satisfy Clause 11.3.3.
(c) For bending about a non-principal axis, or bending about both principal axes, sections
at all points along the member shall have sufficient capacity to satisfy Clause 11.3.4.
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In this Clause—
Msx , Msy = nominal section moment capacities about the x-axes and y-axes
respectively, determined in accordance with Clause 5.2 or Clause 6.3, as
appropriate
Ns = nominal section axial capacity determined in accordance with Clause 10.2
for axial compression, or Clause 9.2 for axial tension, for which Ns = Nt
11.3.2 Uniaxial bending about the major principal x-axis
Where uniaxial bending occurs about the major principal x -axis, the following shall be
satisfied:
M x*   M rx . . . 11.3.2(1)
where
 = capacity reduction factor given in Table 3.2
Mrx = nominal section moment capacity, reduced by axial force, tension or
compression
 N* 
= M 
sx  1   . . . 11.3.2(2)

  Ns 
Alternatively, for doubly symmetric I-sections and rectangular and square hollow sections
to AS 1163, which are compact as defined in Clause 5.2.1. Mrx may be calculated by one of
the following, as appropriate:
(a) For compression members, where kf is equal to 1.0, and for tension members:
 N* 
M rx  1.18M sx 1    M sx
 . . . 11.3.2(3)
  Ns 
(b) For compression members where kf is less than 1.0:
 N*   82   w 
M rx  M sx 1   1  0.18   M sx . . . 11.3.2(4)
  82   wy 
  Ns    
where w and wy are the values of e and ey for the web, as specified in
Clause 10.2.3 and given in Table 10.2.4.
11.3.3 Uniaxial bending about the minor principal y-axis
Where uniaxial bending occurs about the minor principal y-axis, the following shall be
satisfied:
M y*   M ry . . . 11.3.3(1)
where
Mry = nominal section moment capacity reduced by axial force, tension or
compression
 N* 
= M 
sy  1   . . . 11.3.3(2)

  Ns 
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Alternatively, Mry may be calculated by one of the following, as appropriate:

(a) For doubly symmetric I-sections that are compact, as specified in Clause 5.2.1:
  N * 2 
M ry  1.19 M sy 1      M sy . . . 11.3.3(3)
   N s  
(b) For rectangular or square hollow sections to AS 1163 that are compact, as specified in
Clause 5.2.1:
 N* 
M ry  1.18M sy 1    M sy
 . . . 11.3.3(4)
  Ns 
11.3.4 Biaxial bending
Where biaxial bending occurs, the design tensile or compressive force (N* ) and the design
moments ( M x* ) and ( M y* ) about the major principal x-axis and minor principal y-axis shall
*
N* M x* My
  1 . . . 11.3.4(1)
 N s  M sx  M sy
Alternatively, for doubly symmetric I-sections and rectangular and square hollow sections
to AS 1163, which are compact as specified in Clause 5.2.1, sections at all points along the
member shall satisfy the following:
 
 M x*   M y* 
   
 M    M  1 . . . 11.3.4(2)
 rx   ry 
where Mrx and Mry shall be calculated in accordance with Clauses 11.3.2 and 11.3.3
respectively and the following:
 N* 
  1.4     2 .0
 . . . 11.3.4(3)
  Ns 
11.4 MEMBER CAPACITY

11.4.1 General
The member shall satisfy Clauses 11.4.2, 11.4.3 and 11.4.4, as follows:
(a) For a member bent about the major principal x-axis only and where there is sufficient
restraint to prevent lateral buckling, or for a member bent about the minor principal
y-axis only, the member shall satisfy the in-plane requirements of Clause 11.4.2.
(b) For a member bent about the major principal x-axis only and with insufficient
restraint to prevent lateral buckling, the member shall satisfy both the in-plane
requirements of Clause 11.4.2 and the out-of-plane requirements of Clause 11.4.3.
(c) For a member bent about a non-principal axis, or bent about both principal axes, the
member shall satisfy the biaxial bending requirements of Clause 11.4.4.
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11.4.2 In-plane capacity

11.4.2.1 Compression members
Compression members bent about a principal axis shall have sufficient in-plane capacity to
M *   Mi . . . 11.4.2.1(1)
where
M* = design bending moment about the principal axis
Mi = nominal in-plane member moment capacity
 N* 
= M s 1  
 . . . 11.4.2.1(2)
  Nc 
Ms = nominal section moment capacity determined in accordance with
Clause 5.2 for bending about the same principal axis as the design
bending moment
N* = design axial force
Nc = nominal member capacity in axial compression, determined in
accordance with Clause 10.3 for buckling about the same principal axis
with the effective length factor (ke) taken as 1.0 for both braced and
sway members, unless a lower value is calculated for braced members
from Clause 4.3.2.2 or Clause 4.3.2.3, provided Clause 10.1 is satisfied
for Nuc calculated using Le determined in accordance with Clause 4.3.2
Alternatively, for doubly symmetric I-sections that are compact as defined in Clause 5.2.1
and where the form factor (kf) determined in accordance with Clause 10.2.2 is unity, (Mi)
may be calculated as follows:
  1   3   N*   1  m 
3
N* 
M i  M s 1   m
  1    1. 18  1   . . . 11.4.2.1(3)
  2     N c   2   Nc 
 Mrx or Mry, as appropriate

where
m = ratio of the smaller to the larger end bending moments, taken as positive
when the member is bent in reverse curvature for members without
transverse load; or
= value determined in accordance with Clause 4.2.2 for members with
transverse load
Mrx, Mry = nominal section moment capacity about the appropriate principal axis
determined in accordance with Clause 11.3
11.4.2.2 Tension members
A member subject to a design axial tensile force (N* ) and a design bending moment (M* )
shall satisfy Clause 11.3.
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11.4.3 Out-of-plane capacity

A member subjected to a design axial compressive force (N* ) and a design bending moment
( M x* ) about its major principal x-axis, and which may buckle laterally, shall satisfy
Clause 11.4.2 and the following:
M x*   M ox . . . 11.4.3.1(1)
where
Mox = nominal out-of-plane member moment capacity
 N * 
= M 
bx  1  . . . 11.4.3.1(2)

  N cy 
Mbx = nominal member moment capacity of the member without full lateral
restraint and bent about the major principal x-axis, determined in
accordance with Clause 5.6 using a moment modification factor (m)
appropriate to the distribution of design bending moments along the
member
Ncy = nominal member capacity in axial compression for buckling about the
minor principal y-axis, determined in accordance with Clause 10.3
Alternatively for doubly-symmetric I-sections that are compact, as defined in Clause 5.2.1,
and where the form factor (kf), as determined in accordance with Clause 10.2.2, is unity,
Mox may be calculated as follows:
 N *  N* 
M ox   bc M bxo  1   1   M rx . . . 11.4.3.1(3)
  N   N 
 cy   oz 
where
1 1  m  1  m 
3
 * 
    0.4  0.23 N  . . . 11.4.3.1(4)
 bc 2  2    N cy 

Mbxo = nominal member capacity without full lateral restraint and with a uniform
distribution of design bending moment so that m is unity, determined in
Ncy = nominal member capacity in axial compression, determined in accordance
with Clause 10.3 for buckling about the minor principal y-axis
m = ratio of the smaller to the larger end bending moment, taken as positive when
the member is bent in reverse curvature
Noz = nominal elastic torsional buckling capacity of the member, calculated as
follows:
GJ   2
EI w / L2 
Noz =

Ix  Iy / A  . . . 11.4.3.1(5)
G, E = elastic moduli
J, Iw, Ix , Iy, A = section constants
L = overall length
NOTE: Values for E and G, and expressions for I w and J are given in Appendix A.
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A member subject to a design axial tension force (N* ) and a design bending moment ( M x* )
about its major principal x-axis, and which may buckle laterally, shall satisfy the following:
M x*   M ox . . . 11.4.3.2(1)
where
Mox = nominal out-of-plane member moment capacity
 N* 
= M bx 1    M rx
 . . . 11.4.3.2(2)
  Nt 
Mbx = nominal member bending capacity determined from Clause 11.4.3.1
Nt = nominal section capacity in axial tension determined in accordance
with Clause 9.2
Mrx = nominal section moment capacity reduced by axial force determined in
11.4.4 Biaxial bending capacity
A member subject to a design axial compressive force (N* ) and design bending moments
( M x* and M y* ) about the principal major x-axis and minor y-axis, respectively, shall satisfy
the following:
1.4 1.4
 M x*   M y* 

 M

   1 . . . 11.4.4.1
  M iy 
 cx   
where
Mcx = lesser of the nominal in-plane member moment capacity (Mix) and the nominal
out-of-plane member moment capacity (Mox) for bending about the major
principal x-axis, determined in accordance with Clauses 11.4.2 and 11.4.3,
respectively
Miy = nominal in-plane member moment capacity, determined in accordance with
Clause 11.4.2, for bending about the minor principal y-axis
A member subject to a design axial tension force (N*) and design bending moments ( M x* )
and ( M y* ) about the principal major x-axis and minor y-axis, respectively, shall satisfy the
following:
1.4 1.4
 M x*   M y* 

 M

   1 . . . 11.4.4.2
  M ry 
 tx   
where
Mtx = lesser of the nominal section moment capacity (Mrx) reduced by axial tension,
and the nominal out-of-plane member moment capacity (Mox) determined in
accordance with Clauses 11.3.2 and 11.4.3.2, respectively
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Mry = nominal section moment capacity reduced by axial tension, determined in

11.5 CAPACITY OF COMPOSITE COMPRESSION MEMBERS

11.5.1 General
11.5.1.1 Scope
This Clause (11.5) provides methods for the design of concrete-filled circular and
rectangular hollow steel compression members meeting the requirements of Clause 10.6.1,
under combined axial and bending actions.
11.5.1.2 Combined compression and bending
For each of the principal axes a separate check shall be carried out using the relevant
slenderness, applied loadings and member capacities.
For compression and uniaxial bending the member shall satisfy the requirements of
Clause 11.5.2 for the bending plane, and Clause 10.6.2 for the non-bending plane.
For compression and biaxial bending, the member shall satisfy the requirements of
Clause 11.5.3.
11.5.1.3 Combined tension and bending
The capacity of concrete-filled hollow steel members subjected to tensile and bending
actions shall be determined in accordance with Clauses 11.3 and 11.4, ignoring the
structural capacity of the concrete.
11.5.2 Uniaxial bending
An interaction curve of the form shown in Figure 11.5.2 shall be determined for the
composite section, assuming that the maximum concrete compressive stress is ( c f c ) and
the maximum steel compressive stress is (sf y).
The section shall satisfy the following criteria:
M x*  0.9M rx . . . 11.5.2(1)
M y*  0.9 M ry . . . 11.5.2(2)
where
Mrx, Mry = section moment capacity, reduced by the effects of axial compression,
slenderness and imperfections, determined from an interaction curve in
the form of Figure 11.5.2
The reduced moment capacity, Mrx or Mry, shall not be taken to be greater than Msx or Msy,
the nominal section moment capacity derived in accordance with Clause 6.3, unless the
design moment M x* or M y* is due only to the action of the eccentricity of the design axial
force (N*).
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Po int A f 'c fy fsy
Nus A Inter ac t i o n c ur ve - - NA = N us
for t h e c ro s s - se c t i o n N o m o m e nt
N uc( = α cN us )
Po int B
N* C M B= M pl
hn - -
A XIAL LOAD
+ + zero a x i al for c e
M r x or M r y
Po int C
α nN us D
M C= Mpl
- -
hn + N C= Nc
+
Po int D
Mdx B M sx
M D= Mpl
(or M d y) (or M s y) - -
+
Nc
+ N D=
M O M ENT 2
LEGEND:
N us = nominal section capacity for a member in axial compression, derived in accordance with
Clause 10.6.2
N uc = nominal member capacity for a member in axial compression, derived in accordance with
Clause 10.6.3
=  c N us
 c = compression member slenderness reduction factor
M dx , M dy = total moment capacity of the section when the design axial force (N*) is acting on the section
n = factor for interaction curve
 1  m 
= c   . . . 11.5.2(3)
 4 
 m = ratio of the smaller to the larger bending moment at the ends of a member, taken as positive
when the member is bent in reverse curvature
FIGURE 11.5.2 INTERACTION CURVE FOR COMPRESSION AND UNIAXIAL

BENDING COMPOSITE COMPRESSION MEMBERS
11.5.3 Biaxial bending

A composite member subject to axial compression and bending moments about both
principal axes shall satisfy Items (a) and (b) below as applicable. Imperfections shall be
considered only in the critical plane in which failure is likely to occur.
(a) M x*  0.9M rx . . . 11.5.3(1)
M y*  0.9M dy . . . 11.5.3(2)
*
M x* M y
 1 . . . 11.5.3(3)
M rx M dy
(b) M x*  0.9M dx . . . 11.5.3(4)
M y*  0.9 M ry . . . 11.5.3(5)
*
M x* M y
 1 . . . 11.5.3(6)
M dx M ry
where
M x* , M y* = design moments about the principal x-axis and y-axis
Mrx, Mry = reduced bending moment capacities about the principal x-axis and y-axis,
determined in accordance with Clause 11.5.2
Mdx, Mdy = total bending moment capacities about the principal x-axis and y-axis
when the design axial force (N*) is acting on the section, determined in
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11.5.4 Second-order effects—Methods of analysis and member imperfections

For member verification, analysis shall be based on second-order linear elastic analysis,
when required by Clause 4.2.2.1.
For determination of the internal forces, the design value of effective flexural stiffness
(EI)eff,II shall be determined from the following equation:
(EI)eff,II = Ko(EaIa + EsIs + Ke,IIEcIc) . . . 11.5.4(1)
where
Ke,II = correction factor, which shall be taken as 0.2
Ko = calibration factor, which shall be taken as 0.9
Ec = elastic modulus of slab concrete corresponding to the relevant value of
fcmi
=  c1.5 0.043 f cmi for fcmi  40 MPa; and
 
 c1.5 0.024 f cmi  0.12 for fcmi > 40 MPa
Long-term effects shall be taken into account in accordance with Clause 4.4.
Where second-order effects need to be considered, the elastic critical load shall be
determined with the flexural stiffness (EI)eff,II in accordance with Equation 11.5.4(1).
The influence of geometrical and structural imperfections shall be taken into account by
equivalent geometrical imperfections. Equivalent member imperfections for composite
columns shall be as given in Table 11.5.4, where L is the column length.
Within the column length, second-order effects shall be allowed for by multiplying the
greatest first-order design bending moment (M* ) by a factor k given by the following
equation:

k =  1.0 . . . 11.5.4(2)
N*
1
N omb
where
Nomb = critical normal force for the relevant axis and corresponding to the
effective flexural stiffness given in 11.5.4(1), with the effective length
taken as the column length
 = equivalent moment factor given in Table 11.5.4
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TABLE 11.5.4
FACTORS  FOR THE DETERMINATION OF MOMENTS
TO SECOND ORDER THEORY
Moment distribution Moment factors  Comment
First-order bending *
M is the maximum
M* moments from bending moment
member within the column
imperfection or length, ignoring
lateral load: second-order effects
 = 1.0
M*
M* End moments: M * and rM * are the

end moments from
 = 0.66 + 0.44r
rM * first-order or
but   0.44 second-order global
analysis
-1 ≤ r ≤ 1
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SECTI ON 12 CONNECTIONS
12.1 GENERAL
Connection elements consist of connection components (cleats, gusset plates, brackets,
connecting plates) and connectors (bolts, rivets, pins and welds).
The connections in a structure shall be proportioned so as to be consistent with the
assumptions made in the analysis of the structure and to comply with this Section.
Connections shall be capable of transmitting the calculated design action effects.
12.2 DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of this Section, the definitions below apply.
12.2.1 Bearing-type connection
A connection effected using either snug-tight bolts, or high-strength bolts tightened to
induce a specified minimum bolt tension, in which the design action is transferred by shear
in the bolts and bearing on the connected parts at the strength limit state.
12.2.2 Connection
A joint between components of a structural member or a joint between separate structural
members, including splices.
12.2.3 Friction-type connection
A connection effected using high-strength bolts tightened to induce a specified bolt tension
such that the resultant clamping action transfers the design shear forces at the serviceability
limit state acting in the plane of the common contact surfaces by the friction developed
between the contact surfaces.
12.2.4 Fully tensioned
Describes a bolt that has been installed and tensioned to achieve the minimum bolt tension
given in Table 12.5.4.
12.2.5 Ply
A plate that forms part of a bolted connection.
12.2.6 Prying force
The additional tensile force developed in a connection subjected to tensile force as a result
of the flexing of a connection component, where the external tension force reduces the
contact pressure between the component and the base, and flexure in the component
develops a prying force near the edge of the connection component which has to be resisted
by the connection.
12.2.7 Snug-tight
The tightness of a bolt achieved by a few impacts of an impact wrench or by the full effort
of a person using a standard podger spanner.
12.2.8 Splice
A connection between two parts of a structural member.
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12.3 PARTICULAR REQUIREMENTS FOR CONNECTIONS

12.3.1 Minimum design actions on connections
Connections carrying calculated design action effects, except for lacing connections, shall
be designed to transmit the following minimum design action effects:
(a) A splice in a member subjected to axial tension. A minimum force of 50% of the
nominal member design capacity in tension. For rail bridges, the minimum force shall
be 75% of the nominal member design capacity in tension.
(b) Splices in members subject to axial compression—for ends prepared for full contact
in accordance with AS/NZS 5131, it shall be permissible to carry compressive actions
by bearing on contact surfaces. When members are prepared for full contact to bear at
splices, there shall be sufficient fasteners to hold all parts securely in place. The
fasteners shall be sufficient to transmit a force of 0.15 times the member design
capacity in axial compression.
In addition, splices located between points of effective lateral support shall be
designed for the design axial force ( N*) plus a design bending moment not less than
the design bending moment (M*)
where
M* =  N *ls . . . 12.3.1
1000
 = appropriate amplification factor b or s determined in accordance
with Clause 4.2
ls = distance between points of effective lateral support
When members are not prepared for full contact, the splice material and its fasteners
shall be arranged to hold all parts in line and shall be designed to transmit a force of
0.3 times the member design capacity in axial compression.
(c) A splice in a flexural member shall be designed for the calculated bending moment at
the splice location or a bending moment of 50% of the member design capacity,
whichever is the greater. For rail bridges, the minimum calculated bending moment
capacity shall be 75% of the member design capacity. This provision shall not apply
to splices designed to transmit shear force only.
A splice subjected to a shear force only shall be designed to transmit the design shear
force together with any bending moment resulting from the eccentricity of the force
with respect to the centroid of the connector group.
(d) Connections in framed structures that are assumed to have sufficient rigidity to hold
the original angles between the members virtually unchanged, irrespective of the level
of design actions, shall be designed for a minimum bending moment of 50% of
member design moment capacity. For rail bridges, the minimum design bending
moment shall be 75% of the design moment capacity.
(e) Connections in framed structures that are assumed not to develop bending moments
shall be designed for a minimum shear force of 50 kN. For rail bridges, the minimum
design force shall be 75% of the member capacity.
(f) Connections at the ends of tension or compression members shall be designed for a
minimum force of 50% of the member capacity. Threaded rods acting as bracing
members shall be designed for a minimum tension force equal to their design
capacity.
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12.3.2 Connections in main members

Connections and splices in main members shall be made by the use of welding or by high-
strength bolts in a friction-type joint, such as bolting category 8.8/TF.
12.3.3 Intersections
Members or components meeting at a joint shall be arranged to transfer the design actions
between the parts and, wherever practicable, shall have their centroidal axes meeting at a
point. Where there is eccentricity at intersections, the members and connections shall be
designed for the design bending moments which result.
Fillet welds at end connections of single angle, double angle and similar type members need
not be arranged about the centroidal axis or axes so that they balance the design actions of
statically loaded members; however, they shall be arranged to balance the design actions of
members and connection components subject to fatigue loading.
Eccentricity between the centroidal axes of such members and the gauge lines for their
bolted end connections may be neglected in statically loaded members; however, they shall
be considered in members and connection components subject to fatigue loading.
12.3.4 Combined connections
When non-slip fasteners, such as high-strength bolts in a friction-type connection or welds
are used in a connection in conjunction with slip-type fasteners, such as snug-tight bolts or
tensioned high-strength bolts in bearing-type connections, all the design actions shall be
assumed to be carried by the non-slip fasteners.
Where a mixture of non-slip fasteners is used, sharing of the load may be assumed. Where
welding is used in a connection in conjunction with other non-slip fasteners—
(a) any design actions initially applied directly to the welds shall not be assumed to be
distributed to fasteners added after the application of the load design actions; and
(b) any design actions applied after welding shall be assumed to be carried by the welds.
12.3.5 Splices in members subject to axial compression
Bolted splices in compression members shall be located as close as practicable to points of
effective lateral support.
12.3.6 Connection components
Connection components shall have their capacities assessed using the provisions of
Sections 5, 9, 10 and 11, as applicable.
12.4 DEDUCTIONS FOR FASTENER HOLES

12.4.1 Net area
In calculating the deductions to be made for holes for fasteners, the net area (An) of a
member in axial tension shall be taken as—
An = Ag  Ad . . . 12.4.1
where
Ag = gross area of the member, or element
Ad = deducted area for fastener holes based on the gross area of the hole in the plane
of its axis and not that of the fastener
12.4.2 Non-staggered holes
For holes that are not staggered, the deducted area (Ad) shall be taken as the maximum sum
of the areas of the holes in any cross-section at right angles to the direction of the design
action in the member.
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12.4.3 Staggered holes

For staggered holes, the deducted area (Ad) shall be taken as the greater of—
(a) the deduction for non-staggered holes given in Clause 12.4.2; or
(b) 
Ad  Az  sp2t / 4 sg  for each gauge space in the chain of holes;
where
Az = sum of the areas of all holes in a zig-zag line extending progressively across the
member or part of the member [see Figure 12.4.3(A)]
sp = staggered pitch, which is the distance measured parallel to the direction of
design action in the member, centre-to-centre of holes in consecutive lines
t = thickness of the holed material
sg = gauge distance, measured at right angles to the direction of the design action in
the member, centre-to-centre of holes in consecutive lines [see
Figure 12.4.3(A)].
For sections, such as angles with holes in both legs, the gauge distance shall be
taken as the sum of the back marks to each hole, less the leg thickness [see
Figure 12.4.3(B)]
Zi g -z a g line
sg
D i r e c ti o n
of d e s i g n
a c ti o n
sp sp
FIGURE 12.4.3(A) STAGGERED HOLES
Back Leg thickness

mark
Back mark
FIGURE 12.4.3(B) ANGLES WITH HOLES IN BOTH LEGS
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12.5 DESIGN OF BOLTS, RIVETS AND PINS

12.5.1 Bolts and bolting category
The bolts and bolting categories listed in Table 12.5.1 shall be designed using this Clause
(12.5) and Clause 4.7.
The design actions in a bolt group shall be determined in accordance with Clause 4.7.
Other grades of bolts conforming to AS 1110 and AS 1111 may be designed using the
provisions of this Clause and Clause 4.7.
TABLE 12.5.1
BOLTS AND BOLTING CATEGORY
Minimum tensile strength
Method of
Bolting category Bolt Standard Bolt grade (f uf ) MPa
tensioning
(see Note 2)
4.6/S AS 1111 4.6 Snug-tight 400
8.8/S AS/NZS 1252 8.8 Snug-tight 830
8.8/TB AS/NZS 1252 8.8 Full-tensioning 830
8.8/TF (see Note 1) AS/NZS 1252 8.8 Full-tensioning 830
NOTES:
1 Special category used in connections where slip in the serviceability limit state is to be
restricted (see Clauses 3.3.6 and 12.3.2).
2 f uf is the minimum tensile strength of the bolt, as specified in the relevant Standard.
12.5.2 Particular requirements for bolts and pins

12.5.2.1 Minimum pitch
The distance between the centres of fastener holes shall be not less than 2.5 times the
nominal diameter of the fastener.
NOTE: The minimum pitch may also be affected by the requirements of Clause 12.5.3.4.
12.5.2.2 Minimum edge distances
The minimum edge distance shall be as specified in Table 12.5.2.2, where df is the nominal
diameter of the fastener. The edge distance shall be the distance from the nearer edge of a
hole to the physical edge of a plate or rolled section, plus half the nominal diameter of the
fastener (df).
TABLE 12.5.2.2
MINIMUM EDGE DISTANCES
Rolled plate, machine flame
Sheared or hand flame cut edge Rolled edge of a rolled section
cut, sawn or planed edge
1.75d f 1.50d f 1.25d f
NOTE: The edge distance may also be affected by Clause 12.5.3.4.
12.5.2.3 Maximum pitch
The maximum distance between centres of fasteners shall be the lesser of 15tp, where tp is
the thickness of thinner ply element connected, or 200 mm. In the following cases, the
maximum distances shall be as follows:
(a) For fasteners that are not required to carry design actions in regions not liable to
corrosion, the lesser of 32tp or 300 mm.
(b) For an outside line of fasteners in the direction of the design action, the lesser of
(4tp + 100) mm, or 200 mm.
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12.5.2.4 Maximum edge distance

The maximum distance from the centre of any fastener to the nearest edge of parts in
contact with one another shall be 12 times the thickness of the thinnest outer connected ply
under consideration, but shall not exceed 150 mm.
For rail bridges, the maximum edge distance shall be reduced to 0.5 times the square of the
thickness of the thinnest outer connected ply under consideration.
12.5.2.5 Locking of nuts
Where a bolt is subjected to impact, vibration or to tensile force, the nut shall be effectively
locked in position after tightening.
NOTE: This may be achieved by fully tensioning bolts or by locknuts.
12.5.2.6 Minimum number of bolts
Bolted connections, except in light bracing members and railings, shall contain not less than
two bolts.
12.5.2.7 Size of fasteners
The diameter of fasteners shall not exceed twice the thickness of the thinnest part being
connected.
NOTE: This requirement is not applicable to filler plates.
12.5.2.8 Prying forces
Where bolts are required to carry an applied tensile force, the bolts shall be proportioned to
resist any additional force due to prying action where this can occur.
12.5.2.9 Friction-type connections
Where slip under serviceability loads shall be restricted, such as bolting category 8.8/TF,
the drawings shall clearly indicate the surface treatment at such a connection and whether
masking of the connection is required during painting operations.
12.5.3 Bolt strength limit state
12.5.3.1 Bolt in shear
A bolt subjected to a design shear force ( Vf* ) at the ultimate limit state shall satisfy the
following:
Vf*   Vf . . . 12.5.3.1(1)
where
Vf nominal shear capacity of a bolt
The nominal shear capacity of a bolt (Vf) shall be calculated as follows:
Vf = 0.62fufkr(nnAc + nxAo) . . . 12.5.3.1(2)
where
fuf = minimum tensile strength of the bolt, as specified in an appropriate Standard
(see also Table 12.5.1)
kr = reduction factor given in Table 12.5.3.1 to account for the length of a bolted lap
connection (Lj) (for all other connections kr = 1.0)
nn = number of shear planes with threads intercepting the shear plane in a bolted
connection
Ac = minor diameter area of the bolt, as defined in AS 1275
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nx = number of shear planes without threads intercepting the shear plane

Ao = nominal plain shank area of the bolt
TABLE 12.5.3.1
REDUCTION FACTOR FOR A BOLTED LAP CONNECTION (kr)
Length
L j < 300 300  L j  1300 L j > 1300
mm
kr 1.0 1.075  L j /4000 0.75
12.5.3.2 Bolt in tension

A bolt subjected to a design tension force ( N tf* ) at the ultimate limit state shall satisfy the
following:
N tf*   N tf . . . 12.5.3.2(1)
where
Ntf nominal tensile capacity of a bolt
The nominal tensile capacity of a bolt (Ntf) shall be calculated as follows:
Ntf = Asfuf . . . 12.5.3.2(2)
where As is the tensile stress area of a bolt as specified in AS/NZS 1275.
12.5.3.3 Bolt subject to combined shear and tension
A bolt required to resist both design shear ( Vf* ) and design tension ( N tf* ) forces at the same
time shall satisfy—
2 2
 Vf*   N tf* 
     1 .0 . . . 12.5.3.3
 V   N 
 f   tf 
where
Vf = nominal shear capacity of the bolt, calculated in accordance with
Clause 12.5.3.1
Ntf = nominal tensile capacity, calculated in accordance with Clause 12.5.3.2
12.5.3.4 Ply in bearing
A ply subjected to a design bearing force ( Vb* ) at the ultimate limit state due to a bolt in
shear shall satisfy—
Vb*   Vb . . . 12.5.3.4(1)
where
Vb = nominal bearing capacity of a ply
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The nominal bearing capacity of a ply (Vb) shall be calculated as follows:

Vb = 3.2dftpfup . . . 12.5.3.4(2)
provided, for a ply subject to a component of force acting towards an edge, the nominal
bearing capacity of a ply (Vb) is the lesser of—
(a) Vb = 3.2dftpfup ; and . . . 12.5.3.4(3)
(b) Vb = aetpfup . . . 12.5.3.4(4)
where
df = nominal diameter of the bolt
tp = thickness of the ply
fup = tensile strength of the ply
ae = minimum distance from the edge of a hole to the edge of a ply, measured in the
direction of the component of the force, plus half the bolt diameter
The edge of a ply shall be deemed to include the edge of an adjacent bolt hole.
12.5.3.5 Filler plates
Where bolts or rivets transmitting load in shear and bearing pass through packing of total
thickness (tp) greater than one-third of the nominal diameter df, see Figure 12.5.3.5, the
design shear resistance (Vf) calculated as specified in Clause 12.5.3.1, shall be multiplied
by a reduction factor (βp) as given by the following:
9d f
p  but βp  1 . . . 12.5.3.5
8d f  3tp
For double shear connections with packing on both sides of the splice, tp shall be taken as
the thickness of the thicker packing.
Pa c k i n g p l a te s
tp
FIGURE 12.5.3.5 FASTENERS THROUGH PACKINGS
12.5.4 Bolt serviceability limit state

12.5.4.1 Friction-type connections in shear
For friction-type connections, such as bolting category 8.8/TF, in which slip in the
serviceability limit state is required to be limited, a bolt subjected only to a design shear
force ( Vsf* ) in the plane of the interfaces shall satisfy the following:
Vsf*   Vsf . . . 12.5.4.1(1)
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where
Vsf = nominal shear capacity of a bolt, for a friction-type connection
The nominal shear capacity of a bolt (Vsf) shall be calculated as follows:
Vsf = neiNtikh . . . 12.5.4.1(2)
where
 = slip factor as defined below
nei = number of effective interfaces
Nti = minimum bolt tension at installation, given in Table 12.5.4.1
kh = factor for different hole types
= 1.0 for standard holes
= 0.85 for short slotted and oversize holes
= 0.70 for long slotted holes
The slip factor () shall be taken as 0.35 for clean steel surfaces free of oil, paint, loose
rust, loose scale, burrs and other defects which could interfere with the development of
friction between them. The slip factor () may also be taken as 0.35 for abrasive blast-
cleaned steel surfaces coated with zinc silicate coatings. If any other applied finish or
surface condition, including a machined surface is desired, the slip factor used shall be
based upon adequate test evidence. Tests performed in accordance with the procedure
specified in AS 4100 shall be deemed to provide satisfactory test evidence.
The strength limit state shall be separately assessed in accordance with Clause 12.5.3.
TABLE 12.5.4.1
MINIMUM BOLT TENSION (Nti)
Nominal diameter of bolt Minimum bolt tension
kN
M16 95
M20 145
M24 210
M30 335
M36 490
NOTE: The minimum bolt tensions given in this Table
are approximately equivalent to the minimum proof
loads given in AS 1252.
12.5.4.2 Friction-type connections in combined shear and tension
Bolts in a connection for which slip in the serviceability limit state is required to be limited
and which are subject to a design tensile force shall satisfy the following:
2 2
 Vsf*   N tf* 
     1 .0 . . . 12.5.4.2(1)
 V   N 
 sf   tf 
where
Vsf* = design shear force on the bolt in the plane of the interfaces for serviceability
limit state
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Vsf = nominal shear capacity of the bolt as specified in Clause 12.5.4.1
N tf* = design tensile force on the bolt
Ntf = nominal capacity of the bolt
The nominal tensile capacity of the bolt (Ntf) shall be taken as follows:
Ntf = Nti . . . 12.5.4.2(2)
where
Nti = minimum bolt tension at installation, given in Table 12.5.4.1
The strength limit state shall be separately assessed in accordance with Clause 12.5.3.3.
12.5.5 Design of a pin connection
12.5.5.1 Pin in shear
A pin subject to a design shear force ( Vf* ) at the strength limit state shall satisfy the
following:
Vf*   Vf . . . 12.5.5.1(1)
where
Vf = nominal shear capacity of the pin
The nominal shear capacity of a pin (Vf) shall be calculated as follows:
Vf = 0.62fupnsAp . . . 12.5.5.1(2)
where
fup = tensile strength of the pin
ns = number of shear planes
Ap = cross-sectional area of the pin
12.5.5.2 Pin in bearing
A pin subject to a design bearing force ( Vb* ) at the ultimate limit state shall satisfy the
following:
Vb*   Vb . . . 12.5.5.2(1)
where
Vb = nominal bearing capacity of the pin
The nominal bearing capacity of a pin (Vb) shall be calculated as follows:
Vb = 1.4kpfupdftp . . . 12.5.5.2(2)
where
kp = 1.0 for pins without rotation
= 0.5 for pins with rotation
fup = tensile strength of the pin
df = pin diameter
tp = thickness of the connecting plate or plates
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12.5.5.3 Pin in bending

A pin subject to a design moment (M* ) at the ultimate limit state shall satisfy the following:
M *  Mp . . . 12.5.5.3(1)
where
Mp = nominal moment capacity of the pin
The nominal moment capacity of a pin shall be calculated as follows:
Mp = fypS . . . 12.5.5.3(2)
where
fyp = yield stress of the pin
S = plastic section modulus of the pin
12.5.5.4 Ply in bearing
A ply subject to a design bearing force ( Vb* ) at the ultimate limit state due to a pin in shear
shall satisfy Clause 12.5.3.4.
12.5.6 Design of riveted connections
Riveted connections shall be designed as for bolted connections using Clauses 12.5.1
to 12.5.4, as appropriate. The capacity reduction factors for power-driven or hand-driven
rivets shall be as given in Table 3.2, and the material properties as specified in Clause 2.9.
12.6 DESIGN OF WELDS

12.6.1 General
Welding shall comply with AS/NZS 1554.1, AS/NZS 1554.2, AS/NZS 1554.4 or
AS/NZS 1554.5, as appropriate.
Detailing shall be such as to minimize stresses and distortions due to the contraction of
weld metal and adjacent parent metal, and also to guard against inhibiting ductile behaviour
of the whole assembly (see Note 1).
Weld quality shall be either SP or GP as specified in AS/NZS 1554.1, or AS/NZS 1554.4,
as appropriate, except where a higher strength weld quality is required for fatigue, weld
quality conforming with AS/NZS 1554.4 category FP or AS/NZS 1554.5, as appropriate,
shall be used. Weld quality shall be specified on the design drawings.
NOTES:
1 Ample access for placing weld metal should be provided, and large concentrations of welding
should be avoided (see Notes 2 and 3).
2 Detailing of field welds should be such as to minimize overhead welding.
3 Welded connections that will produce through-thickness tensile stresses in a plate due to
applied loads should be avoided wherever possible. In addition, care should be taken to avoid
restraint conditions that will result in through-thickness tensile stresses when the welds cool.
12.6.2 Definitions
For the purposes of this Clause, the definitions below apply.
12.6.2.1 Complete penetration butt weld
A butt weld in which fusion exists between the weld and parent metal throughout the
complete depth of the joint.
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12.6.2.2 Compound weld

A fillet weld superimposed on a butt weld.
12.6.2.3 Incomplete penetration butt weld
Any butt weld not meeting the requirements of Clause 12.6.2.1.
12.6.3 Design throat thickness
Design throat thickness shall be as follows:
(a) Complete penetration butt weld The design throat thickness of a complete
penetration butt weld shall be the size of the weld.
(b) Incomplete penetration butt weld The design throat thickness of an incomplete
penetration butt weld shall be as follows:
(i) Prequalified preparation for incomplete penetration butt weld except as
otherwise provided in Item (b)(iii), as specified in AS/NZS 1554.1.
(ii) Non-prequalified preparation for incomplete penetration butt weld except as
provided in Item (b)(iii)—
(A) where  < 60° (d  3) mm for single V weld;
[(d3 + d4)  6] mm for double V weld.
(B) where  < 60° d mm for single V weld;
(d3 + d4) mm for double V weld.
where
 = angle of preparation
d = depth of preparation
d3, d4 = values of d for each side of the weld
(iii) For an incomplete penetration butt weld made by an automatic arc welding
process for which it can be demonstrated by means of a macro test on a
production weld that the required penetration has been achieved, an increase in
design throat thickness up to the depth of preparation may be allowed. If the
macro test shows penetration beyond the depth of preparation, an increase in
design throat thickness up to that shown in Figure 12.6.3(B) may be allowed.
NOTE: It is only necessary to specify the design throat thickness required, leaving the
fabricator to determine the welding procedure necessary to achieve the specified design
throat thickness.
(c) Fillet weld The design throat thickness of a fillet weld shall be as shown in
Figure 12.6.3(A).
For welds made by fully automatic arc welding processes, and provided that it can be
demonstrated by means of a macro test on a production weld that the required
penetration has been achieved, an increase in design throat thickness shall be allowed
as shown in Figure 12.6.3(B). Where such penetration is achieved, the size of weld
may be correspondingly reduced.
(d) Compound weld The design throat thickness of a compound weld, for use in design
calculations, shall be for—
(i) a complete penetration butt weld, the size of the butt weld without
reinforcement; and
(ii) an incomplete penetration butt weld, the shortest distance from the root of the
incomplete penetration butt weld to the face of the fillet weld as determined by
the largest inscribed triangle in the total weld cross-section, with a maximum
value equal to the thickness of the part whose end or edge butts against the face
of the other part [see Figure 12.6.3(C)].
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Q Q
90°
90°
tw 4 5° tw2
θ
R θ P R P
tt tw t w1
tt
Eq u al l e g fill et we l d Un e q u al l e g fill et we l d
(a) C o n c ave fill et we l d s

R e i nfor c e m e nt
R e i nfor c e m e nt
Q Q
tw2 90°
tw
9 0°
θ θ
R P R P
tt tw t w1
tt
Eq u al l e g fill et we l d Un e q u al l e g fill et we l d
(b) C o nvex fill et we l d s
Q 90°
A p pare nt tw
s ize
θ
R P
tt tw
Gap
(c) Fill et we l d w it h ro ot g a p
LEGEN D:
PQ R = tr i an g l e in s c r i b e d w it hin t h e c ro s s - se c t i o n of t h e we l d
t w , t w1, t w 2 = s ize s of fill et we l d s
tt = d e s i g n t hroat t hi c k n e s s
NOTE: The design throat thickness (tt) of a weld is the minimum distance from the root of a weld to its face, less any
reinforcement.
FIGURE 12.6.3(A) FILLET WELD SIZE
t t1
D e s i g n t hr o at t h i c k n e s s for d e e p
tt2
p e n etr at i o n we l d s m ad e by
auto m at i c pro c e s se s:
t t = t t1 + 0.8 5 t t 2
reinforcement.
FIGURE 12.6.3(B) DEEP PENETRATION WELD
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tt tt 90° tt
90° 90°
reinforcement.
FIGURE 12.6.3(C) DESIGN THROAT THICKNESSES
12.6.4 Size of weld

The size of the weld shall comply with the following:
(a) Complete and incomplete penetration butt weld The size of a complete penetration
butt weld, other than a complete penetration butt weld in a T-joint or a corner joint,
and the size of an incomplete penetration butt weld, shall be the minimum depth to
which the weld extends from its face into a joint, exclusive of reinforcement.
The size of a complete penetration butt weld for a T-joint or a corner joint shall be the
thickness of the part whose end or edge butts against the face of the other part.
(b) Fillet weld The leg lengths shall be defined as the lengths (tw1, tw2) of the sides lying
along legs of a triangle inscribed within the cross-section of the weld [see
Figures 12.6.3(A)(a) and (b)]. When the legs are of equal length, the size shall be
specified by a single dimension (tw). Where there is a root gap, the size (tw) shall be
given by the lengths of the legs of the inscribed triangle reduced by the root gap as
shown in Figure 12.6.3(A)(c).
The effective lengths shall comply with the following:
(a) Butt weld The effective length of a butt weld shall be the length of the continuous
full-size weld.
(b) Fillet weld The effective length of a fillet weld shall be the overall length of the full-
size fillet, including end returns. No reduction in effective length shall be made by
either the start or crater of the weld if the weld is full-size throughout its length.
The minimum effective length of a fillet weld shall be four times the size of the weld. If the
ratio of the effective length of the weld to the size of the weld does not comply with this
requirement, the size of the weld for design calculation purposes shall be taken as
0.25 times the effective length. The minimum length requirement shall also apply to lap
joints.
Any segment of intermittent fillet weld shall have an effective length of not less than
40 mm or four times the nominal size of the weld, whichever is the greater.
12.6.6 Particular requirements for butt welds
12.6.6.1 Incomplete-penetration butt welds
Incomplete-penetration butt welds shall be used only for longitudinal joints to connect the
elements of built-up members, such as girders and columns.
Incomplete-penetration butt welds shall not be used to transmit tensile or compressive
loads, or bending moments about the longitudinal axis of the weld.
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12.6.6.2 Intermittent butt welds

Intermittent butt welds shall not be used.
12.6.6.3 Butt welds made from one side
Butt-welded joints that are made from one side of the joint only shall be avoided in main
structural members (wherever possible). If such a butt weld cannot be avoided, provision
shall be made for a backing bar or fluxed backing strip (which will reduce the fatigue
strength of the joint appreciably), and due allowance shall be made for this effect in the
design of the joint for fatigue.
12.6.6.4 Transition of thickness or width
Butt-welded joints between parts of different thickness or unequal width that are subject to
tension shall have a smooth transition between surfaces or edges. The transition shall be
made by chamfering the thicker part or by sloping the weld surfaces or by any combination
of those, as shown in Figure 12.6.6.4.
The transition slope between the parts shall be not greater than 1:1.
NOTE: The fatigue provisions of Section 13 may require a lesser slope than this or a curved
transition between the parts.
Butt-welded T-joints may have a small fillet weld superimposed on each welded face not
exceeding the lesser of 6 mm or thinner during fabrication process. Larger fillet welds may
be used, provided a compound weld (see Clause 12.6.2.3) is specified.
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1 1
Chamfer Chamfer
1 1
before we l d ing before we l d ing
1
1
C e nt r e - l i n e a l i g n m e nt O f f set ali g n m e nt
(Par t i c ul ar ly a p p li c a b l e to we b p l ate s) (Par t i c ul ar ly a p p li c a b l e to fl an g e p l ate s)
(i) Tr an s it i o n by c hamfer in g t hi c ker par t
1
1 1
1
1
1
(ii) Tr an s it i o n by s l o p in g we l d sur fac e
1 Rem ove
1 1 Rem ove
af ter we l d in g
1 af ter we l d in g
1
1
(iii) Tr an s it i o n by s l o p in g we l d sur fac e an d c hamfer in g
(a) Tr an s it i o n of but t j o int s in par t s of un e q u al t hi c k n e s s
1 B u t t j o i nt
1
W i d t h of
w i d er p l ate
1 W i d t h of
1 narrower plate
(b) Tr an s it i o n of but t j o int s in par t s of un e q u al w i d t h —Tr an s it i o n by c hamfer in g w i d er par t
FIGURE 12.6.6.4 TRANSITIONS OF THICKNESS OR WIDTH FOR BUTT WELDS

SUBJECT TO TENSION
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12.6.7 Particular requirements for fillet welds

12.6.7.1 General
Fillet welds shall not be used in skew joints where the included angle between faces is less
than 60°.
A single fillet weld joint shall not be used where the weld will be subjected to bending
about the longitudinal axis of the fillet.
12.6.7.2 Minimum size of fillet welds
The minimum size of a fillet weld, other than a fillet weld used to reinforce a butt weld,
shall conform to Table 12.6.7.2 except that the size of the weld shall be not greater than the
thickness of the thinner part joined.
TABLE 12.6.7.2
MINIMUM SIZE OF A FILLET WELD
Thickness of thicker part (t) Minimum size of a fillet weld (tw )
mm mm
t7 3
7 < t  10 4
10 < t  15 5
15 < t 6
12.6.7.3 Maximum size of a fillet weld along an edge

The maximum size of a fillet weld along an edge of material shall be—
(a) the thickness of the material, as shown in Figure 12.6.7.3(a), for material less than
6 mm; and
(b) 1 mm less than the thickness of the material, for material 6 mm or more in thickness,
as shown in Figure 12.6.7.3(b), unless the weld is designated on the drawing to be
built out to obtain the design throat thickness, as shown in Figure 12.6.7.3(c).
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tw= t
(a) t w = t for t < 6 m m
1 mm
t tw
(b) t w n ot greater t han (t-1) m m for t ≥ 6 m m
B uilt out h ere to e n sure

n o d ef i c i e n c y i n s ize
tw= t
(c) t w = t for all t hi c k n e s se s w h ere e d g e i s built o ut
LEGEN D:
t w = s ize of fill et we l d s
t = t hi c k n e s s of t hin n er par t j o in e d
FIGURE 12.6.7.3 MAXIMUM SIZES OF FILLET WELDS ALONG EDGES
12.6.7.4 Transverse spacing of fillet welds

Where two parallel fillet welds connect two components along the joint lines in the
direction of the design action to form a built-up member, the transverse distance between
the welds shall not exceed 32 tp, except that in the case of intermittent fillet welds at the
ends of a tension member, the transverse distance shall be not greater than either 16tp or
200 mm, where tp is the thickness of the thinner of the two components connected.
It shall be permissible to use fillet welds in slots and holes in the direction of the design
action in order to satisfy this Clause.
12.6.7.5 Spacing of intermittent fillet welds
Except at the ends of a built-up member, the clear spacing between the lengths of
consecutive collinear intermittent fillet welds shall be not greater than the lesser of—
(a) 16tp and 300 mm for elements in compression; and
(b) 24tp and 300 mm for elements in tension;
where
tp = thickness of the thinner part joined
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12.6.7.6 Detailing of intermittent fillet welds

Intermittent fillet welds shall not be used for splices or connections between members, or in
places where corrosion may be a hazard. They may be used for such connections as those
between internal stiffeners and the plates of closed box girders.
12.6.7.7 Termination of fillet welds
Side or end fillet welds terminating at ends or sides, respectively, of parts of members shall,
wherever practicable, be returned continuously around the corners in the same plane as the
main welds for a distance of not less than twice the nominal size of the weld. Such end
returns shall be indicated on the drawings. The terminations of these welds shall be free
from cracks and other defects, and all craters shall be filled.
12.6.7.8 Lap splice
The minimum width of a splice plate shall be five times the thickness of the thinner part
joined and not less than 25 mm. Lap joints joining plates or bars subjected to axial stress
shall be fillet-welded along the edge of both lapped parts except where the deflection of the
lapped parts is sufficiently restrained to prevent opening of the joint under maximum
loading, in which case welding along one edge only may be used.
12.6.7.9 Packing in welded construction
Where packing is welded between two members and is less than 6 mm thick, or is too thin
to allow provision of adequate welds or to prevent buckling, the packing shall be trimmed
flush with the edges of the load-carrying element and the size of the welds along the edges
shall be increased over the required sizes by an amount equal to the thickness of the
packing. Alternatively, the packing shall extend beyond the edges and shall be welded to
the piece to which it is fitted.
12.6.8 Particular requirements for plug and slot welds
12.6.8.1 General
Plug and slot welds shall be used only to transmit shear in a lap joints or to prevent
buckling of lapped parts.
12.6.8.2 Thickness of plug and slot welds
The thickness of plug or slot welds in material 16 mm or less in thickness shall be equal to
the thickness of the material. In material over 16 mm in thickness, it shall be at least
one-half the thickness of the material, but not less than 16 mm.
12.6.8.3 Sizes of plug and slot welds
The minimum size of plug and slot welds in the form of fillet welds around the
circumference of the hole or slot shall be as for fillet welds.
The minimum diameter of holes for plug welds or width of slots for slot welds shall be as
follows:
(a) 20 mm for plates less than or equal to 12 mm thick.
(b) 25 mm for plates greater than 12 mm, less than or equal to 20 mm thick.
(c) 30 mm for plates greater than 20 mm, less than or equal to 25 mm thick.
(d) 40 mm for plates greater than 25 mm, less than or equal to 30 mm thick.
The length of slot for a slot weld shall not exceed 10 times the width of the slot. Ends of
slots shall be semi-circular or have corners rounded to a radius not less than the thickness of
the part containing them.
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12.6.9 Seal welds

Seal welds that are not required for structural reasons, but only to protect joints against
corrosion or to stop moisture entering, shall be specified on the drawings as a minimum size
fillet weld for the thickness of materials to be connected. The structural effects of these
nominal welds shall be taken into account.
12.6.10 Strength assessment
12.6.10.1 Strength assessment of a butt weld
The assessment of a butt weld for the strength limit state shall be as follows:
(a) Complete penetration butt weld The design capacity of a complete penetration butt
weld shall be taken as equal to the nominal capacity of the weaker part of the parts
joined, multiplied by the appropriate capacity reduction factor () for butt welds
given in Table 3.2, provided that the welding procedures are qualified in accordance
with AS/NZS 1554.1.
(b) Incomplete-penetration butt weld The design capacity of an incomplete-penetration
butt weld shall be calculated as for a fillet weld, as specified in Clause 12.6.7.2, using
the design throat thickness determined in accordance with Clause 12.6.3.
12.6.10.2 Strength assessment for fillet welds
A fillet weld group subjected to a design force per unit length of weld ( vw* ) at the ultimate
limit state shall satisfy the following:
vw*   vw . . . 12.6.10.2(1)
where
vw* = design force per unit length determined in accordance with Clause 4.7.5 or
Clause 4.7.6, as appropriate
The design force per unit length ( vw* ) shall be the vectorial sum of the design forces per unit
length on the effective area of the weld.
The nominal capacity of a fillet weld per unit length (vw) shall be calculated as follows:
vw = 0.6fuwttkr . . . 12.6.10.2(2)
where
fuw = nominal tensile strength of weld metal given in Table 12.6.10.2(A), matched
according to AS/NZS 1554
tt = design throat thickness
kr = reduction factor given in Table 12.6.10.2(B) to account for the length of a
welded lap connection (Lw) and for all other connection types
= 1.0
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TABLE 12.6.10.2(A)
NOMINAL TENSILE STRENGTH OF WELD METAL (fuw )
Structural steel welding to AS/NZS 1554.1 and AS/NZS 1554.5—Steel types 1–8C
Manual metal Submerged arc Flux cored arc Gas metal arc Nominal
arc (AS/NZS 14171) (AS/NZS ISO 17632) (AS/NZS ISO14341) tensile
(AS/NZS 4855) strength of
weld metal,
f uw
B-E43XX B-S43 B-T43 B-G43 430
B-E49XX B-S49 B-T49 B-G49 490
B-E55XX B-S55, B-S57 B-T55, B-T57 B-G55, B-G57 550
Structural steel welding to AS/NZS 1554.4—Steel types 8Q–10Q
Manual metal Submerged arc Flux cored arc Gas metal arc Nominal
arc (AS/NZS 14171, (AS/NZS ISO 17632, (AS/NZS ISO 14341, tensile
(AS/NZS 4855, AS/NZS 26304) AS/NZS ISO 18276) AS/NZS ISO 16834) strength of
AS/NZS 4857) weld metal,
f uw
B-E43XX B-S43 B-T43 B-G43 430
B-E49XX B-S49 B-T49 B-G49 490
B-E55XX B-S55 B-T55 B-G55 550
B-E57XX B-S57 B-T57, B-T59 B-G57, B-G59
B-E59XX B-S59
B-E62XX B-S62 B-T62 B-G62 620
B-E69XX B-S69 B-T69 B-G69 690
B-E76XX B-S76 B-T76, B-T78 B-G76, B-G78 760
B-E78XX B-S78
B-E83XX B-S83 B-T83 B-G83 830
NOTES:
1 Equivalent European type A classification series consumables may be used in lieu of the Type B
consumable. Refer to AS/NZS 1554.1, AS/NZS 1554.4 and AS/NZS 1554.5 as appropriate.
2 The B-E57XX, B-E59XX, B-78XX and equivalent strength consumables for other welding processes may
be difficult to source commercially.
3 The letter X represents any flux type (manual metal arc welding process).
TABLE 12.6.10.2(B)
REDUCTION FACTOR FOR A WELDED LAP CONNECTION (k r)
Length of weld L w
L w  1.7 1.7 < Lw  8.0 L w > 8.0
m
kr 1.00 1.10  0.06 L w 0.62
12.6.10.3 Strength assessment of plug and slot welds

The strength assessment of plug and slot welds shall be as follows:
(a) Plug and slot welds in the form of fillet welds around the circumference of the hole or
slot The plug and slot welds shall be regarded as a fillet weld with an effective
length as specified in Clause 12.6.2.6, and a nominal capacity as specified in
Clause 12.6.7.2. The minimum size shall be as given for a fillet weld in
Clause 12.6.4.2.
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(b) Plug and slot welds with hole filled with weld metal The effective shear area (Aw) of
a plug or slot weld in a hole filled with weld metal shall be considered as the nominal
cross-sectional area of the hole or slot in the plane of the faying surface.
Such a plug or slot weld subject to a design shear force ( Vw* ) shall satisfy the
following:
Vw*   Vw . . . 12.6.10.3(1)
where
Vw = nominal shear capacity of the weld
The nominal shear capacity (Vw) of the weld shall be calculated as follows:
Vw = 0.60fuwAw . . . 12.6.10.3(2)
(c) Limitations Plug or slot welds shall be used only to transmit shear in lap joints or to
prevent buckling of lapped parts or to join component parts of built-up members.
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SECTI ON 13 FATIGUE
13.1 SCOPE
This Section sets out requirements for fatigue design, which are based on international best
practice. It includes damage equivalent factors for the fatigue actions given in AS 5100.2.
The requirements of this Section are applicable to structures where execution conforms to
AS/NZS 1554.1, AS/NZS 1554.3 or AS/NZS 1554.5 and AS/NZS ISO 3834.2 (see Note 2).
This Section applies to materials that conform to the toughness requirements of
AS/NZS 5100.6. The assessment methods given in this Section are applicable to all grades
of structural stainless steels and unprotected weathering steel, except where noted otherwise
in the detail category tables.
Structural supports for highway signs, luminaires and traffic signals fatigue design
provisions are given in Clause 13.11.3.
The fatigue strengths given in this Section apply to structures operating under normal
atmospheric conditions and with sufficient corrosion protection and regular maintenance.
NOTES:
1 For the determination of fatigue load parameters, including verification formats, see
Appendix I.
2 Where appropriate, supplementary requirements are indicated in the detail category tables,
Table 13.10.1(B) to Table 13.10.1(K).
13.2 EXCLUSIONS
This Section does not cover the following:
(a) Fatigue assessment using the notch stress or notch strain method.
(b) Fatigue assessment using fracture mechanics
(c) Post fabrication treatments to improve the fatigue strength, other than stress relief.
(d) The effect of seawater corrosion
(e) Microstructural damage from high temperature (>150°C)
(f) High stress-low cycle fatigue
(g) Stress corrosion cracking.
13.3 DEFINITIONS
For the purpose of this Section, the definitions below apply.
13.3.1 General
13.3.1.1 Fatigue
The process of initiation and propagation of cracks through a structural part due to action of
fluctuating stress.
13.3.1.2 Geometric stress (structural hot spot stress)
The maximum principal stress in the parent material adjacent to the weld toe, taking into
account stress concentration effects due to the overall geometry of a particular
constructional detail but disregarding the stress concentration effect of the weld toe.
NOTE: Local stress concentration effects e.g. from the weld profile shape (which is already
included in the detail categories in Appendix I) need not be considered.
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13.3.1.3 Modified nominal stress

A nominal stress multiplied by an appropriate stress concentration factor kt, to allow for a
geometric discontinuity that has not been taken into account in the classification of a
particular constructional detail.
NOTE: Values of stress concentration factors can be obtained from published data.
13.3.1.4 Nominal stress
A stress in the parent material or in a weld adjacent to a potential crack location calculated
in accordance with elastic theory, excluding all stress concentration effects and all stress
rising effects of the structural detail of the joint.
NOTE: The nominal stress as specified in this Section can be a direct stress, a shear stress, a
principal stress or an equivalent stress.
13.3.1.5 Residual stress
A permanent state of stress in a structure that is in static equilibrium and is independent of
any applied action.
NOTE: Residual stresses can arise from rolling stresses, cutting processes, welding shrinkage or
lack of fit between members or from any loading event that causes yielding of part of the
structure.
13.3.2 Fatigue loading parameters
13.3.2.1 Design life
The reference period of time for which a structure is required to perform safely with an
acceptable probability that failure by fatigue cracking will not occur.
13.3.2.2 Design spectrum
The total spectrum of all stress-ranges in the design life of a structure relevant to the fatigue
assessment factored by a load factor.
13.3.2.3 Equivalent constant amplitude fatigue loading
Simplified constant amplitude loading causing the same fatigue damage effects as a series
of actual variable amplitude loading events.
13.3.2.4 Equivalent constant amplitude stress range
The constant-amplitude stress range that would result in the same fatigue life as for the
design spectrum, when the comparison is based on a Miner's summation.
NOTE: For the mathematical determination, see Appendix I.
13.3.2.5 Fatigue life
The predicted period of time to cause fatigue failure under the application of the design
spectrum.
13.3.2.6 Fatigue loading
A set of action parameters based on typical loading events described by the positions of
loads, their magnitudes, frequencies of occurrence, sequence and relative phasing.
NOTES:
1 The fatigue actions in AS 5100.2 are upper bound values based on evaluations of
measurements of loading effects according to Appendix I.
2 The action parameters are—
(a) Q max, n max, standardized spectrum (AS 5100.2); or
(b) QE,n max equivalent action related to n max; or
(c) Q E,2 equivalent action corresponding to n = 2  10 6 cycles.
Dynamic effects are included in these parameters unless otherwise stated.
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13.3.2.7 Loading event

A defined loading sequence applied to the structure and giving rise to a stress history,
which is normally repeated a defined number of times in the life of the structure.
13.3.2.8 Miner’s summation
A linear cumulative damage calculation based on the Palmgren-Miner rule.
13.3.2.9 Rainflow method
Particular cycle counting method of producing a stress-range spectrum from a given stress
history.
13.3.2.10 Reservoir method
Particular cycle counting method of producing a stress-range spectrum from a given stress
history.
NOTE: For the mathematical determination, see Appendix I.
13.3.2.11 Stress history
A record, a tabulation or a calculation of the stress variation at a particular point in a
structure during a loading event.
13.3.2.12 Stress range
The algebraic difference between the two extremes of a particular stress cycle derived from
a stress history.
13.3.2.13 Stress-range spectrum
Histogram of the number of occurrences for all stress ranges of different magnitudes
recorded or calculated for a particular loading event.
13.3.3 Fatigue strength
13.3.3.1 Constant amplitude fatigue limit (CAFL)
The assumed limiting direct or shear stress range value below which no fatigue damage will
occur in tests under constant amplitude stress conditions.
13.3.3.2 Cut-off limit
The assumed limit below which stress ranges of the design spectrum do not contribute to
the calculated cumulative damage.
13.3.3.3 Detail category
The numerical designation of fatigue resistance given to a particular detail for a given
direction of stress fluctuation, in order to indicate which fatigue strength curve is applicable
for the fatigue assessment.
NOTE: The detail category number indicates the reference fatigue strength σC in MPa.
13.3.3.4 Endurance
The life to failure expressed in cycles, under the action of a constant amplitude stress
history.
13.3.3.5 Fatigue strength curve
The quantitative relationship between the stress range and number of stress cycles to fatigue
failure, used for the fatigue assessment of a particular category of structural detail.
NOTE: The fatigue strengths given in this Part (AS/NZS 5100.6) are lower bound values based on
the evaluation of fatigue tests with large scale test specimens in accordance with AS 5104 or
ISO 2394.
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13.3.3.6 Relevant authority

The purchaser or owner of the structure being fabricated or erected, or a nominated
representative.
NOTE: The nominated representative should be suitably qualified to deal with the technical
issues of this Standard.
13.3.3.7 Reference fatigue strength
The constant amplitude resistance stress range  σC, for a particular detail category for an
endurance N = 2  106 cycles.
13.4 NOTATION
For the purposes of this Section, the following apply.
σ = stress range (direct stress)
 = stress range (shear stress)
σE,  E = characteristic equivalent constant amplitude stress range (action) related to
nmax
σE,2, = characteristic equivalent constant amplitude stress range (action) related to
 E,2 2 million cycles
σC,  C = characteristic reference value of the fatigue strength at NC = 2 million cycles
(resistance)
σD,  D = characteristic fatigue limit for constant amplitude stress ranges at the
number of cycles ND (resistance)
σL,  L = characteristic cut-off limit for stress ranges at the number of cycle NL
(resistance)
σeq = characteristic equivalent stress range for connections in webs of orthotropic
decks (action)
σC,red = characteristic reduced reference value of the fatigue strength (resistance)
σ max, = maximum stress range is equal to fatigue design stress range f* of AS 5100.2
 max (action)
Ff = load factor for equivalent constant amplitude stress ranges  σE,  E (action)
ϕMf = capacity reduction factor for fatigue strength σC,  C (resistance)
m = slope of fatigue strength curve
i = damage equivalent factors
s = factor for frequent value of a variable action
Q = characteristic value of a single variable action
ks = reduction factor for fatigue stress to account for size effects (resistance)
k1 = magnification factor for nominal stress ranges to account for secondary
bending moments in trusses (action)
kt = stress concentration factor (action)
NR = design life time expressed as number of cycles related to a constant stress
range
 = dynamic load allowance (AS 5100.2) (action)
n = effective number of cycles (AS 5100.2)
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Ff = partial safety factor for fatigue on loads

= 1 if not otherwise stated
13.5 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

Structural members shall be designed for fatigue such that there is an acceptable level of
probability that their performance will be satisfactory throughout their design life.
NOTE: Structures designed using fatigue actions from AS 5100.2 and fatigue resistance
according to this Part are deemed to satisfy this requirement.
Appendix I shall be used to determine a specific loading model, if—
(a) no appropriate fatigue load model is available in AS 5100.2; or
(b) a more realistic fatigue load model is required.
NOTE: Requirements for determining specific fatigue loading models may be confirmed by the
relevant authority or owner of a bridge or associated structure.
Fatigue tests shall be carried out—
(i) to determine the fatigue strength for details not included in this Section, or
(ii) to determine the fatigue life of prototypes, for actual or for damage equivalent fatigue
loads.
In performing and evaluating fatigue tests, AS 5104 shall be taken into account (see also
Clause 13.10.1).
NOTE: Requirements for determining fatigue strength from tests may be confirmed by the
relevant authority or owner of a bridge or associated structure.
The methods for the fatigue assessment given in this Section follow the principle of design
verification by comparing action effects and fatigue strengths; such a comparison is only
possible when fatigue actions are determined with parameters of fatigue strengths contained
in this Standard.
NOTES:
1 Any fatigue cracks that develop during service life do not necessarily mean the end of the
service life. Cracks should be firstly investigated for causes and then repaired with particular
care for execution to avoid introducing more severe notch conditions.
2 Fatigue actions are determined according to the requirements of the fatigue assessment. They
are different from actions for ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state verifications.
13.6 ASSESSMENT METHODS

13.6.1 General
Fatigue assessment shall be undertaken using either—
(a) damage tolerant method; or
(b) safe life method.
13.6.2 Damage tolerant method
The damage tolerant method provides an acceptable level of reliability, as defined in
AS 5104, which will ensure that a structure will perform satisfactorily for its design life,
provided a prescribed inspection and maintenance regime for detecting and correcting
fatigue damage is implemented throughout the design life of the structure.
The damage tolerant method shall be applied when in the event of fatigue damage occurring
a load redistribution between components of structural elements can occur.
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The design engineer shall give provisions for inspection programs.

NOTE: Structures that are assessed to this Section, using materials that conform to the toughness
requirements of AS/NZS 5100.6 and which are subjected to regular maintenance are deemed to be
damage tolerant.
13.6.3 Safe life method
The safe life method will provide an acceptable level of reliability that a structure will
perform satisfactorily for its design life without the need for regular in-service inspection
for fatigue damage.
The safe life method shall be applied in cases where local formation of cracks in one
component could rapidly lead to failure of the structural element or structure.
For the purpose of fatigue assessment using this Section, an acceptable reliability level may
be achieved by adjustment of the capacity reduction factor for fatigue strength (ϕMf) taking
into account the consequences of failure and the design assessment used.
Fatigue strengths are determined by considering the structural detail, together with its
metallurgical and geometric notch effects.
NOTE: In the fatigue details presented in this Section, the probable site of crack initiation is also
indicated [see Table 13.10.1(B) to Table 13.10.1(K)].
13.6.4 Capacity reduction factors
The assessment methods given herein use fatigue resistance in terms of fatigue strength
curves for—
(a) standard details applicable to nominal stresses; and
(b) reference weld configurations applicable to geometric stresses.
The required reliability may be achieved as follows:
(i) Damage tolerant method:
(A) Selecting details, materials and stress levels so that in the event of the
formation of cracks a low rate of crack propagation and a long critical crack
length would result.
(B) Provision of multiple load paths.
(C) Provision of crack-arresting details.
(D) Provision of readily inspectable details during regular inspections.
(ii) Safe-life method:
(A) Selecting details and stress levels resulting in a fatigue life sufficient to achieve
the reliability index -values to be at least equal to those required for ultimate
limit state verifications at the end of the design service life.
(B) Specifying definition of classes and numerical values for Mf.
Values for Mf shall be as given in Table 13.6.4 or as agreed with the relevant authority.
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TABLE 13.6.4
VALUES FOR CAPACITY REDUCTION FACTORS ( Mf)
FOR FATIGUE STRENGTH
Consequence of failure
Assessment method CC1 and CC2 CC3
Low consequence High consequence
Damage tolerant 1.00 0.85
Safe life 0.85 0.75
13.7 STRESSES FROM FATIGUE ACTIONS

Modelling for nominal stresses shall take into account all action effects, including
distortional effects, and shall be based on a linear elastic analysis for members and
connections.
For latticed girders made of hollow sections, the modelling may be based on a simplified
truss model with pinned connections. Provided the stresses due to external loading applied
to members between joints are taken into account, the effects from secondary moments due
to the stiffness of the connection shall be considered using the k1-factors, as given in
Table 13.7(A) for circular hollow sections and Table 13.7(B) for rectangular hollow
sections; these sections are subject to the geometrical restrictions according to
Table 13.10.1(H).
TABLE 13.7(A)
k 1 -FACTORS FOR CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS UNDER
IN-PLANE LOADING
Type of joint Chords Verticals Diagonals

K type 1.5 1.0 1.3
Gap joints
N type/KT type 1.5 1.8 1.4
K type 1.5 1.0 1.2
Overlap joints
N type/KT type 1.5 1.65 1.25
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TABLE 13.7(B)
k 1 -FACTORS FOR RECTANGULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS UNDER
IN-PLANE LOADING
Type of joint Chords Verticals Diagonals
K type 1.5 1.0 1.5
Gap joints
K type 1.5 1.0 1.3
Overlap joints
NOTES:
1 For the definition of joint types, refer to Key, PW & Syam AA. Tubular Design Guide,
Australian Steel Institute, 2014.
2 Ranges of geometric validity:
For CHS planar joints (K-, N-, KT-joints):
0.30    0.60
12.0    30.0
0.25    1.00
30°  θ  60°
For SHS joints (K-, N-, KT-joints):
0.40    0.60
6.25    12.5
0.25    1.00
30°  θ  60°
13.8 CALCULATION OF STRESSES

13.8.1 General
Stresses shall be calculated at the fatigue limit state.
Nominal stresses shall be calculated at the site of potential fatigue initiation. Effects
producing stress concentrations at details other than those included in Table 13.10.1(B) to
Table 13.10.1(K) shall be accounted for by using a stress concentration factor (SCF) to give
a modified nominal stress.
When using geometrical (hot spot) stress methods for details covered by Paragraph I2,
Appendix I, the stresses shall be calculated as shown in Clause 13.9.5.
The relevant stresses for details in the parent material are:
(a) Nominal direct stresses σ.
(b) Nominal shear stresses  .
NOTE: For effects of combined nominal stresses see Table 13.10.1(A).
The relevant stresses in the welds are (see Figure 13.8.1)—
(i) normal stress of the weld (wf):  wf  0.5 f  0.5  2 f  4 2 f
(ii) shear stresses longitudinal to the axis of the weld ( wf):  wf   f
for which two separate checks shall be performed.
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σ IIf
σ ┴f
τ IIf
τ┴f
tt tt
tt tt
(a) R e l evant s t r e s s e s σ f (b) R e l evant s t r e s s e s τ f
FIGURE 13.8.1 RELEVANT STRESSES IN THE FILLET WELDS
13.8.2 Composite connection

The longitudinal shear per unit length shall be calculated by elastic analysis. In members
where cracking of concrete occurs, the effects of tension stiffening shall be taken into
account by an appropriate model. For simplification, the longitudinal shear forces at the
interface between structural steel and concrete may be determined by using the properties of
the un-cracked section.
13.9 CALCULATION OF STRESS RANGES

13.9.1 General
The fatigue assessment shall be carried out using—
(a) nominal stress ranges for details shown in Table 13.10.1(B) to Table 13.10.1(H);
(b) modified nominal stress ranges where, for example, abrupt changes of section occur
close to the initiation site which are not included in Table 13.10.1(B) to
Table 13.10.1(H); or
(c) geometric stress ranges where high stress gradients occur close to a weld toe in joints
covered by Appendix I.
The design value of stress range to be used for the fatigue assessment shall be the stress
range FfσE,2 corresponding to NR = 2  106 cycles.
13.9.2 Characteristic value of nominal stress range
13.9.2.1 General
The characteristic value of equivalent nominal stress range for 2 million cycles σE,2 and
 E,2 shall be determined as follows:
σE,2 = (1 + α)   σ max . . .13.9.2.1(1)
 E,2 = (1 + α)    max . . .13.9.2.1(2)
where
σ max,  max = maximum stress range caused by the fatigue loads specified in
AS 5100.2
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 = damage equivalent factor calculated

The -values shall be as determined in Clauses 13.9.2.2 and 13.9.2.3
below
α = dynamic load allowance in AS 5100.2 Table 7.7.2
NOTE: Background information on lambda factors can be found in Hobbacher A.F., Hicks S.J.,
Karpenko M., Thole F., Uy B., Transfer of Australasian bridge design to fatigue verification
system of Eurocode 3, Journal of Constructional Steel Research, Volume 122, July 2016,
Pages 532–542, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2016.03.023.
13.9.2.2 Damage equivalent factors (λ) for A160 and M1600 loading model
Fatigue loaded components are verified using the appropriate load spectrum and performing
a damage calculation by, for example, Palmgren-Miner summation. Typical load patterns at
bridges allow a pre-calculation of their effects, from which factors for the different
parameters can be derived, called damage equivalent factors (λ). These parameters are
vehicles per day, span of bridge, route conditions, service life or number of cycles, and
effect of multiple lanes.
For A160 and M1600, without uniformly distributed load (UDL) loading model of
AS 5100.2, the -values shall be determined as follows:
 = C  L  R  Y  M . . . 13.9.2.2
where
C = vehicles per day
L = consideration of span
R = route factor
Y = service life in years or number of cycles
M = effect of multiple lanes, if not yet covered in load assumptions
C-values shall be calculated for different numbers of vehicles per day with reference to
Table 13.8.2.2(A) for A160 and M1600, without UDL loading models. The C-values given
in the Table are based on a span length of 1.0 m.
It is assumed that the λL value for the A160 fatigue load model equals λL = 1 irrespective of
the span length.
λL values for M1600, without UDL fatigue load model shall be as given in
Table 13.9.2.2(B).
The route factor λR is the same for both the A160 and M1600, without UDL fatigue load
model. The λ R-values shall be as given in Table 13.9.2.2(C).
The λY-factors for different service lives in years are the same for both A160 and M1600,
without UDL fatigue load model shall be as given in Table 13.9.2.2(D).
The λM factors if more than one lane is loaded for both A160 and M1600 without UDL
fatigue load model shall be as given in Table 13.9.2.2(E).
NOTE:The λM factor for multiple lanes does not need to be considered where the effect of
multiple lanes was already covered by the load assumptions.
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TABLE 13.9.2.2(A)
C-VALUES FOR A160 AND M1600, WITHOUT UDL
FATIGUE LOAD MODELS BASED ON A SPAN OF 1.0 m
Vehicles per day 200 500 1000 2000 5000
C (A160) 0.92 1.11 1.27 1.46 1.76
C (M1600, without UDL) 0.80 0.97 1.11 1.27 1.53
TABLE 13.9.2.2(B)
L-VALUES FOR M1600, WITHOUT UDL
FATIGUE LOAD MODEL
Span L 5 10 20 50 100 200

L 0.851 0.794 0.741 0.676 0.631 0.589
TABLE 13.9.2.2(C)
R-VALUES FOR A160 AND M1600, WITHOUT UDL FATIGUE LOAD MODEL
Route factor Principal interstate Urban Other rural Urban routes other
freeway or highway freeway routes than freeways
R 1 0.931 0.871 0.786
TABLE 13.9.2.2(D)
Y-FACTORS FOR ROAD AND RAIL BRIDGES FOR DIFFERENT NUMBER OF
YEARS (n), AS DETERMINED ACCORDING TO AS 5100.2
Bridge/years 75 90 100 120
Road bridges—No inspection 1.000 1.04 1.06 1.10
Road and rail bridges—Regular inspection 0.94 0.98 1.00 1.04
NOTE: The number of cycles is determined from cycles per train, dependent of span and number of trains
dependent on type of line in accordance with AS 5100.2. The range is from about 2E4 to 1.44E8 cycles. The
choice of an exponent m = 3 or m = 5 is dependent on load cycles and stress and could vary accordingly. For
uniformity, the values have been calculated for an exponent of m = 5.
TABLE 13.9.2.2(E)
M-FACTORS FOR BRIDGES WITH MULTIPLE LANES
Number of lanes 1 2 3 4 5 6 or more
λM 1.0 1.9 2.7 3.4 4.0 4.5
NOTES:
1 Where no appropriate data for λ i are available, the design value of nominal stress range may be determined
using the principles in Appendix I.
2 Information supplementing the requirements of Appendix I may be specified.
13.9.2.3 Damage equivalent factors () for rail bridges

For the loading model of AS 5100.2, the -values shall be determined as follows:
 = T  Y . . . 13.9.2.3
where
T = fatigue actions from rail traffic given in Table 13.9.2.3, where the number
of cycles (n) shall be calculated from AS 5100.2, where n = C TnT
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Y = service life in years or number of cycles given in Table 13.9.2.2(D)

NOTE: Since rail bridges are normally designed for 100 years, the  Y -factor becomes unity and
thus usually does not need to be considered.
TABLE 13.9.2.3
λT-FACTORS FOR RAIL BRIDGES ACCORDING TO AS 5100.2
Cycles/λT -factor 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8
1 0.176 0.368 0.794 1.710 2.710
2 0.215 0.464 1.000 1.964 3.113
3 0.247 0.531 1.084 2.130 3.376
4 0.271 0.585 1.149 2.256 3.576
5 0.292 0.630 1.201 2.359 3.739
6 0.311 0.669 1.245 2.447 3.878
7 0.327 0.705 1.285 2.524 3.999
8 0.342 0.737 1.320 2.592 4.108
9 0.356 0.766 1.651 2.654 4.206
Example: For λT -factor for 40 million cycles, go to row ‘4 ’ and then column ‘10 7 ’. Read λ T = 2.256.
NOTE: The values have been calculated using an exponent of the S-N curve m = 3 for a number of cycles
lower than 10 7 and an exponent m = 5 for number of cycles higher than 107.
13.9.3 Characteristic value of modified nominal stress range

The characteristic value of modified nominal stress ranges FfσE,2 and Ff E,2 shall be
σE,2 = kt (1 + )  σ max . . .13.9.3
 E,2 = kt (1 + )   max
where
 = damage equivalent factor depending on the spectra, as specified in
Clauses 13.9.2.2 and 13.9.2.3
kt = stress concentration factor to take account of the local stress magnification
in relation to detail geometry not included in the reference σR -N-curve
α = dynamic load allowance in AS 5100.2 Table 7.7.2
NOTE: kt-values may be taken from PD 6695-1-9 Recommendations for the design of structures
to BS EN 1993-1-9 or from appropriate finite element calculations.
13.9.4 Design value of stress range for welded joints of hollow sections
Unless more accurate calculations are carried out, the design value of modified nominal
stress range FfσE,2 shall be determined as follows:
FfσE,2 
= k1  Ff  E* , 2  . . .13.9.4
where
 Ff  E* , 2 = design value of stress range calculated with a simplified truss model with
pinned joints
k1 = magnification factor according to Table 13.7(A) and Table 13.7(B)
α = dynamic load allowance in AS 5100.2
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13.9.5 Design value of stress range for geometrical (hot spot) stress
The design value of geometrical (hot spot) stress range (FfσE,2) shall be determined as
follows:

FfσE,2 = k f  Ff  E* , 2  . . .13.9.5
where
kf = stress concentration factor
13.9.6 Shear connectors
For verification of stud shear connectors based on nominal stress ranges, the equivalent
constant range of shear stress ( E.2) for 2 million cycles shall be taken to be:
 E.2 = v . . . 13.9.6
where
v = damage equivalent factor depending on the spectrum and the slope m of the
fatigue strength curve
The -values shall be as determined in Clauses 13.9.2.2 and 13.9.2.3
 = range of shear stress due to fatigue loading, related to the cross-sectional
area of the shank of the stud using the nominal diameter dbs of the shank
NOTE: The stress ranges refer to maximum stress in spectrum
The equivalent constant amplitude shear stress range in welds of other types of shear
connectors shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 13.8.
13.10 FATIGUE STRENGTH

13.10.1 General
The fatigue strength for nominal stress ranges given by a series of (log σR )  (logN) curves
and (logR)  (logN) curves (S-N-curves) that correspond to the detail categories.
NOTE: Each detail category is designated by a number, which represents, in MPa, the reference
value σC and  C for the fatigue strength at 2 million cycles.
The slope of the fatigue strength S-N curves for details assessed on the basis of normal
stresses shall be taken as m = 3 if not stated expressly otherwise. The constant amplitude
knee point shall be taken to correspond to N = 107 cycles.
The slope of the fatigue strength curves for details assessed on the basis of shear stresses is
m = 5; in this case the knee point shall be taken to correspond to N = 108 cycles.
For constant amplitude nominal stress ranges greater than the knee point of the S-N curve,
the fatigue strength may be obtained as follows:
 Rm N R   Cm 2  10 6 with m = 3 for N  107, see Figure 13.10.1(A) . . . 13.10.1(1)
 Rm N R   Cm 2  10 6 with m = 5 for N  108, see Figure 13.10.2 . . . 13.10.1(2)

For constant amplitude nominal stress ranges below the constant amplitude knee point, the
fatigue strength shall be based on the extended fatigue strength curves as follows:
 Rm N R  0.585 Cm 2  106 with m = 22 for N > 107 . . . 13.10.1(3)

Starting from the comparison value at 20  106 cycles, a factor is needed since the knee
point is at 107 cycles.
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243 AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
If starting from knee point at 107 cycles, which is not the case here, no factor is needed.
The factors 0.585 and 0.457 consider that the comparison values for direct and shear stress
refer to 2  106 cycles while the knee point is at 107 or 108 cycles respectively.
For variable amplitude nominal stress spectra with stress ranges below the knee point of the
S-N curve, the fatigue strength for a Miner summation shall be based on the extended
fatigue strength curves as follows:
 Rm N R  0.585 Cm 2  106 with m = 5 for N > 107 (see Note 1) . . . 13.10.1(5)

When test data is used to determine the appropriate detail category for a particular
constructional detail, the value of the stress range ΔσC corresponding to a value of NC = 2
million cycles shall be calculated (see Note 2).
NOTES:
1 The conventional assumption is that S-N curves terminate at a fatigue limit, below which
failure will not occur, or in which case the S-N curve becomes a horizontal line. Traditionally,
this constant amplitude fatigue limit (CAFL), also referred to as the ‘knee point’, is defined in
terms of the corresponding fatigue endurance on the S-N curve, N = 10 7 being the most
common practical engineering assumption. However, new experimental data indicate that a
CAFL does not exist and the S-N curve should continue on the basis of a further decline in
stress range of about 10% per decade in terms of cycles, which corresponds to a slope of
m = 22. In this case, the Miner summation is specified as m = 5. This issue is only relevant if
a design is expected to withstand very large numbers of stress cycles such as, for example, at
rotating welded machine parts. The nominal stress-based characteristic S-N curves are
presented with the extrapolation beyond 107 cycles at a slope of m = 22 in Figures 13.10.1(A)
to 13.10.1(B).
2 These are values that represent 95% survival probability (i.e. 5% failure probability)
calculated from the mean on the basis of one-sided confidence of 95%. In practical
applications, that is equivalent to about mean minus two standard deviations.
3 The relevant authority or owner of a bridge or associated structure may permit the verification
of a fatigue strength category for a particular application provided the evaluation is as stated
above.
4 Test data for some details do not exactly fit the fatigue strength curves in Figure 13.10.1(A).
In order to ensure that non-conservative conditions are avoided, such details, marked with an
asterisk, are located one detail category lower than their fatigue strength at 2 × 10 6 cycles
would require. An alternative assessment may increase the classification of such details by
one detail category provided that the constant amplitude fatigue limit ΔσD is defined as the
fatigue strength at 10 7 cycles for m = 3 [see Figure 13.10.1(C)].
The fatigue strength associated with category 160 and a slope exponent of m = 5 is the
highest. No detail can reach a higher fatigue strength at any number of cycles.
Detail categories ΔσC and ΔτC for nominal stresses shall be as given in—
(a) Table 13.10.1(B) for plain members and mechanically fastened joints;
(b) Table 13.10.1(C) for welded built-up sections;
(c) Table 13.10.1(D) for transverse butt welds;
(d) Table 13.10.1(E) for weld attachments and stiffeners;
(e) Table 13.10.1(F) for load carrying welded joints;
(f) Table 13.10.1(G) for hollow sections;
(g) Table 13.10.1(H) for lattice girder node joints;
(h) Table 13.10.1(I) for orthotropic decks – closed stringers;
(i) Table 13.10.1(J) for orthotropic decks – open stringers; and
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017 244
(j) Table 13.10.1(K) for top flange to web junctions of runway beams.
The fatigue strength categories Δσ C for geometric stress ranges shall be as given in
Appendix I.
Fatigue strength categories ΔσC and ΔτC for details not covered by Table 13.10.1(A) to
Table 13.10.1(K) and by Appendix I may be specified.
500
400
300
20 0
Δσ R , MPa
16 0
10 0
90
80
70 12 5
60 11 2
10 0
50 90
80
40 71
63
30 56
50
45
40
20 36
10 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 1 000 000 1E7 1E8 1E9
CYCLES, N
FIGURE 13.10.1(A) FATIGUE STRENGTH CURVES FOR DIRECT STRESS RANGES
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245 AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
10 0 0
S HE AR STRESS R AN GE Δτ R , M Pa
1
1
m = 5 10 0
10 0
80
10
2 .0 E+ 0 6
1.0 E+ 0 4 1.0 E+ 0 5 1.0 E+ 0 6 1.0 E+ 07 1.0 E+ 0 8 1.0 E+ 0 9
EN DUR AN CE N U M BER OF CYCLES, N
LEGEN D:
1 D et ail c ate g or y Δτ C
2 Cut- of f lim it Δτ L
FIGURE 13.10.1(B) FATIGUE STRENGTH CURVES FOR SHEAR STRESS RANGES
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017 246
l o g Δσ R
Δσ C
Δσ C*
7
6
6
log N
10
10
10
5x
2x
FIGURE 13.10.1(C) ALTERNATIVE STRENGTH  C FOR DETAILS

CLASSIFIED AS  C*
13.10.2 Headed stud

The fatigue strength curve of an automatically welded headed stud in accordance with
AS/NZS 1554.2 shall be as shown in Figure 13.10.2 and for normal weight concrete shall be
 Rm N R   Cm N C . . . 13.10.2
where
R = fatigue shear strength related to the cross-sectional area of the shank of the
stud, using the nominal diameter dbs of the shank
C = reference value at NC = 2  106 cycles with  C equal to 90 MPa
m = slope of the fatigue strength curve with the value m = 8
NR = number of stress-range cycles
Δτ R (l o g)
Δτ C
1
m = 8
N c = 2 × 10 6
N (l o g)
10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8 10 4
FIGURE 13.10.2 FATIGUE STRENGTH CURVE FOR HEADED STUDS IN SOLID SLABS
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247 AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
13.10.3 Fatigue strength modifications

13.10.3.1 Non-welded or stress-relieved welded details in compression
In non-welded details or stress-relieved welded details, the mean stress influence on the
fatigue strength shall be taken into account by determining a reduced effective stress range
σE,2 in the fatigue assessment when part or all of the stress cycle is compressive.
The effective stress range shall be calculated by adding the tensile portion of the stress
range and 60% of the magnitude of the compressive portion of the stress range, if a part or
all stress ranges are compressive (see Figure 13.10.3.1).
Tension
σ max.
σ max
Δσ = σ m a x . + 0.6 σ m i n .
0.6 σ m i n .
C o m pres s i o n σ min.
FIGURE 13.10.3.1 MODIFIED STRESS RANGE FOR NON-WELDED OR STRESS

RELIEVED DETAILS
13.10.3.2 Size effect

The size effect due to thickness or other dimensional effects shall be taken into account as
given in Table 13.10.1(B) to Table 13.10.1(K). The fatigue strength shall be calculated as
follows:
σC,red = ksσC . . .13.10.3.2
13.11 FATIGUE VERIFICATION

13.11.1 General
Nominal, modified nominal or geometric stress ranges due to frequent loads shall not
exceed:
σ  1.5fy for direct stress ranges . . . 13.11.1(1)
  1 .5 f y 3 for shear stress ranges
It shall be verified that under fatigue loading:

 Ff  E,2
 1.0 . . . 13.11.1(2)
Mf  C
and
 Ff  E,2
 1.0 . . . 13.11.1(3)
Mf  C
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017 248
Stress ranges shall be based on principal stresses for some details given in Table 13.10.1(B)
to Table 13.10.1(J).
Unless otherwise stated in the fatigue strength categories in Tables 13.10.1(I) and
13.10.1(J), the assessment procedure for combined stress shall be as given in
Table 13.10.1(A) below. The stresses of action and resistance shall be calculated for the
same number of cycles.
When no data for ΔσE,2 or ΔτE,2 are available, the verification format in Appendix I may be
used.
NOTES:
1 Appendix I covers stress ranges in longitudinal direction, which may be adopted also for
shear stress ranges.
2 Information supplementing the requirements of Appendix I may be specified.
TABLE 13.10.1(A)
ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE FOR COMBINED NORMAL STRESS AND SHEAR
STRESS USING S-N CURVES
Specified damage
Type of
Phase of stresses Assessment procedure sum D or comparison
load
value CV
Assessment on the basis of the maximum
principal stress, or
Proportional 2 2 CV = 1.0
  S,d    S,d 
Constant      CV
     
amplitude  R,d   R,d 
2 2
  S,d    
Non-proportional     S,d   CV CV = 0.5
     
 R,d   R,d 
Assessment on the basis of the maximum
principal stress and Miner’s rule, or
D = 0.5
Proportional 2 2
  eq.S,d     CV = 1.0
Variable     eq.S,d   CV
     
amplitude  R,d   R,d 
2 2
  eq.S,d     D = 0.5
Non-proportional     eq.S,d   CV
      CV = 0.5
 R,d   R,d 
NOTE: For fluctuating mean stress, a Palmgren-Miner sum of D = 0.2 is recommended.
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TABLE 13.10.1(B)
PLAIN MEMBERS AND MECHANICALLY FASTENED JOINTS
Detail
Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
NOTE: The fatigue strength associated with Rolled or extruded products: Details 1) to 3):
category 160 is the highest. No detail can reach a
1) Plates and flats with as rolled edges; Sharp edges, surface and rolling flaws to be improved by grinding
better fatigue strength at any number of cycles.
2) Rolled sections with as rolled edges; until removed and smooth transition achieved.
160 3) Seamless hollow sections, either rectangular or
m=5 circular.
1 2 3
Sheared or gas cut plates: 4) All visible signs of edge discontinuities to be removed. The cut
140 areas are to be machined or ground and all burrs to be removed.
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4 4) Machine gas cut or sheared material with

Any machinery scratches for example from grinding operations,
subsequent dressing.
249
can only be parallel to the stresses.
5) Material with machine gas cut edges having
shallow and regular drag lines or manual gas cut Details 4) and 5):
125 material, subsequently dressed to remove all edge
5 -Re-entrant corners to be improved by grinding (slope  1/4) or
discontinuities.
evaluated using the appropriate stress concentration factors.
Machine gas cut with cut quality according to
-No repair by weld refill.
AS/NZS 5131.
6) and 7) Rolled or extruded products as in Details 6) and 7):
100 details 1), 2), 3).
VS t 
m=5  calculated from:  
6 7 It
NOTE: For details 1 – 5 made of weathering steel, the next lower category shall be used.
8) Double covered symmetrical joint with 8) σ to be calculated on For bolted connections (Details 8) to
preloaded high strength bolts. the gross cross-section. 13) in general:
112
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
8 8) Double covered symmetrical joint with 8) … gross cross-section. End distance:
preloaded injection bolts. e 1  1.5d
(continued)
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(B) (continued)
Detail
category
9) Double covered joint with fitted bolts. 9) … net cross-section. Edge distance:
e 2  1.5d
9 9) Double covered joint with non-preloaded 9) … net cross-section. Spacing:
injection bolts. p 1  2.5d
90 10) One sided connection with preloaded high 10) … gross cross-section. Spacing:
strength bolts. p 2  2.5d
10) One sided connection with preloaded injection 10) … gross cross-section. Detailing to Section 12
10 bolts.
11) Structural element with holes subject to 11) net cross-section. In the absence of suitable experimental
bending and axial forces. data, avoid designing with threads in
the shear plane.
11
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250
12) One sided connection with fitted bolts. 12) net cross-section.
80 12) One sided connection with non-preloaded 12) net cross-section.

injection bolts.
12
13) One sided or double covered symmetrical 13) net cross-section.

connection with non-preloaded bolts in normal
50 clearance holes.
13 No load reversals.
14) Bolts and rods with rolled or cut threads in 14) σ shall be calculated using the tensile stress area of the bolt.
size effect for Ø Ø tension. Bending and tension resulting from prying effects and bending
50  > 30 mm: For large diameters (anchor bolts) the size effect stresses from other sources shall be taken into account.
14
has to be taken into account with k s. For preloaded bolts, the reduction of the stress range may be taken
k s = (30/  ) 0.25
into account.
Bolts in single or double shear 15)  calculated on the shank area of the bolt.
Thread not in the shear plane 15) In the absence of suitable experimental data, avoid designing with
100 15 threads in the shear plane.
m=5 -Fitted bolts.
-Normal bolts without load reversal (bolts of
grade 4.6, 5.6, 8.8 or 10.9).
TABLE 13.10.1(C)
WELDED BUILT-UP SECTIONS
Detail
category
Continuous longitudinal welds: Details 1) and 2):
1) Automatic or fully mechanized butt welds No stop/start position is permitted except when the repair is
125 carried out from both sides. performed by a specialist and inspection is carried out to verify the
1 2 2) Automatic or fully mechanized fillet welds. proper execution of the repair.
Cover plate ends to be checked using detail 6) or
7) in Table 13.10.1(F).
3) Automatic or fully mechanized butt welds 4) When this detail contains stop/start positions, category 100 to be
carried out from both sides but containing used.
stop/start positions.
112 3 4) Automatic or fully mechanized butt welds
made from side only, with a continuous backing
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bar, but without start/stop positions.

4
251
5) Manual fillet or butt weld. 5), 6) A very good fit between the flange and web plates is
6) Manual or automatic or fully mechanized butt essential. The web edge to be prepared such that the root face is
100 welds carried out from one side only, particularly adequate for the achievement of regular root penetration without
for box girders. break-out.
5 6
7) Repaired automatic or fully mechanized or 7) Improvement by grinding performed by specialist to remove all
manual fillet or butt welds for categories 1) to 6). visible signs and adequate verification can restore the original
100 category.
7
8) Intermittent longitudinal fillet welds 8) σ based on direct stress in flange.

g
h subsequently not covered by longitudinal weld
80 (based on stress range in the flange at weld ends).
8
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
(continued)
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(C) (continued)
Detail
category
9) Longitudinal butt weld, fillet weld or 9) σ based on direct stress in flange.
intermittent weld with a cope hole height not
71 greater than 60 mm.
For cope holes with a height > 60 mm, see
9
detail 1) in Table 13.10.1(E).
10) Longitudinal butt weld, both sides ground
125
flush parallel to load direction, 100% NDT.
112 10 10) No grinding and no start/stop.
90 10) With start/stop positions.
11) Automatic or fully mechanized longitudinal 11) Wall thickness t  12.5 mm.
140 seam weld without stop/start positions in the
hollow sections.
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11) Automatic or fully mechanized longitudinal 11) Wall thickness t > 12.5 mm.
252
125 11 seam weld without stop/start positions in the
hollow parts.
90 11) With stop/start positions.
NOTE: For details 1) to 11) made with fully mechanized welding the categories for automatic welding apply.
TABLE 13.10.1(D)
TRANSVERSE BUTT WELDS
Detail
category
t Without backing bar: -All welds ground flush to plate surface parallel
≤1/4 to direction of the arrow.
1) Transverse splices in plates and flats.
t -Weld run-on and run-off pieces to be used and
1 2) Flange and web splices in plate girders
subsequently removed, plate edges to be ground
size effect before assembly.
flush in direction of stress.
for 3) Full cross-section butt welds of rolled
112 -Welded from both sides; checked NDT.
 > 25 mm: ≤1/4
sections without cope holes.
2 4) Transverse splices in plates or flats tapered Detail 3):
k s = (25/  ) 0.2 4 in width or in thickness, with a slope  1/4.
Applies only to joints of rolled sections, cut and
welded.
3
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5) Transverse splices in plates or flats. -The height of the weld convexity to be not
≤ 0.1b b
253
≤1/4
6) Full cross-section butt welds of rolled greater than 10% of the weld width, with smooth
t t
sections without cope holes. transition to the plate surface.
size effect 7) Transverse splices in plates or flats tapered -Weld run-on and run-off to be used and
for in width or in thickness with a slope  1/4. subsequently removed, plate edges to be ground
90 5
 > 25 mm: Translation of welds to be machined notch free. flush in direction of stress.
k s = (25/  ) 0.2 ≤1/4
-Welded from both sides; checked NDT.
6 7 Details 5) and 7):

Welds made in flat position.
8) As detail 3) but with cope holes. -All welds ground flush to plate surface parallel
to direction of the arrow.
size effect -Weld run-on and run-off to be used and
for subsequently removed, plate edges to be ground
90  > 25 mm: flush in direction of stress.
k s = (25/  ) 0.2 8 -Welded from both sides; checked NDT.
-Rolled sections with the same dimensions
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
without tolerance differences.
(continued)
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(D) (continued)
Detail
category
9) Transverse splices in welded plate girders -The height of the weld convexity to be not
b without cope hole. greater than 20% of the weld width, with smooth
≤ 0. 2 b
t 10) Full cross-section butt welds of rolled transition to the plate surface.
sections with cope holes. -Weld not ground flush.
size effect 11) Transverse splices in plates, flats, rolled -Weld run-on and run-off pieces to be used and
for 9 11 sections or plate girders. subsequently removed, plate edges to be ground
80  > 25 mm: flush in direction of stress.
-Welded from both sides; checked by NDT.
k s = (25/  ) 0.2
Detail 10):
10
The height of the weld convexity to be not greater
than 10% of the weld width, with smooth
transition to the plate surface.
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12) Full cross-section butt welds or rolled -Weld run-on and run-off pieces to be used and
sections without cope hole. subsequently removed, plate edges to be ground
254
63 flush in direction of stress.
12 -Welded from both sides.
36 13) Butt welds made from one side only. 13) Without backing strip. Eccentricity exceeding
t
10% of wall thickness shall be considered in
size effect 13) Butt welds made from one side only when
analysis.
for full penetration checked by appropriate NDT.
71  > 25 mm:
13
k s = (25/  ) 0.2
t With backing strip: Details 14) and 15):
size effect 14) Transverse splice. Fillet welds attaching the backing strip to
for 15) Transverse butt weld tapered in width or terminate  10 mm from the edges of the stressed
71  > 25 mm:
>10 m m thickness with a slope  1/4. plate. Tack welds inside the shape of butt welds.
≤1/4
Also valid for curved plates. Eccentricity exceeding 10% of wall thickness
k s = (25/  ) 0.2 shall be considered in analysis.
14 15
(continued)
TABLE 13.10.1(D) (continued)
Detail
category
size effect ≤1/4 16) Transverse butt weld on a permanent 16) Where backing strip fillet welds end < 10 mm
for backing strip tapered in width or thickness with from the plate edge, or if a good fit cannot be
50  > 25 mm: a slope  1/4. guaranteed. Eccentricity exceeding 10% of wall
16 Also valid for curved plates. thickness shall be considered in analysis.
k s = (25/  ) 0.2
Size effect for t > 25 mm and/or 17) Transverse butt weld, different thicknesses
generalization for eccentricity: s l o p e ≤ 1/ 2 without transition, centrelines aligned.
0.2
 25   6e t11.5 
k s    1   t2 t1
 t1   t1 t11.5  t 12.5 
71  
t2 ≥ t1
e
17
t2 > t1
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18) Transverse butt weld at intersecting Details 18) and 19):
255
r L
40 ℓ
flanges.
The fatigue strength of the continuous component
As detail 19) With transition radius according to has to be checked with Table 13.10.1(E), detail 4)
4) in Table Table 13.10.1(E), detail 4). or 5).
13.10.1(E) 18 19
TABLE 13.10.1(E)
WELD ATTACHMENTS AND STIFFENERS
Detail
category
80 L  50 mm Longitudinal attachments: The thickness of the attachment shall be less than
its height. If not, see Table 13.8.5, details 5) or 6).
71 50 < L  80 mm 1) The detail category varies according to the
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
L L
length of the attachment L.
63 80 < L  100 mm
1
56 L > 100 mm
(continued)
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(E) (continued)
Detail
category
L L 2) Longitudinal attachments to plate or tube.

L > 100 mm α
71 α
α < 45° 2
L r 3) Longitudinal fillet welded gusset with radius Details 3) and 4):

r
transition to plate or tube; end of the fillet weld
80 r > 150 mm Smooth transition radius r formed by initially
reinforced (full penetration); length of
3 machining or gas cutting the gusset plate before
R e i n fo r c e d reinforced weld > r.
welding, then subsequently grinding the weld area
r 1 4) Gusset plate, welded to the edge of a plate parallel to the direction of the arrow so that the
 ℓ or beam flange. transverse weld toe is fully removed.
90  3
or r > 150 mm
r
1 r 1 4
71  
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ℓ
6  3
256
r 1
50  r
 6
5) As welded, no radius transition.
40
5
80 ℓ  50 mm ℓ Transverse attachments: Details 6) and 7):

6) Welded to plate. Ends of welds shall be carefully ground to remove
7) Vertical stiffeners welded to a beam or plate any undercut that may be present.
6 7 girder.
7) σ to be calculated using principal stresses if
8) Diaphragm of box girders welded to the
the stiffener terminates in the web, see left side.
71 50 < ℓ  80 mm ℓ flange or the web. May not be possible for
small hollow sections.
The values are also valid for ring stiffeners.
8
9) The effect of welded shear studs on base

80 material.
9
TABLE 13.10.1(F)
LOAD CARRYING WELDED JOINTS
Detail
category
all t Cruciform and tee joints: 1) Inspected and found free from discontinuities
80 ℓ < 50 mm
[mm] and misalignments outside the tolerances
1) Toe failure in full penetration butt welds and
specified in AS/NZS 5131.
71 50 < ℓ  80 all t all partial penetration joints.
ℓ ℓ 2) For computing σ, use modified nominal
63 80 < ℓ  100 all t stress.
3) In partial penetration joints, two assessments
56 100 < ℓ  120 all t t t
are required. Firstly, root cracking evaluated
56 ℓ > 120 t  20 1 according to stresses defined in section 5, using
category 36 * for σ w and category 80 for  w .
120 < ℓ  200 t > 20 Secondly, toe cracking is evaluated by
50
ℓ > 200 20 < t  30 determining σ in load-carrying plate.
200 < ℓ  300 t > 30
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45 Details 1) to 3):
ℓ > 300 30 < t  50
The misalignment of the load-carrying plates
257
40 ℓ > 300 t > 50 should not exceed 15% of the thickness of the
F l ex i b l e p a n e l 2) Toe failure from edge of attachment to plate, intermediate plate.
ℓ with stress peaks at weld ends due to local
As detail 1) plate deformations.
in this Table t
3) Root failure in partial penetration tee-butt

36 * joints or fillet welded joint and in tee-butt
3 weld, according to Section 12.
(continued)
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(F) (continued)
Detail
category
>10 m m
>10 m m
Overlapped welded joints: 4) σ in the main plate to be calculated on the
ℓ basis of area shown in the sketch.
As detail 1) 4) Fillet welded lap joint.
5) σ to be calculated in the overlapping plates.
in this Table t 4
1/ 2 Details 4) and 5):
S t r e s s e d ar e a o f m a i n p a n e l: s l o p e = 1/ 2
-Weld terminations more than 10 mm from plate
>10 m m Overlapped: edge.
45 * 5) Fillet welded lap joint. -Shear cracking in the weld should be checked
5 using detail 8).
tc < t tc  t Cover plates in beams and plate girders: 6) If the cover plate is wider than the flange, a
transverse end weld is needed. This weld shall be
56 * t  20 — 6) End zones of single or multiple welded
carefully ground to remove undercut.
cover plates, with or without transverse end
50 20 < t  30 t  20 weld.
The minimum length of the cover plate is
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tc 300 mm. For shorter attachments size effect, see

45 30 < t  50 20 < t  30 t
detail 1).
258
40 t > 50 30 < t  50
6
36 — t > 50
R e i n fo r c e d t r a n sve r s e e n d we l d 7) Cover plates in beams and plate girders. 7) Transverse end weld ground flush. In addition,
≤1/4 5t c is the minimum length of the reinforcement if t c > 20 mm, front of plate at the end ground
56 tc
t weld. with a slope < 1 in 4.
7 5tc
>10 m m 8) Continuous fillet welds transmitting a shear 8)  to be calculated from the weld throat area.
flow, such as web to flange welds in plate 9)  to be calculated from the weld throat area
80
girders. considering the total length of the weld. Weld
m=5
8 9 9) Fillet welded lap joint. terminations more than 10 mm from the plate
edge, see also 4) and 5) above.
see Welded stud shear connectors: 10)  to be calculated from the nominal cross
Clause 13.9.2 section of the stud.
10) For composite application.
(90 m = 8) 10
(continued)
TABLE 13.10.1(F) (continued)
Detail
category
11) Tube socket joint with 80% full penetration 11) Weld toe ground. σ computed in tube.
71
11 butt welds.
12) Tube socket joint with fillet welds. 12) σ computed in tube.
40
12
TABLE 13.10.1(G)
HOLLOW SECTIONS (t  12.5 mm)
Detail
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category
259
1) Tube-plate joint, tubes flatted, butt weld (X- 1) σ computed in tube.
groove). Only valid for tube diameter less than 200 mm.
71
71 α  45° α 2) Tube-plate joint, tube slitted and welded to 2) σ computed in tube.

α
plate. Holes at end of slit. No holes at end of Shear cracking in the weld should be verified
63 α > 45° slit. The holes reduce the fatigue strength. using Table 13.10.1(F), detail 8).
2
Transverse butt welds: Details 3) and 4):

71 3 3) Butt-welded end-to-end connections -Weld convexity  10% of weld width, with
between circular structural hollow sections. smooth transitions.
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
-Welded in flat position, inspected and found free
4) Butt-welded end-to-end connections
from defects outside the tolerances specified in
56 4 between rectangular structural hollow sections.
AS/NZS 5131.
-Classify 2 detail categories higher if t > 8 mm.
(continued)
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(G) (continued)
Detail
category
Welded attachments: 5)
-Non load-carrying welds.
71 5) Circular or rectangular structural hollow
-Width parallel to stress direction ℓ  100 mm.
10 0 m m 5 10 0 m m section, fillet-welded to another section.
-Other cases, see Table 13.10.1(E).
Welded splices: Details 6) and 7):
6) Circular structural hollow sections, butt- -Load-carrying welds.
50
welded end-to-end with an intermediate plate. -Welds inspected and found free from defects
6 outside of tolerances specified in AS/NZS 5131.
-Classify 1 detail category higher if t > 8 mm.
7) Rectangular structural hollow sections, butt-
welded end-to-end with an intermediate plate.
45
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260
8) Circular structural hollow sections, fillet- Details 8) and 9):
welded end-to-end with an intermediate plate.
-Load-carrying welds.
40
-Wall thickness t  8 mm.
8
9) Rectangular structural hollow sections,

fillet-welded end-to-end with an intermediate
36 plate.
9
TABLE 13.10.1(H)
LATTICE GIRDER NODE JOINTS
Detail
Constructional detail Requirements
category
90 t0 Gap joints: Detail 1): K and N joints, circular structural hollow sections: Details 1) and 2):
 2.0
m=5 ti d0 -Separate assessments needed for the chords and the braces.
-For intermediate values of the ratio t 0/t i interpolate linearly
t
between detail categories.
1
g
t0 -Fillet welds permitted for braces with wall thickness t  8 mm.
45 Θ Θ
1
 1.0
d
t0
-t 0 and t i  8 mm.
m=5 ti
1 -35°  θ  50°
+ e i/p
-b 0 /t 0  t 0 /ti  25
-d 0 /t 0  t 0 /ti  25
71 t0 Gap joints: Detail 2): K and N joints, rectangular structural hollow sections: -0.4  b i/b 0  1.0
 2.0
m=5 ti -0.25  d i/d 0  1.0
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-b 0  200 mm.
b0
-d 0  300 mm.
261
-0.5h 0  ei/p  0.25h 0
-0.5d 0  ei/p  0.25d 0
t
g h0
1 -e o/p  0.02b 0 or  0.02d 0
36 t0 Θ Θ
1
 1.0 b
t0
m=5 ti [e o/p is out-of-plane eccentricity]
+ e i/p 2
Detail 2):
0.5(b 0  b i )  g 
1.1(b 0  b i ) and g  2t 0.
(continued)
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(H) (continued)
Detail
Constructional detail Requirements
category
71 t0 Overlap joints: Detail 3): K joints, circular or rectangular structural hollow sections: Details 3) and 4):
 1.4
m=5 ti -30%  overlap  100%.
t
1
-overlap = (q/p)  100%.
t
-Separate assessments needed for the chords and the braces.
1
1
b
-For intermediate values of the ratio t 0/t i interpolate linearly
1
d
Θ Θ between detail categories.
- e i/p
-Fillet welds permitted for braces with wall thickness t  8 mm.
-t 0 and t i  8 mm.
56 t0 d0 b0 -35°  θ  50°
 1.0
m=5 ti -b 0 /t 0  t 0 /ti  25
h0 -d 0 /t 0  t 0 /ti  25
-0.4  b i/b 0  1.0
t0 -0.25  d i/d 0  1.0
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-b 0  200 mm.
3 -d 0  300 mm.
262
-0.5h 0  ei/p  0.25h 0
71 t0 Overlap joints: Detail 4): N joints, circular or rectangular structural hollow sections: -0.5d 0  ei/p  0.25d 0
 1.4
m=5 ti -e o/p  0.02b 0 or  0.02d 0
[e o/p is out-of-plane eccentricity]
t
1
t
Definition of p and q:
1
1
b
p
Θ
1
d
q
- e i/p
50 t0
 1.0 d0 b0
m=5 ti
h0
t0
4
TABLE 13.10.1(I)
ORTHOTROPIC DECKS—CLOSED STRINGERS
Detail
category
80 t  12 mm 1) Continuous longitudinal stringer, with 1) Assessment based on the direct stress range σ
Δσ additional cutout in cross girder. in the longitudinal stringer.
71 t > 12 mm t
1
80 t  12 mm 2) Continuous longitudinal stringer, no 2) Assessment based on the direct stress range σ

Δσ additional cutout in cross girder. in the stringer.
71 t > 12 mm t
2
3) Separate longitudinal stringer each side of 3) Assessment based on the direct stress range σ
the cross girder. in the stringer.
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Δσ
36
t
263
3
4) Joint in rib, full penetration butt weld with 4) Assessment based on the direct stress range σ
4
steel backing plate. in the stringer.
71
Δσ
As detail 1), 2), 4) in 5) Full penetration butt weld in rib, welded 5) Assessment based on the direct stress range σ
112
Table 13.10.1(D) from both sides, without backing plate. in the stringer. Tack welds inside the shape of
5 butt welds.
As detail 5), 7) in
90
Table 13.10.1(D)
As detail 9), 11) in
80 Δσ
Table 13.10.1(D)
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
(continued)
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(I) (continued)
Detail
category
6) Critical section in web of cross girder due to 6) Assessment based on stress range in critical
cutouts. section taking account of Vierendeel effects.
71 6
A A
Mℓ Mr Weld connecting deck plate to trapezoidal or 7) Assessment based on direct stress range from
V-section rib: bending in the plate.
a ≥ t ≤ 2 mm 7) Partial penetration weld with a  t.
71 ΔMW
Δσ =
Mw WW
≤ 2 mm
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264
Fillet weld Mr 8) Fillet weld or partial penetration welds out 8) Assessment based on direct stress range from
a t of the range of detail 7). bending in the plate.
≤ 0. 5 m m
Mℓ
50
Mw
t
TABLE 13.10.1(J)
ORTHOTROPIC DECKS—OPEN STRINGERS
Detail
category
80 t  12 mm 1) Connection of longitudinal stringer to cross 1) Assessment based on the direct stress range σ
girder. in the stringer.
1
71 t > 12 mm
Δσ
t
s s 2) Connection of continuous longitudinal 2) Assessment based on combining the shear

stringer to cross girder. stress range  and direct stress range σ in the
web of the cross girder, as an equivalent stress
Δτ Δτ
M s range:
Δσ Δσ  
Wnet.s
1 2 2 
 eq       4 
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s s Vs 2 
56  
265
s Aw.net.s
2
Check also stress range between stringers.
Δτ
Δσ
TABLE 13.10.1(K)
TOP FLANGE TO WEB JUNCTION OF RUNWAY BEAMS
Detail Constructional detail Description Requirements
category
1) Rolled I- or H-sections. 1) Vertical compressive stress range σ vert. in web
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
due to wheel loads.
160
1
(continued)
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 13.10.1(K) (continued)
Detail Constructional detail Description Requirements

category
2) Full penetration tee-butt weld. 2) Vertical compressive stress range σ vert. in web
due to wheel loads.
71
2
3) Partial penetration tee-butt welds, or 3) Stress range σ vert. in weld throat due to
effective full penetration tee-butt weld vertical compression from wheel loads.
36 * conforming with Section 12.
3
4) Fillet welds. 4) Stress range σ vert. in weld throat due to

vertical compression from wheel loads.
36 *
4
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5) T-section flange with full penetration T-butt 5) Vertical compressive stress range σ vert. in web
266
weld. due to wheel loads.
71
5
6) T-section flange with partial penetration tee- 6) Stress range σ vert. in weld throat due to
butt weld, or effective full penetration tee-butt vertical compression from wheel loads.
36 * weld conforming with Section 12.
6
7) T-section flange with fillet welds. 7) Stress range σ vert. in weld throat due to
vertical compression from wheel loads.
36 *
7
* indicates the stress range calculated in weld throat.

267 AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
13.11.2 Fatigue verification of headed studs

For stud connectors welded to a steel flange that is always in compression under the
relevant combination of actions, the fatigue assessment shall be made by checking the
following criterion:
Ff E,2  ϕMf,s C . . . 13.11.2(1)
where
 E,2 = equivalent constant range of shear stress  E,2 for 2 million cycles
C = reference value at NC = 2  106 cycles with  C equal to 90 MPa
Where the maximum stress in the steel flange to which stud connectors are welded is tensile
under the relevant combination, the interaction at any cross-section between shear stress
range  E in the weld of stud connectors and the normal stress range σE in the steel flange
shall be met using the following interaction expressions:
 Ff  E,2  Ff  E,2
  1.3 . . . 13.11.2(2)
Mf  C Mf,s  C
 Ff  E,2  Ff  E , 2
 1.0  1.0 . . . 13.11.2(3)
Mf  C  Mf,s  C
where
σE,2 = stress range in the flange determined in accordance with Section 13.6
σC = reference value of fatigue strength, by applying category 80, and the stress
ranges  E,2 and  C are defined in Equation 13.11.2(1)
The requirement of Equation 13.11.2(2) shall be met for the maximum value of σE,2 and
the corresponding of value  E,2, as well as for the combination of the maximum value of
 E,2 and the corresponding value σE,2. Unless taking into account the effect of tension
stiffening of concrete by more accurate methods. The requirements of Equations 13.11.2(2)
and 13.11.2(3) shall be met using the corresponding stress ranges determined with both
cracked and un-cracked cross-sectional properties.
13.11.3 Highways signs, luminaires and traffic signals
Fatigue limit state design shall be in accordance with the AASHTO publication Standard
Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffic Signals.
All aspects of the fatigue design shall be based on the AASHTO publication, including drag
coefficients, fatigue importance factors, fatigue stress categories and constant-amplitude
fatigue limits. Sign structures or high-mast light poles that could fall onto marked traffic
lanes shall be treated in accordance with AASHTO requirements for Fatigue Category I.
For installation sites where detailed yearly mean wind speed data is available from the
Bureau of Meteorology, that site value of the yearly mean wind speed shall be used in the
fatigue calculations for natural wind gusts in, accordance with Standard Specifications for
Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffic Signals.
The potential for a resonant response of the cantilever arm of cantilever sign structures to
vortex shedding originating from the column shall be assessed, including designs in which
steel box-sections are used for the principal members.
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017 268
SECTI ON 14 BRITTLE FRACTURE AND

LAMELLAR TEARI NG
14.1 GENERAL
Under certain conditions, structural steels may become liable to brittle fracture, and
although the risk of this fracture is very small in normal steel structures, the design and
construction of steel bridges shall avoid this mode of failure.
Even though a member has been designed to satisfy the strength and fatigue criteria
provided for in other Sections of this Standard and is fabricated from steel with high
ductility at ambient temperatures, brittle fracture may occur where a critical combination of
the following conditions exists:
(a) A notch or severe structural discontinuity giving rise to a severe stress concentration.
(b) High tensile stress action across the plane of the notch.
(c) Low fracture toughness of the structural steel at the service temperature.
(d) Dynamic loading.
Where possible steel shall be selected to operate in the notch ductile temperature range
where the steel is insensitive to all but the most gross notches, weld defects or structural
discontinuities. Where for reasons of service temperature or material availability, use of
suitable notch ductile steels is not practicable, alternative methods shall be used.
14.2 METHODS
The steel grade shall be selected either by the notch-ductile range method as specified in
Clause 14.3, or by using a fracture assessment as specified in Clause 14.6.
14.3 NOTCH-DUCTILE RANGE METHOD

The steel grade shall be selected to operate in its notch-ductile temperature range.
The design service temperature for the steel shall be determined in accordance with
Clause 14.4. The appropriate steel type suitable for the design service temperature and
material thickness shall be selected in accordance with Clauses 14.5.1, 14.5.2 and 14.5.3.
14.4 DESIGN SERVICE TEMPERATURE

For bridges, the design service temperature shall be taken as 5°C less than the lowest
one-day mean ambient temperature (LODMAT). LODMAT isotherms for Australia are
given in Figure 14.4(a) and for New Zealand in Figure 14.4(b). The estimated lowest metal
temperature shall be that encountered in service or during erection, or testing.
Additionally, for critical structures, the Australian Bureau of Meteorology or the New
Zealand Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research records shall be consulted to
ascertain whether abnormally low local ambient temperatures may occur at the particular
site for sufficient time to further lower the design service temperature.
NOTE: In special cases, metal temperatures lower than the LODMAT may occur where there is
minimum insulation, minimum heat capacity and radiation shielding, and where abnormally low
local temperatures may occur, such as frost conditions.
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269 AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
T h u r s d ay I .
20
20 20
Darwin
(18 )
15 20 Coen
C o o k tow n
15 15
15
Wyndham Cairns
D a l y Wa te r s 10
Wave H i l l B u r ke tow n
Broome G e o r g e tow n Tow n s v i l l e
Halls Creek Te n n a n t C r e e k
C a m o owe a l
Cloncurry 10
Po r t H e a d l a n d Hughenden M a c k ay
10
Clermont
O n s l ow Boulia Longreach R o c k h a m p to n
5 Alice Springs
Bundaberg
Mundiwindi 5
Wa r b u r to n R a n g e Birdsville 5
C a r n a r vo n Charleville
BRISBANE
Wiluna
Oodnadatta (6)
Thargomindah
Cue Moree
10 Marree
5 B o u r ke 0
Geraldson Armidale
5 K a l g o o r l i e R aw l i n n a Po r t 5
Eu c l a Ceduna Augusta B r o ke n H i l l Po r t M a c q u a r i e
5 Dubbo
H i l l s to n N e wc a s t l e
PE R T H 0
(6) Mildura (7)
ADEL AIDE
5 SY D N E Y
Esperance (6) CA N B E R R A
Deniliquin
A l b a ny Horsham
5 MELBOURNE Omeo 5
Mt. Gambier ( 2)
5
L a u n c e s to n
HOBART
(3)
5
NOTES:
1 Where site-specific LODMAT temperatures are available, these shall be used in lieu of temperatures from
Figure 14.4.
2 Based on records 1957 to 1971 supplied by Australian Bureau of Meteorology.
3 Isotherms in degree Celsius.
(a) LODMAT for Australia
FIGURE 14.4 (in part) ISOTHERMS
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017 270
7. 5
5
5
Au c k l an d (5)
Taur an g a (4)
5
2.5
Tau p o (0)
N ew Ply m o u
utt h (4) Gisbo
orr n e (3)
-5 -5
5
2.5
0
2.5
N e l s o n (2)
5 0
We llin g to n (3)
-5
H o k it ika (0)
Chr i stc hur

hurcc h (0)
Q u e e n sstow
tow n (- 5)
-10
-5 -5
D un
u n e d in (0)
0
Inver c ar g ill (- 3)
Inverc
0
NOTES:
1 Where site-specific LODMAT temperatures are available, these shall be used in lieu of temperatures from
Figure 14.4.
2 Based on records 1930 to 1990 supplied by The National Institute of Water and Atmosphere Research Ltd.
3 Isotherms in degree Celsius.
(b) LODMAT for New Zealand
FIGURE 14.4 (in part) ISOTHERMS
14.5 MATERIAL SELECTION

14.5.1 Selection of steel type
The steel type for the material thickness shall be selected from Table 14.5.1 so that the
permissible service temperature given in Table 14.5.1 is less than the design service
temperature determined in accordance with Clause 14.4. The permissible service
temperatures given in Table 14.5.1 shall be subject to the limitations and modifications
specified in Clauses 14.5.2 and 14.5.3 respectively.
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271 AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 14.5.1
PERMISSIBLE SERVICE TEMPERATURES ACCORDING
TO STEEL TYPE AND THICKNESS
Permissible service temperature, °C (see Note 1)
Steel type
Thickness, mm
(see Table 14.5.4)
6 >6  12 >12  20 >20  32 >32  70 >70
1 20 –10 0 0 0 5
2 30 –20 –10 –10 0 0
2S 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 –40 –30 –20 –15 –15 –10
4 –10 0 0 0 0 5
5 –30 –20 –10 0 0 0
5S 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 –40 –30 –20 –15 –15 –10
7A –10 0 0 0 0 —
7B –30 –20 –10 0 0 —
7C –40 –30 –20 –15 –15 —
8C –40 –30 — — — —
8Q –20 –20 –20 –20 –20 –20
9Q –20 –20 –20 –20 –20 –20
10Q –20 –20 –20 –20 –20 –20
LEGEND:
— = material is not available in these thicknesses
NOTES:
1 The permissible service temperature for steels with a L20, L40, L50, Y20 or Y40 designation
shall be the colder of the temperature shown in Table 14.5.1 and the specified impact test
temperature.
2 This Table is based on available statistical data on notch toughness characteristics of steels
currently made in Australia or New Zealand. Confirmation shall be sought from other
manufacturers that there is statistical data that confirms their steels meet these same requirements
and that the facility where the steel is produced has factory production control. The statistical
data shall meet the requirements of Appendix K.
3 Steel types 8Q, 9Q and 10Q compliant to AS 3597 are impact tested at -20°C and therefore meet
the requirements of this Table.
14.5.2 Limitations
Table 14.5.1 shall only be used without modification for members and components that
have been fabricated and erected in accordance with normal good practice and which
comply with the provisions of AS/NZS 1554.1, AS/NZS 1554.4, or AS/NZS 1554.5 as
appropriate.
Table 14.5.1 may be used without modification for welded members and connection
components that are not subject to more than 1.0% outer bend fibre strain during
fabrication. Members and components subject to greater outer bend fibre strains shall be
assessed using the provisions of Clause 14.5.3.
14.5.3 Modification for certain applications
14.5.3.1 Steel subject to strain between 1.0% and 10.0%
Where a member or component is subjected to an outer bend fibre strain during fabrication
of between 1.0% and 10.0%, the permissible service temperature for each steel type shall be
increased by at least 20°C above the value given in Table 14.5.1.
NOTE: Local strain due to weld distortion should be disregarded.
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AS/NZS 5100.6:2017 272
14.5.3.2 Steel subject to a strain of not less than 10.0%

Where a member or component is subjected to an outer bend fibre strain during fabrication
of not less than 10.0%, the permissible service temperatures for each steel type shall be
increased by at least 20°C above the value given in Table 14.5.1 plus 1°C for every 1.0%
increase in outer bend fibre strain above 10.0%.
NOTE: Local strain due to weld distortion should be disregarded.
14.5.3.3 Post-weld heat-treated members
Where a member or component has been welded or strained and has been subjected to a
post-weld heat-treatment temperature of more than 500°C, but not exceeding 620°C, the
permissible service temperature given in Table 14.5.1 shall not be modified.
NOTE: Guidance on appropriate post-weld heat-treatment may be found in AS 4458.
14.5.3.4 Non-complying conditions
Steels, for which the permissible service temperature (as modified where applicable) is not
known or is warmer than the design service temperature specified by the designer, shall not
be used, unless compliance with each of the following requirements is demonstrated:
(a) A mock-up of the joint or member shall be fabricated from the desired grade of steel,
having similar dimensions and strains of not less than that of the service component.
(b) Three Charpy test specimens shall be taken from the area of maximum strain and
tested at the design service temperature.
(c) Test impact properties as determined from the Charpy tests shall be not less than the
minimum specified impact properties for the grade of steel under test.
(d) Where the Standard to which the steel complies does not specify minimum impact
properties, the average absorbed energy for three 10 mm  10 mm test specimens
shall be not less than 27 J, provided none of the test results is less than 20 J.
(e) Where a plate thickness prevents a 10 mm  10 mm test piece from being used, the
standard test thickness closest to the plate thickness shall be used and the minimum
value energy absorption requirements shall be reduced proportionally.
14.5.4 Selection of steel grade
The steel grade shall be selected to match the required steel type given in Table 14.5.4.
TABLE 14.5.4
STEEL TYPE RELATIONSHIP TO STEEL GRADE
Specification and grade of parent steel
Steel type
(see Note) AS/NZS 3678
AS/NZS 1163 AS/NZS 1594 AS/NZS 3679.1 AS 3597
AS/NZS 3679.2
1 C250 HA250 200 300 —
HU250 250
HA300 300
HU300
2 C250L0 —
250L0 300L0 —
300L0
2S — — 250S0 300S0 —
300S0
(continued)
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273 AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
TABLE 14.5.4 (continued)
Specification and grade of parent steel

Steel type
(see Note) AS/NZS 3678
AS/NZS 1163 AS/NZS 1594 AS/NZS 3679.1 AS 3597
AS/NZS 3679.2
3 — — 250L15 300L15 —
250L20
250Y20
250L40
250Y40
300L15
300L20
300Y20
300L40
300Y40
4 C350 HA350 350 350 —
HA400 WR350
HW350 400
5 C350L0 — 350L0 350L0 —
WR350L0
400L0
5S — — 350S0 350S0 —
6 — — 350L15 — —
350L20
350Y20
350L40
350Y40
400L15
400L20
400Y20
400L40
400Y40
7A C450 — 450 — —
7B C450L0 — 450L0 — —
7C — — 450L15 — —
450L20
450Y20
450L40
450Y40
8C — — — — —
8Q — — — — 500
9Q — — — — 600
10Q — — — — 700
NOTE: Steel types 8Q, 9Q and 10Q are quenched and tempered steels.
14.6 FRACTURE ASSESSMENT

A fracture assessment shall be made, using a fracture mechanics analysis coupled with
fracture toughness measurements of the steel selected, weld metal and heat-affected zones
and non-destructive examination of the welds and their heat-affected zones.
NOTE: For methods of fracture assessment, refer to BS 7910 and WTIA Technical Note 10.
14.7 SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR THE AVOIDANCE OF LAMELLAR

TEARING
The required through-thickness deformation properties for the selection of the Z grade
suffix in Table 2.2.6 shall be evaluated using Appendix H in AS/NZS 1554.1.
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SECTI ON 15 TESTING OF STRUCTURES OR

ELEMENTS
15.1 GENERAL
This Section applies to the testing of a new structure or of a prototype to demonstrate
compliance with the strength and serviceability requirements of this Standard. In addition, a
procedure is set out to demonstrate routine compliance for similar units manufactured
following prototype testing.
All testing shall be undertaken by persons competent, and with appropriate expertise in,
performing such tests.
NOTE: The capacity of an existing structure to carry repeated live loads shall be determined in
15.2 TESTING OF MEMBERS

15.2.1 Purpose of testing
Structures designed by calculation in accordance with other Parts of this Standard are not
required to be tested. Tests can be accepted as an alternative to calculation (prototype
testing), or may become necessary in special circumstances (proof testing), in order to
satisfy the requirements of Clause 3.2 with respect to strength and Clause 3.3 with respect
to serviceability.
Where testing is necessary, elements of structures or whole structures shall be either—
(a) proof-tested in accordance with Clause 15.3, to ascertain the structural
characteristics of an existing member or structure; or
(b) prototype-tested in accordance with Clause 15.4, to ascertain the structural
characteristics of a particular class of member, which are nominally identical to the
elements tested.
15.2.2 Test set-up
All measuring equipment shall be chosen and calibrated to suit the range of measurements
anticipated, in order to obtain measurements of the required precision. Care shall be
exercised to ensure that no artificial restraints are applied to the test specimen. All
necessary precautions shall be taken such that in the event of collapse of any part of a
structure being tested, the risk to life is minimized and the collapse will not endanger the
safety of the structure being tested (for tests on members) and/or adjacent structures.
15.2.3 Test load
The test load shall simulate 100% of the design loads for the limit states for strength and
serviceability, as appropriate. The test load shall be applied gradually at a rate as uniform as
practicable and without impact. The distribution and duration of forces applied in the test
shall be representative of those forces to which the structure is deemed to be subject under
the requirements of this Standard.
15.2.4 Test deflections
The deflections of each test specimen shall be measured with respect to an appropriate
datum. As a minimum, deflections shall be recorded at the following times:
(a) Immediately prior to the application of the test load.
(b) Incrementally during the application of the test load.
(c) Immediately the full test load has been applied.
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(d) Immediately prior to removing the test load.

(e) Immediately after the removal of the test load.
15.3 PROOF TESTING

15.3.1 Test procedures
A proof test shall be conducted as follows:
(a) Before applying any load, record the original position of the members involved.
(b) Apply the test load as determined from Clause 15.2.3, for the relevant limit state.
(c) Maintain the test load for the necessary period as stated in Clause 15.3.2.
(d) Remove the test load.
15.3.2 Criteria for acceptance
Criteria for acceptance shall be as follows:
(a) Acceptance for strength The test structure or member shall be deemed to comply
with the requirements for strength if it is able to sustain the strength limit state test
load for at least 24 h without incurring any significant damage such as spalling,
buckling, rotation, twist or excessive cracking.
(b) Acceptance for deflection The test structure or member shall be deemed to comply
with the requirements for serviceability if it is able to sustain the serviceability test
load for a minimum of 24 h without exceeding the appropriate serviceability limits.
15.3.3 Damage incurred during test
The test specimen shall be regularly inspected, to determine the nature and extent of any
damage incurred during the test. The effects of the damage shall be considered and the test
disbanded if collapse seems likely. At the completion of the test, appropriate repairs to
damaged parts shall be carried out.
15.3.4 Test report
A report shall be prepared, which shall contain, in addition to the test load-deflection
history and serviceability criteria records, a clear description of the test set-up, including
the methods of supporting and loading the members, the method of measuring deflections,
and so on, and any other relevant data. The report shall also contain a statement as to
whether or not the structure, substructure or members tested satisfied the relevant
acceptance criteria in Clause 15.3.2, as appropriate.
15.4 PROTOTYPE TESTING

15.4.1 Construction of prototypes
Prototypes shall be constructed from materials that comply with this Standard, and
manufactured in accordance with the specification for the member.
15.4.2 Number of prototypes
The number of prototypes to be tested shall be selected so that statistically reliable
estimates of the behaviour of the member, at relevant limit state values, can be determined
from the results of the testing. No fewer than two prototypes shall be tested. More than one
loading combination and more than one limit state condition may be applied to a prototype.
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15.4.3 Test load

The test load for strength shall be applied gradually until the total load on the prototype is
equal to the design load for the strength limit state as determined from AS 5100.2,
multiplied by the relevant factor given in Table 15.4.3. This factor shall be selected with
respect to the expected coefficient of variation in the parameters that affect the strength and
the sample size selected for the testing program, unless a reliability analysis shows that a
different value is appropriate.
The total load for each prototype used to assess serviceability shall be the design load for
the serviceability limit state as determined from Section 2 multiplied by a factor of 1.2.
TABLE 15.4.3
FACTOR TO ALLOW FOR VARIABILITY
IN PRODUCTION OF UNITS
Number of similar units Expected coefficient variation

to be tested
10% 20% 30%
2 1.3 1.7 2.3
3 1.3 1.6 2.1
5 1.2 1.5 1.8
10 1.1 1.3 1.5
NOTE: Intermediate values may be obtained by linear interpolation.
The above values are based on a target safety index of 3.0 for a
confidence level of 90%.
15.4.4 Test procedure

The method of applying the test load to the prototype shall reflect the most adverse
conditions expected to occur during construction and the in-service condition.
A prototype test shall be conducted as follows:
(a) Before applying any load, record the original position of the members in the test
specimen.
(b) Apply the test load for the relevant limit state, as determined from Clause 15.4.3.
(c) Maintain the test load for the necessary period, as stated in Clause 15.4.5.
(d) Remove the test load.
(e) Inspect and record the prototype for damage and any other relevant observations.
15.4.5 Criteria for acceptance
The units represented by the prototypes shall be deemed to comply with this Standard for
serviceability and strength where Item (a) is satisfied and Item (b) or Item (c) is satisfied, as
follows:
(a) Variability Production units shall be similar in all respects to the prototypes tested,
and variability of units shall not be greater than the expected variability selected in
Table 15.4.3.
(b) Acceptance for strength The test prototype shall be deemed to comply with the
requirements for strength if it is able to sustain the strength limit state test load for at
least 5 min without incurring any significant damage, such as spalling or excessive
cracking.
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(c) Acceptance for serviceability The test prototype shall be deemed to comply with the
requirement for serviceability if it is able to sustain the serviceability test load for a
minimum period of 1 h without exceeding the serviceability limits appropriate to the
member.
Qualitative indicators for the parameters affecting strength shall be determined for the
expected variability during production. These indicators shall be routinely monitored and
measured in manufactured units and used to ensure the actual coefficient of variation in
production does not exceed the expected coefficient of variation. Alternatively,
manufactured units shall be routinely tested to failure, to determine the coefficient of
variation.
15.4.6 Test reports
A report shall be prepared in accordance with Clause 15.3.4, except that instead of the
requirement in the final sentence of Clause 15.3.4, the report shall contain a statement as to
whether or not the prototypes tested satisfied the relevant acceptance criteria in
Clause 15.4.5 as appropriate.
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APPENDIX A
ELASTIC RESISTANCE TO LATERAL BUCKLING
(Informative)
A1 GENERAL
The elastic resistance of a beam to lateral buckling is influenced by many factors, including
the beam geometry, the distribution of the loading on it, and the effects of end and
intermediate restraints. Because of this, simple design rules can be formulated only for a
limited number of situations.
A set of simple rules is included in Clauses 5.6.1, 5.6.2, 5.6.3, 5.6.4 and 5.6.5. While these
rules are generally on the safe side, there are many situations where they are overly
conservative. When it is desirable to avoid undue conservatism, then Clause 5.6.6 may be
used, which requires the use of the results of an elastic flexural-torsional buckling analysis.
This may be carried out by using computer programs such as those described in Refs 1
and 2 (see Bibliography).
Alternatively, the published results of elastic flexural-torsional buckling analyses may be
used. There are many such publications, either in textbooks and surveys such as those listed
in Refs 3 to 7, or in research publications such as Refs 8 to 10 (see Bibliography).
Often, it is the case that suitable computer programs are not available, and that the designer
is daunted by the complexity and scope of the research publications. In this case, it is
desirable that there should be a second level of approximations, more general and more
accurate than the provisions of Clauses 5.6.1, 5.6.2 and 5.6.3. Such a set of approximations
is specified in Paragraphs A2, A3 and A5 of this Appendix. These approximations may be
used in conjunction with the method of design by buckling analysis of Clause 5.6.6.
A2 SEGMENT RESTRAINED AT BOTH ENDS

The effects of geometry and loading distribution on the elastic flexural-torsional buckling
of a uniform equal flanged segment restrained at both ends may be estimated by calculating
approximately the elastic buckling bending moment (Mob ) in the segment at elastic buckling
as follows:
Mob =  mL Mo . . . A2(1)
where
m = given in Clause 5.6.1.1(a), or may be approximated in accordance with
Clause 5.6.6
2
 0.4 y   2 EI y     2 EI y 
L = 1  m L     0.4 m yL   . . . A2(2)
 M o  L   M o  L 
2 2
Mo = given by Equation A4(2)

yL = distance of the gravity loading below the centroid (taken as positive
when the load acts below the centroid)
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Alternatively, for uniform equal flanged segments loaded so that do /2  yL  do /2, where do
is the overall section depth of the segment, the amended elastic buckling moment (Moa)
used in Equation 5.6.1.1(2) may be taken as follows:
   2 EI y 
M oa  M o  0.4 m yL   . . . A2(3)
 L 2 
  
A3 SEGMENT UNRESTRAINED AT ONE END

The effects of geometry and loading distribution on the elastic flexural-torsional buckling
of a uniform equal flanged segment unrestrained at one end and both fully or partially
restrained and laterally continuous or restrained against lateral rotation at the other end may
be estimated by calculating the elastic buckling bending moment (Mob ) in the segment at
elastic buckling as follows:
Mob = mcLcMo . . . A3(1)
where
 mc 
C3  C4 K 
. . . A3(2)
 1 K 2
 2 yL  K 
  
 Lc  1   d f  2 
2 . . . A3(3)
 2y K 
1   L 
 df 2 
Mo = given by Equation A4(2)
K = coefficient given by Equation A4(3)
C3 and C4 = factors given in Table A3
The elastic flexural-torsional buckling of a uniform equal flanged segment, unrestrained at
one end, and both fully or partially restrained and unrestrained against lateral rotation at the
other end, may be estimated or calculated by calculating the elastic buckling bending
moment (Mob) in the segment by using C4 = 0 in Equation A3(2).
TABLE A3
FACTORS C3 AND C4 FOR BEAMS UNRESTRAINED AT ONE END
B e am s e g ment Moment d i st r ibut ion Fac t or (C 3 ) Fac t or (C 4 )
M M M 1.6 0.8
F
Fℓ 4.0 3.7
w
wℓ 2 7.0 8.0
2
LEGE N D:
f u l l or p a r t ia l r e s t r a i nt
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A4 REFERENCE ELASTIC BUCKLING MOMENT (Mo )

The reference elastic buckling moment (Mo) of a simply supported segment in uniform
bending may be used as a reference moment.
This reference moment is calculated as follows:
 2 EI y   2  2 EI y   x  2 EI y 
 GJ   EI w    x
2
Mo    . . . A4(1)
L2  L2  4 L2  2 L2 
   
For sections bent about an axis of symmetry, x = 0, and Equation A4(2) simplifies to—
 EI yGJ
Mo  1 K 2 . . . A4(2)
L
where
 2 EI w
K = . . . A4(3)
GJL2
E = 200 000 MPa
G = 80 000 MPa
Iw = warping constant for a cross-section, taken as
I y df2
= for a doubly-symmetric I-section . . . A4(4)
4
 I cy 
= I cy d f 1  
2
for a monosymmetric I-section . . . A4(5)
 I y 
bf3tf bw2  3b t b 2 
= 8  f f w  for a thin-walled channel section . . . A4(6)
48  Ix 

= 0 for an angle section or a narrow rectangular section
 bt 3 
J =  
 3 



for an open section . . . A4(7)
4 Ae2
for a hollow section beam, where Ae is the
= b . . . A4(8)
  
t
area enclosed by the hollow section
 x y  y dA  2 y
1 2 3
x = o . . . A4(9)
Ix
 2 I cy 
= 0.8d f  1
 for a monosymmetric I-section . . . A4(10)
 Iy 
Expressions for the properties of other thin-walled sections are given in Ref. 11 while more
accurate approximations for J are given in Ref. 12 (see Bibliography).
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A5 EFFECTS OF END RESTRAINTS

A5.1 Torsional end restraints
The approximations given in Paragraphs A2 and A3 for the elastic buckling moments are
for segments that are rigidly restrained torsionally at their supports against twist rotations.
When the torsional end restraints are elastic, the buckling twists increase, and the resistance
to buckling decreases. The decreased resistance of the elastic buckling bending moment for
elastic torsional end restraint (Mobr) may be approximated as follows:
2 t
M obr  M ob  M ob . . . A5.1(1)
1  t
where t depends on the elastic stiffness (rz) of the torsional end restraint, that is, the ratio
of the restraining torque supplied to the twist rotation.
For segments restrained at both ends:
  rz L 
 
GJ 
t   . . . A5.1(2)

5 1 K 2 
For segments unrestrained at one end and both fully or partially restrained and laterally
continuous or restrained against lateral rotation at the other end:
  rz L 
 
 GJ 
t 

 1  2K 2   . . . A5.1(3)
25 
 1 K 2 
and for segments unrestrained at one end both fully or partially restrained and unrestrained
against lateral rotation at the other end:
  rz L 
 
t   GJ 

 1  2K 2   . . . A5.1(4)
5 2 
 1 K 
A5.2 End restraints against lateral rotation
A5.2.1 Segments restrained at both ends
Continuity of a segment with adjacent segments may introduce restraining moments, which
reduce the lateral deflections and increase the elastic buckling moment. The restraint effects
depend on the relative minor axis flexural stiffnesses of the adjacent segments, and these
depend in turn on the moment distributions in these segments. The restraining effects may
be calculated approximately by using the method given in Refs 6 and 9 to calculate the
effective length (Le) and by using Le instead of the segment length (L) in Equations A4(2)
and A4(3).
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A5.2.2 Segments unrestrained at one end

The approximate elastic buckling resistance obtained by using the values of C3 and C4 given
in Table A3 and Equations A3(1) to A3(3) are for segments that are prevented from rotating
laterally at their unrestrained ends. For segments that are unrestrained against lateral
rotations at their restrained ends, the value of C4 used in Equation A3(2) should be reduced
to zero. For a segment with an elastic restraint against lateral rotation at its restrained end, a
reduced value C4r should be used which may be approximated as follows:
C4 r 1.5 ry L / Ely
  1.0

C4 5   ry L / Ely  . . . A5.2.2
where ry is the elastic stiffness of the flexural end restraint, i.e., the ratio of the restraining
minor axis moment supplied to the end lateral rotation.
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APPENDIX B
STRENGTH OF STIFFENED WEB PANELS UNDER COMBINED ACTIONS
(Informative)
B1 YIELDING CHECK
The design bending, shear, axial and bearing actions (or reactions) M w* , Vw* , N w* and Rw*
acting on a web panel (see Figure B1) should satisfy the yielding criterion—
2 2 2
 Rw*  f *  Rw*   f w*   Vw* 
   w
 b t  
    
  b t        0.6 A   f y  2
. . . B1(1)
 bf w   bf w     w 
where
f w* = equivalent design stress on the web panel, given as
N w*  M* 
=   0.77 w  . . . B1(2)
Aw  Z we 
bbf = width of the bearing obtained by dispersion at 1:2.5 from bs to the underside of
the flange as shown in Figure 5.12.1(A)
M w* = design bending moment in the web, calculated by elastic theory for sections
with non-compact or slender flanges (see Clause 5.2)
Zwe = elastic section modulus of the web panel
=
tw d p  2
. . . B1(3)
6
Aw = gross sectional area of the web
tw = web thickness
R w*
V w* b bf
M w* M w*
N w* N w*
dp
V w*
FIGURE B1 ACTIONS ON WEB PANEL
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B2 BUCKLING CHECK
The design bending, shear, axial and bearing actions (or reactions) M w* , Vw* , N w* and
Rw* acting on a web panel (see Figure B1) should satisfy the buckling criterion—
2 2
 Rw*   N w*   Vw*   M w* 
      1 . . . B2(1)
 R   N   V   M 
 sb   wo   v   w 
where
Nwo = nominal axial load capacity of the web panel if the web panel resisted axial
load alone
45 Aw f y
 Aw f y
= dp fy . . . B2(2)
tw 250
Vv = nominal shear capacity of the web if the web panel resisted shear alone, as
specified in Clause 5.10
Mw = nominal section moment capacity of the web panel if the web panel resisted
bending alone, as specified in Clause 5.2
Rsb = nominal buckling capacity of a transversely stiffened web panel in bearing
alone
= wbbftwfy . . . B2(3)
20
0.10 
w = de fy . . . B2(4)
tw 250
1.9 bbf d p
de = . . . B2(5)
w
  2 .2 d p     0.5bbf 
w = 3.4    0.4    . . . B2(6)
  s    s 
s = longitudinal dimension of the web plate
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APPENDIX C
SECOND ORDER ELASTIC ANALYSIS
(Normative)
C1 ANALYSIS
In a second-order elastic analysis, the members shall be assumed to remain elastic, and
changes in frame geometry under the design load and changes in the effective stiffnesses of
the members due to axial forces shall be accounted for.
C2 DESIGN BENDING MOMENT

The design bending moment (M*) shall be taken as the maximum bending moment in the
length of the member. It shall be determined—
(a) directly from the second-order analysis;
(b) approximately, if the member is divided into a sufficient number of elements, as the
greatest element end bending moment; or
(c) by amplifying the maximum calculated design bending moment ( M m* ) taken as the
maximum bending moment along the length of a member and obtained by
superposition of the simple beam bending moments resulting from any transverse
loading on the member with the second-order end bending moments ( M e* ) determined
by the analysis.
For a member with zero axial forces or a member subject to axial tension, the design
bending moment (M*) shall be calculated as follows:
M *  M m* . . . C2(1)
For a member with a design axial compressive force (N*) as determined from the
analysis, the design bending moment (M*) shall be calculated as follows:
M *   b M m* . . . C2(2)
where b is the moment amplification factor for a braced member determined in
accordance with Clause 4.2.2.2.
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APPENDIX D
ECCENTRICALLY LOADED DOUBLE-BOLTED OR WELDED SINGLE
ANGLES IN TRUSSES
(Normative)
Single angle web compression members in trusses that are connected with at least two bolts
or welded at their ends and loaded through one leg (see Figure D1) shall be designed to
satisfy Clause 11.3 and either Clause 11.4.4 or the following:
N* M h*
 1 . . . D1
 N ch  M bx cos
where
N* = design axial compression force in the member
M h* = design bending moment on an angle acting about the rectangular h-axis
parallel to the loaded leg
Msx , Msy = nominal section moment capacities about the x- and y- principal axis
respectively determined in accordance with Clause 5.2
Nch = nominal member capacity in axial compression, determined in accordance
with Clause 10.3, of a single angle compression member buckling with
Le = L about the rectangular h-axis parallel to the loaded leg
Mbx = nominal member moment capacity, determined in accordance with
Clause 5.6 for an angle without full lateral support, bent about the major
principal x-axis using a factor α m appropriate to the distribution of design
bending moment along the member
α = angle between the x- and h- axes
For equal leg angles, where L/t  (210 + 175m)(250/fy), Mbx may be taken as Msx ,
where
L = member length
t = thickness of the angle
For other equal leg angles, Mbx may be determined in accordance with Clause 5.6.1.1
with—
 525t  250 

Mo    Ms . . . D2
 L  f y 
The design end bending moment ( M h* ) shall be calculated from a rational elastic analysis of
the truss, or shall be taken as not less than N e* , resulting from the out-of-plane eccentricity
(e) of the design axial force (N*) in the member,
where
 t
e =  ch   for angles on the same side of the truss chord
 2
= (ec + et) for angles on opposite sides of the truss chord (see Figure D1)
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t t
x x
Te n s i o n Compression
 angle 
angle
C h C h
e c
h ec
e x
et y
Compression t
y
angle 2 C
Te n s i o n
angle y
t
e = ch - e = ec + et
2
(a) A n g l e s o n s a m e s i d e ( b) A n g l e s o n o p p o s i te s i d e s
FIGURE D1 SINGLE ANGLES LOADED THROUGH ONE LEG
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APPENDIX E
INTERACTION CURVES FOR COMPOSITE COLUMNS
(Informative)
The design interaction curve for axial load and uniaxial bending of a composite
compression member, which consists of a hollow structural steel member filled with
concrete and meets the requirements of Clause 10.6.1, may be derived as described in this
Appendix. Alternatively, the full curved interaction curve shown in Figure E1 may be
approximated by the polygon joining the four points A, B, C, and D.
Plastic analysis is used in the derivation described below, with rectangular stress blocks
assumed for both the steel and concrete. The plastic compressive stress of the confined
concrete may be taken to be 1.00  f c and the points A, B, C and D are determined as
follows:
(a) Point A is defined by the nominal axial capacity of the member without bending,
which is Nus determined in accordance with Clause 10.6.2.
(b) Point B is defined by the nominal section moment capacity of the member, i.e.,
without axial load which is Msx or Msy, and which may be determined as follows:
(i) Determine the neutral axis position at which the axial compression on one side
of the axis, i.e., the plastic load in the steel at a stress of  fsv and the concrete
at a stress of c f c , is equal to the axial tension of the steel on the other.
(ii) Using this neutral axis position, determine the moment created by the stresses
in the section about the centroid of the section. This moment is Msx or Msy.
(c) Point C is determined by moving the neutral axis determined for point B to a new
position equidistant from the centroid, but on the other side of the centroid, and
parallel with its previous position. The stresses in the section with the neutral axis in
this position will create a moment equal to that derived from point B, i.e., Msx or Msy,
but with a compression load equal to the axial load in that part of the section between
the neutral axis positions for points B and C.
(d) Point D is determined by placing the neutral axis at the centroid of the section, which
happens to be mid-way between its location for points B and C. At this location, the
axial load in the section is half that for point C, and the moment is a maximum.
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A x i al l oad Po int A f 'c fy fsy
- - NA = N us
N o m o m e nt
A Po int B
Nus
Inter ac t i o n c ur ve
for t h e c ro s s - se c t i o n hn - - M B= M pl
+ + zero a x i al for c e
C Po int C
- - M C= Mpl
D hn +
+ N C= Nc
B Po int D
0 M o m e nt
0 M D= Mpl
M sx ( or M s y ) - -
Nc
+ + N D=
2
FIGURE E1 INTERACTION CURVE FOR COMPOSITE COMPRESSION MEMBERS

UNDER AXIAL COMPRESSION AND UNIAXIAL BENDING
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APPENDIX F
MODIFICATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
(Normative)
F1 GENERAL
All provisions of this Standard apply equally to the modification of existing structures or
parts of a structure except as modified in this Appendix.
F2 MATERIALS
The types of base metal involved shall be determined before preparing the drawings and
specifications covering the strengthening of, the repair of, or the welding procedures for an
existing structure or parts of a structure.
F3 CLEANING
Surfaces of existing material, which are to be strengthened, repaired or welded, shall be
cleaned of dirt, rust, and other foreign matter except adherent surface preparation. The
portions of such surfaces that are to be welded shall be cleaned thoroughly of all foreign
matter, including paint film, for a distance of 50 mm from each side of the outside lines of
the weld.
Where modifications to an existing structure with an existing protective coating are
proposed, the nature of that coating shall be determined and appropriate methods for
removal of that coating be implemented. This is particularly important where lead-based
coatings may be present.
F4 SPECIAL PROVISIONS
F4.1 Welding and cutting
The capacity of a member to carry loads while welding or oxygen cutting is being
performed on it shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of this Standard,
taking into consideration the extent of cross-section heating of the member, which results
from the operation that is being performed.
F4.2 Welding sequence
The welding sequence shall be chosen so as to minimize distortion of the member, and
ensure that its straightness remains within the appropriate straightness limits specified in
AS/NZS 5131.
F4.3 Welding repair and strengthening
For welding repair and strengthening requirements not specified in AS/NZS 1554.5, the
requirements of ANSI/AWS D1.1 shall apply.
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APPENDIX G
CORROSION RATE MAPS
(Informative)
This Appendix provides corrosion maps (Figures G1 to G8) for the main urban zones found
in New Zealand.
NOTE: For additional information on the atmospheric corrosivity zones in Australia, refer to
AS 4312.
Tables G1 and G2 provide corrosion map zones and categories for New Zealand, and
exposure conditions and use for steelwork.
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TABLE G1
CORROSION MAP ZONES AND CATEGORIES (NEW ZEALAND ONLY)
Macroclimate Atmospheric corrosion category

corrosion category External Internal
Corrosion
Typically Location Characterized by
map zone AS/NZS 2312.1
and Exposed Sheltered Wet Dry Damp
AS/NZS 2312.2
Within 200 m from breaking
surf on the west and south
coasts of the South Island.
Within 100 m from breaking
surf on west and south coasts of Heavy salt deposits.
C5-M the North Island. All coasts C5-M C1 C4
Almost constant smell of salt
Within 50 m from breaking surf
on all other coasts.
sea spray in the air.
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This environment may be

Sea spray extended inland by prevailing
292
winds and local conditions.
Within 500 m inland from
breaking surf.
Within 50 m of calm salt water Medium salt deposits.
C4 such as harbour foreshores. All coasts Frequent smell of salt sea C4 C5-M C1 C3
This environment may be
spray in the air.
extended inland by prevailing
winds and local conditions.
Within 20 km from breaking West and south coasts of South
surf. Island. Minor salt deposits. C3 C5-M C1 C3
Zone 1 C3 East coast of both islands, west Occasional smell of salt in
Within 5 km from salt water. and south coasts of North the air. C3 C4 C5-M C1 C3
Island, and all harbours.
More than 20 km to 50 km from West and south coasts of South
salt water. Island. C2 C3 C4 C1 C3
Zone 2 C2 More than 5 km to 50 km from
East coast of both islands, west
and south coasts of North C2 C3 C4 C1 C3
salt water.
Island, and all harbours. No marine influence.
Inland, more than 50 km

Zone 3 C2 North and South Islands. C2 C3 C1 C3
from salt water.
Close to geothermal source Constant smell of hydrogen
C5-I <500 m. sulphide. C5-I C1 C3
Zone 4 Beyond 500 m to geothermal Taupo volcanic zone.
— Mild geothermal influence. See Note
source.
TABLE G2
STEELWORK—EXPOSURE CONDITIONS AND USE (NEW ZEALAND ONLY)
Exposure conditions for steelwork Use
Within the external wall and roof cavity with the steel on the cold side of the dew
Damp
point. Steel in subfloor spaces.
Steelwork near openings in external walls. Sheltered
High humidity and corrosive atmosphere, such as chemical processing plant, Specific engineering design required,
swimming pools, paper manufacturing plants, boatyard over sea water, foundries, or refer to AS/NZS 2312.1 and
smelters. AS/NZS 2312.2
DEFINITIONS TO TABLE G1 AND TABLE G2:

External = exposed to the weather
Internal = protected from the weather by being located inside the structure
Exposed = open to airborne salts, washed by the rain, and can dry quickly after wetting
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Sheltered = open to airborne salts but unwashed by the rain, such as an awning or the underside of a steel bridge
Wet = often wet for extended periods of time, such as crevices, or in low points and pockets that are not drained
293
Dry = dry internal environment, such as fully enclosed office or apartment building, within the building envelope
Damp = internal environment where condensation may occur, such as a non-air-conditioned and poorly insulated vehicle garages and warehouses; or high humidity
environment with some pollution, such as a food processing plant, breweries, and dairies
NOTE TO TABLE G1 AND TABLE G2: The atmospheric corrosivity categories given above provide an indication of the environment corrosivity to assist in the selection of a
suitable corrosion protection system. For confirmation of a site-specific atmospheric corrosivity category (for example, for sites that are sheltered from marine influence by the
local topography), site-specific testing will be needed as described in HERA Report R4-133:2011.
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FIGURE G1 NORTH ISLAND CORROSION RATE
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FIGURE G2 SOUTH ISLAND CORROSION RATE
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Tullamar ine Greensborough
Melbour ne
Box Hill
25
Altona Caufield
Port Phillip Bay
Dandenong
CORROSIVITY
CATEGORIES
and corrosion rates
(μm/year, 1 year, mild steel)
C2: Low (1.3-25)
C3: Medium (25-50)
C4: High (50-80)

C5: Ver y high (80-200)
0 1 2 3 4 5 km
25
Frankston
FIGURE G3 CORROSIVITY CATEGORIES FOR MELBOURNE
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Maitland
Raymond
Terrace
Tomago
BHP
NEWCASTLE
Boolaroo
Char lestown
Belmont
CORROSIVITY
CATEGORIES
and corrosion rates
C2: Low (1.3-25)

LAKE
MAQUARIE
C3: Medium (25-50)
C4: High (50-80)

C5: Ver y high (80-200)
0 1 2 3 4 5 km
FIGURE G4 CORROSIVITY CATEGORIES FOR NEWCASTLE
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CORROSIVITY
CATEGORIES
and corrosion rates
C2: Low (1.3-25)

Por t Augusta
C3: Medium (25-50)
C4: High (50-80)

C5: Ver y high (80-200)
0 50 100 km
Whyalla
Por t Pir ie
25
25
25
Spencer Gulf
Gulf
St Vincent
25
ADELAIDE
Murray Br idge
50
50
Victor
Harbour
50 50
50
FIGURE G5 CORROSIVITY CATEGORIES FOR SOUTH AUSTRALIA

(SOUTHERN REGIONS)
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Broken Bay
Penr ith
Parramatta SYDNEY
Cronulla
CORROSIVITY Campbelltown
CATEGORIES
and corrosion rates
C2: Low (1.3-25)
C3: Medium (25-50)
C4: High (50-80)

C5: Ver y high (80-200)
Wollongong
FIGURE G6 CORROSIVITY CATEGORIES FOR SYDNEY (ESTIMATED)
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D eception Bay
Scarborough
Redcliffe
K ALLANGUR
STRATHPINE Bramble Bay
Mount Glor ious
BRISBANE
Redland
CLEVELAND
Bay
Bellbowr ie
CORROSIVITY
CATEGORIES
and corrosion rates
LOGAN
CENTRAL
C2: Low (1.3-25)
C3: Medium (25-50)
C4: High (50-80)

C5: Ver y high (80-200)
FIGURE G7 CORROSIVITY CATEGORIES FOR BRISBANE (ESTIMATED)
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Joondalup
MORLEY MIDLAND
Per th
CANNINGTON
Fremantle
ARMADALE
CORROSIVITY
CATEGORIES
and corrosion rates
C2: Low (1.3-25)

Rockingham
C3: Medium (25-50)
C4: High (50-80)

C5: Ver y high (80-200)
FIGURE G8 CORROSIVITY CATEGORIES FOR PERTH (ESTIMATED)
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APPENDIX H
REQUIREMENTS—STEEL OTHER THAN SPECIFIED IN SECTION 2
(New Zealand only)
(Normative)
H1 GENERAL
H1.1 Scope
This Appendix sets out requirements for structural steel materials other than those specified
in Section 2. This Appendix is New Zealand only because it reflects existing New Zealand
practice in bridge design (see Note 2 below).
Under the provisions of this Appendix, certain steel materials not manufactured to
Australian and New Zealand Standards may be used, provided they meet the requirements
of this Appendix. The capacity factors for the steel materials considered in this Appendix
have been evaluated from rigorous reliability analyses according to ISO 2394 and AS 5104
to demonstrate that the values in Table 3.2 may be used.
NOTES:
1 The New Zealand Steel Structures Standard, NZS 3404.1, currently permits the use of the
steel as nominated in this Appendix for the design of structures subjected to gravity, fatigue
and seismic loadings. This Appendix was included following the request to develop this Part
of the AS(AS/NZS) 5100 series of Standards as a joint Australian and New Zealand bridge
design Standard.
2 The technical committee revising this Standard reviewed the other certified steels referred to
in this Appendix by comparing them with the Australian and New Zealand Standards
referenced in Clause 2.2. It was agreed that there were differences between the Standards and
further work would need to be undertaken to resolve the impact of these differences, which
include but are not limited to—
(a) the level of product conformity in the absence of a regulatory requirement for
conformity assessment (CE mark or JIS certification); and
(b) the product marking and traceability requirements in AS/NZS 1163, AS/NZS 3678,
AS/NZS 3679.1 and AS/NZS 3679.2.
The technical committee has a preference that this be a joint Australian and New Zealand
Appendix and will continue to work towards this outcome. However, the differences found
were not able to be addressed in this revision, so the New Zealand only Appendix reflects the
existing practice in that country.
The New Zealand Steel Structures Standard, NZS 3404.1, which also covers design of
bridges, and allows the use of material manufactured to the Standards in Clause 2.2 and this
Appendix.
The previous edition of the Australian Bridge design Standard only applied to steels
manufactured to Australian and New Zealand Standards listed in Clause 2.2.
The design of a bridge structure in New Zealand to the Standards referenced in this Appendix
should include, as a minimum, consideration of points of difference with those Standards
referenced in Clause 2.2. Further commentary is provided in Appendix J.
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H1.2 Normative references

For the purposes of this Appendix, the following documents apply:
NOTE: For a list of European and Japanese Standards on the design of steel structures, see the
Bibliography.
EN
10024 Hot rolled taper flange I sections—Tolerances on shape and dimensions
10025 Hot rolled products of structural steels
10025-2 Part 2: Technical delivery conditions for non-alloy structural steels
10025-3 Part 3: Technical delivery conditions for normalized/normalized rolled
weldable fine grain structural steels
10025-4 Part 4: Technical delivery conditions for thermomechanical rolled weldable
fine grain structural steels
10025-5 Part 5: Technical delivery conditions for structural steels with improved
atmospheric corrosion resistance
10029 Hot-rolled steel plates 3 mm thick or above—Tolerances on dimensions and
shape
10034 Structural steel I and H sections—Tolerances on shape and dimensions
10051 Continuously hot-rolled strip and plate/sheet cut from wide strip of non-alloy
and alloy steels—Tolerances on dimensions and shape
10055 Hot rolled steel equal flange tees with radiused root and toes—Dimensions and
tolerances on shape and dimensions
10056 Structural steel equal and unequal leg angles
10056-2 Part 2: Tolerances on shape and dimensions
10210 Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain steels
10210-1 Part 1: Technical delivery conditions
10210-2 Part 2: Tolerances, dimensions and sectional properties
10219 Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain
steels
10219-1 Part 1: Technical delivery conditions
10219-2 Part 2: Tolerances, dimensions and sectional properties
10279 Hot rolled steel channels—Tolerances on shape, dimensions and mass
JIS
G 3106 Rolled steels for welded structure
G 3114 Hot-rolled atmospheric corrosion resisting steels for welded structure
G 3136 Rolled steels for building structure
G 3192 Dimensions, mass and permissible variations of hot rolled steel sections
G 3193 Dimensions, mass and permissible variations of hot rolled steel plates, sheets
and strips
G 3475 Carbon steel tubes for building structure
Q 1001 Conformity assessment—Conformity assessment for Japanese Industrial
Standards—General guidance on a third-party certification system for products
Q 1013 Conformity assessment—Conformity assessment for Japanese Industrial
Standards—General guidance on a third-party certification system for steel
products
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H2 YIELD STRESS AND TENSILE STRENGTH USED IN DESIGN

H2.1 Yield stress
The yield stress used in design (fy) shall not exceed that given in Table H2.1(A) and
H2.1(B).
For rolled sections, the specified thickness of the thickest element of the cross-section shall
be used.
H2.2 Tensile strength
The tensile strength used in design (fu ) shall not exceed that given in Table H2.1(A) and
H2.1(B).
For rolled sections, the specified thickness of the thickest element of the cross-section shall
be used.
H3 STRUCTURAL STEEL
H3.1 Compliance
All structural steel covered by the scope of this Appendix shall, before fabrication, comply
with the requirements of the following Standards, as appropriate:
(a) EN 10025-1, EN 10025-2, EN 10025-3, EN 10025-4, EN 10025-5 and:
(i) EN 10024, EN 10034, EN 10055, EN 10056-2 or EN 10279; and
(ii) EN 10029 or EN 10051.
(b) EN 10210-1 and EN 10210-2.
(c) EN 10219-1 and EN 10219-2.
(d) JIS G 3106, JIS G 3114, JIS G 3136 and:
(i) JIS G 3193; and
(ii) JIS G 3192.
(e) JIS G 3475.
H3.2 Acceptance of steel
Mill certificates that comply with Paragraph H5.3 and the minimum requirements of the
appropriate Standard listed in Paragraph H1.3.1 shall constitute sufficient evidence of
compliance of the steel with the Standards listed in Paragraph H1.3.1.
NOTE: A mill certificate includes both test and inspection certificates.
H3.3 Properties of steel
Unless otherwise stated, the properties given in Clause 2.2.5 shall be assumed for all grades
of steel for design purposes.
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TABLE H2.1(A)
STRENGTHS OF STEELS COMPLYING WITH EN 10025-2, EN 10025-3,
EN 10025-4, EN 10025-5, EN 10210-1 AND EN 10219-1 (see Note)
Thickness of Yield Tensile
Steel material stress strength
Form Steel grade (t) (f y ) (f u )
Standard
mm MPa MPa
EN 10025-2 Hot-rolled S235 3 < t  16 235 360
structural steel
S235 16 < t  40 225 360
plate and sections
S235 40 < t  63 215 360
S235 63 < t  80 215 360
S275 3 < t  16 275 410
S275 16 < t  40 265 410
S275 40 < t  63 255 410
S275 63 < t  80 245 410
S355 3 < t  16 355 470
S355 16 < t  40 345 470
S355 40 < t  63 335 470
S355 63 < t  80 325 470
S450 3 < t  16 450 550
S450 16 < t  40 430 550
S450 40 < t  63 410 550
S450 63 < t  80 390 550
EN 10025-3 Hot rolled S275 N/NL 3 < t  16 275 370
structural steel
S275 N/NL 16 < t  40 265 370
plate and sections
S275 N/NL 40 < t  63 255 370
S275 N/NL 63 < t  80 245 370
S355 N/NL 3 < t  16 355 470
S355 N/NL 16 < t  40 345 470
S355 N/NL 40 < t  63 335 470
S355 N/NL 63 < t  80 325 470
S420 N/NL 3 < t  16 420 520
S420 N/NL 16 < t  40 400 520
S420 N/NL 40 < t  63 390 520
S420 N/NL 63 < t  80 370 520
S460 N/NL 3 < t  16 460 540
S460 N/NL 16 < t  40 440 540
S460 N/NL 40 < t  63 430 540
S460 N/NL 63 < t  80 410 540
(continued)
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TABLE H2.1(A) (continued)

Standard
mm MPa MPa
EN 10025-4 Hot rolled S275 M/ML 3 < t  16 275 370
structural steel
S275 M/ML 16 < t  40 265 370
plate and sections
S275 M/ML 40 < t  63 255 360
S275 M/ML 63 < t  80 245 350
S355 M/ML 3 < t  16 355 470
S355 M/ML 16 < t  40 345 470
S355 M/ML 40 < t  63 335 450
S355 M/ML 63 < t  80 325 440
S420 M/ML 3 < t  16 420 520
S420 M/ML 16 < t  40 400 520
S420 M/ML 40 < t  63 390 500
S420 M/ML 63 < t  80 380 480
S460 M/ML 3 < t  16 460 540
S460 M/ML 16 < t  40 440 540
S460 M/ML 40 < t  63 430 530
S460 M/ML 63 < t  80 410 510
EN 10025-5 Hot rolled S235 W 3 < t  16 235 360
structural steel
S235 W 16 < t  40 225 360
plate and sections
S235 W 40 < t  63 215 360
S235 W 63 < t  80 215 360
S355 W 3 < t  16 355 470
S355 W 16 < t  40 345 470
S355 W 40 < t  63 335 470
S355 W 63 < t  80 325 470
EN 10210-1 Hollow sections S235 H 3 < t  16 235 360
S235 H 16 < t  40 225 360
S235 H 40 < t  63 215 360
S235 H 63 < t  80 215 360
S275 H 3 < t  16 275 410
S275 H 16 < t  40 265 410
S275 H 40 < t  63 255 410
S275 H 63 < t  80 245 410
S355 H 3 < t  16 355 470
S355 H 16 < t  40 345 470
S355 H 40 < t  63 335 470
S355 H 63 < t  80 325 470
S275 NH/NLH 3 < t  16 275 370
S275 NH/NLH 16 < t  40 265 370
S275 NH/NLH 40 < t  65 255 370
(continued)
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TABLE H2.1(A) (continued)

Standard
mm MPa MPa
S355 NH/NLH 3 < t  16 355 470
S355 NH/NLH 16 < t  40 345 470
S355 NH/NLH 40 < t  65 335 470
S420 NH/NLH 3 < t  16 420 520
S420 NH/NLH 16 < t  40 400 520
S420 NH/NLH 40 < t  65 390 520
S460 NH/NLH 3 < t  16 460 540
S460 NH/NLH 16 < t  40 440 540
S460 NH/NLH 40 < t  65 430 540
EN 10219-1 Hollow sections S235 H 3 < t  16 235 360
S235 H 16 < t  40 225 360
S275 H 3 < t  16 275 410
S275 H 16 < t  40 265 410
S355 H 3 < t  16 355 470
S355 H 16 < t  40 345 470
S275 NH/NLH 3 < t  16 275 370
S275 NH/NLH 16 < t  40 265 370
S355 NH/NLH 3 < t  16 355 470
S355 NH/NLH 16 < t  40 345 470
S460 NH/NLH 3 < t  16 460 540
S460 NH/NLH 16 < t  40 440 540
NOTE: EN 10025-2, EN 10025-3, EN 10025-4 and EN 10025-5 all contain, within each grade, a variety of
impact grades not individually listed in the Table. All impact-tested grades within the one grade have the same
yield stress and tensile strength as the grade listed.
TABLE H2.1(B)
STRENGTHS OF STEELS COMPLYING WITH JIS G 3106, JIS G 3114
AND JIS G 3136
Thickness of Tensile
Yield stress
Steel material strength
Form Steel grade (f y )
Standard (t) (f u )
mm MPa MPa
JIS G 3106 Hot-rolled SM400 A/B/C t  16 245 400
structural steel
SM400 A/B/C 16 < t  40 235 400
plate and sections
SM400 A/B/C 40 < t  75 215 400
SM400 A/B/C 75 < t  100 215 400
SM490 A/B/C t  16 325 490
SM490 A/B/C 16 < t  40 315 490
SM490 A/B/C 40 < t  75 295 490
SM490 A/B/C 75 < t  100 295 490
(continued)
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TABLE H2.1(B) (continued)
Yield stress
Standard (t) (f u )
mm MPa MPa
SM490 YA/YB t  16 365 490
SM490 YA/YB 16 < t  40 355 490
SM490 YA/YB 40 < t  75 335 490
SM490 YA/YB 75 < t  100 325 490
SM520 B/C t  16 365 520
SM520 B/C 16 < t  40 355 520
SM520 B/C 40 < t  75 335 520
SM520 B/C 75 < t  100 325 520
SM570 t  16 460 570
SM570 16 < t  40 450 570
SM570 40 < t  75 430 570
SM570 75 < t  100 420 570
JIS G 3114 Hot rolled SMA400 AW/AP/ t  16 245 400
structural steel BW/BP/CW/CP
plate and sections
SMA400 AW/AP/ 16 < t  40 235 400
BW/BP/CW/CP
SMA400 AW/AP/ 40 < t  75 215 400
BW/BP/CW/CP
SMA400 AW/AP/ 75 < t  100 215 400
BW/BP/CW/CP
SMA490 AW/AP/ t  16 365 490
BW/BP/CW/CP
SMA490 AW/AP/ 16 < t  40 355 490
BW/BP/CW/CP
SMA490 AW/AP/ 40 < t  75 335 490
BW/BP/CW/CP
SMA490 AW/AP/ 75 < t  100 325 490
BW/BP/CW/CP
SMA570 W/P t  16 460 570
SMA570 W/P 16 < t  40 450 570
SMA570 W/P 40 < t  75 430 570
SMA570 W/P 75 < t  100 420 570
(continued)
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TABLE H2.1(B) (continued)
Yield stress
Standard (t) (f u )
mm MPa MPa
JIS G 3136 Hot rolled SN400 A/B 12  t < 16 235 400
structural steel
SN400 A/B t = 16 235 400
plate and sections
SN400 A/B 16 < t  40 235 400
SN400 A/B 40 < t  100 215 400
SN400 C 12  t < 16 — —
SN400 C t = 16 235 400
SN400 C 16 < t  40 235 400
SN400 C 40 < t  100 215 400
SN490 B 12  t < 16 325 490
SN490 B t = 16 325 490
SN490 B 16 < t  40 325 490
SN490 B 40 < t  100 295 490
SN490 C 12  t < 16 — —
SN490 C t = 16 325 490
SN490 C 16 < t  40 325 490
SN490 C 40 < t  100 295 490
H3.4 Brittle fracture

The steel grade and material thickness shall be selected so that the design service
temperature as defined in the Section 14 is warmer than the Charpy V notch testing
temperature for the steel, based on a standard 10  10mm specimen size. For material
thickness less than 12 mm, Charpy tests are not required unless otherwise specified.
Steel subject to welding shall have minimum Charpy V notch toughness of 27 J at 20°C.
H4 WELDING OF OTHER STEEL MATERIALS ACCORDING TO AS/NZS 1554.1,

AS/NZS 1554.4 or AS/NZS 1554.5
H4.1 General
For steel Types 1 to 7C of Table H4.1, welding shall comply with AS/NZS 1554.1 or
AS/NZS 1554.5. Welding procedure qualification tests shall follow the testing requirements
for not prequalified materials. The qualification of welding procedures on other steels with
impact designation shall be by heat affected zone (HAZ) Charpy impact tests. Hardness
tests shall be carried out for welding heat affected zone to establish preheat requirements.
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TABLE H4.1
STEEL TYPE RELATIONSHIP TO STEEL GRADE
Steel grade
EN 10025 JIS G 3106
Steel type
JIS G 3114
JIS G 3136
S275JR SM 400A
SN 400A
1
SMA400AW
SMA400AP
S275J0 SM 400B
SN 400B
2 SN 400C
SMA400BW
SMA400BP
2S — —
S275J2 SM 400C
3 SMA400CW
SMA400CP
S355JR SMA490AW
4
SMA490AP
S355J0 SM 490YB
S355J0W SM 520B
SM 490B
5
SN 490C
SMA490BW
SMA490BP
5S — —
S355J2 SM 490C
S355J2W SM 520C
S355M SMA490CW
S355N SMA490CP
6
S355ML
S420M
S420N
S420ML
7A —
7B —
S460M SMA570W
7C S460N SMA570P
S460ML
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H4.2 Welding consumables for weather-resistant steels

H4.2.1 General
Welds on steels with improved atmospheric corrosion resistance shall be carried out using
appropriate welding consumables to ensure that the completed welds have the appearance
and weather resistance at least equivalent to the parent metal; and to avoid solidification
cracking.
NOTE: This may be achieved by the selection of appropriate welding consumables and the
implementation of all applicable requirements of the welding Standard(s).
Unless otherwise specified, welding consumables shall be selected in accordance with a
corresponding technical Standard (e.g. AS/NZS, EN or JIS) and the steel manufacturer’s
specifications. Where consumables are not selected in accordance with the above,
additional qualification tests may be required as part of the weld procedure qualification
test requirements.
H4.2.2 Welding weather-resistant steels according to EN 10025-5
Welding of weather-resistant steels according to EN 10025-5 shall be carried out in
accordance with EN 1011-2 and EN 1090-2. Welding consumables shall be selected in
accordance with Table H4.2.2.
TABLE H4.2.2
WELDING CONSUMABLES FOR STEELS ACCORDING TO EN 10025-5
Welding Option 1 Option 2 Option 3
MMAW Matching (see Note) 2.5% Ni 1% Cr 0.5% Mo
GMAW Matching 2.5% Ni 1% Cr 0.5% Mo
SAW Matching 2% Ni 1% Cr 0.5% Mo
NOTE: Matching: 0.5% Cu and other alloy elements; C-Mn consumables selected in
accordance with AS/NZS 1554.1 may be used for the body of a multi-run fillet or butt weld,
provided the capping runs are made using suitable consumables.
H4.2.3 Welding weather-resistant steels according to JIS G 3114

Welding consumables for weather-resistant steels according to JIS G 3114 shall be selected
in accordance with the steel manufacturer’s specifications.
NOTE: Welding specifications should be obtained at the point of supply before steel purchase. If
welding specifications are not available, welding consumables options specified in Table H4.2.2
may be considered.
H5 PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS
H5.1 General
It shall be ensured that other steel materials in accordance with their respective national
Standards, as given in Paragraph H.3.1, and in accordance with the requirements of
Paragraph H3, include an inspection document together with documentation on the factory
production control system.
H5.2 Factory production control
The product shall include documentation on an established factory production control (FPC)
system.
The documentation shall include an outline of the procedures, regular inspections and tests
and/or assessments and the use of the results to control feedstock materials, equipment,
personnel, the production process and the products, in accordance with the relevant
performance requirements (see Paragraph H4).
NOTE: The documentation serves to verify the conformity of the products given in Paragraph H6.
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H5.3 Test certificates

Testing, including inspections, shall be substantiated by test certificates. For steel products
supplied to EN 10025, Type 3.1 or Type 3.2 certificates in accordance with EN 10204 shall
be provided. For steel products supplied to JIS G 3106, JIS G 3114 and JIS G 3136,
Type 3.1B, certificates in accordance with JIS G 0404 shall be provided.
H6 PRODUCT CONFORMITY
H6.1 General
Conformity of acceptable other steel materials manufactured to EN and JIS Standards shall
be demonstrated by—
(a) initial type testing; and
(b) factory product control, including minimum testing and inspection frequency plan.
H6.2 Requirements for evaluation of conformity
H6.2.1 General
The product conformity requirements shall be in accordance with either Paragraph H6.2.2
or H6.2.3. The product conformity requirements shall enable conformance assessment to be
made by a manufacturer or supplier (first party), a user or purchaser (second party), or an
independent body (third party), and shall not be dependent on a quality management
systems Standard
NOTE: An example of a quality management system Standard is AS/NZS ISO 9001.
H6.2.2 Steels manufactured to EN product Standards
The requirements of Annex B of EN 10025-1, Annex D of EN 10210-1 or Annex D of
EN 10219-11 shall apply for evaluating the conformity of steels manufactured to
EN 10025-2, EN 10025-3, EN 10025-4, EN 10025-5, EN 10210 and EN 10219 respectively.
H6.2.3 Steels manufactured to JIS product Standards
The requirements for evaluation of product conformity shall be based on the principles of
JIS Q 1001 and JIS Q 1013.
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APPENDIX I
FATIGUE
(Normative)
I1 DETERMINATION OF FATIGUE LOAD PARAMETERS AND VERIFICATION

FORMATS
I1.1 Determination of loading events
Typical loading sequences that represent a credible estimated upper bound of all service
load events expected during the fatigue design life shall be determined using prior
knowledge from similar structures [see Figure I1.1(a)].
I1.2 Stress history at detail
A stress history shall be determined from the loading events at the structural detail under
consideration taking account of the type and shape of the relevant influence lines to be
considered and the effects of dynamic magnification of the structural response [see
Figure I1.1(b)].
Stress histories may also be determined from measurements on similar structures or from
dynamic calculations of the structural response.
I1.3 Cycle counting
Stress histories shall be evaluated by either rainflow method or reservoir method [see
Figure I1.1(c)] to determine—
(a) stress ranges and their numbers of cycles; and
(b) mean stresses, where the mean stress influence needs to be taken into account.
I1.4 Stress range spectrum
The stress range spectrum shall be determined by presenting the stress ranges and the
associated number of cycles in descending order [see Figure I1.1(d)].
Stress range spectra may be modified by neglecting peak values of stress ranges
representing less than 1% of the total damage and small stress ranges below the cut off
limit.
Stress range spectra may be standardized according to their shape, e.g., with the coordinates
  1.0 and n  1.0 .
I1.5 Cycles to failure
When using the design spectrum the applied stress ranges (σi) shall be multiplied by Ff
and the fatigue strength values σi multiplied by  to obtain the endurance value N Ri for
each band in the spectrum. The damage Dd from loads during the design life shall be
calculated from the following equation:
n
nEi
Dd  N
i Ri
. . . I1.5
where
nEi = number of cycles associated with the stress range Ffσi for band i in the
factored spectrum
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NRi = endurance (in cycles) obtained from the factored Mf  C  N R curve for a
stress range of Ffσi
On the basis of equivalence of Dd the design stress range spectrum shall be transformed into
any equivalent design stress range spectrum (e.g. a constant amplitude design stress range
spectrum yielding the fatigue equivalent load Qe associated with the cycle number
nmax = ni or Qe,2 associated with the cycle number NC = 2  106).
I1.6 Verification formats
The fatigue assessment based on damage accumulation shall meet the following criteria:
(a) Based on damage accumulation:
Dspec  1.0 . . . I1.6(1)
(b) Based on stress range:
 Ff  E,2  m Dspec Mf  C where m = 3 . . . I1.6(2)
where Dspec is the specified damage sum
(a) Loading sequence: Typical load P1

cycle (repeated n-times in the
design life)
T
P1
(b) Stress history at detail

σ
(c) Cycle counting

(e.g. reservoir method) ∆σ 3 ∆σ 4 ∆σ 2
∆σ 1
(d) Stress range spectrum ∆σ ∆σ 1
∆σ 2
∆σ 3
∆σ 4
n1 n2 n3 n4 N
FIGURE I1.1 (in part) CUMULATIVE DAMAGE METHOD
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(e) Cycles to failure l o g ∆σ
∆σ 1
∆σ 2
∆σ 3
∆σ 4
N1 N 2N 3 N 4
log N
ni n1 n2 n3 n4
(f) Damage summation
(Palmgren-Miner rule)
N    
N1 N2 N3 N4
 DL
i
FIGURE I1.1 (in part) CUMULATIVE DAMAGE METHOD
I2 FATIGUE RESISTANCE USING THE GEOMETRIC (HOT SPOT) STRESS

METHOD
For the application of the geometric stress method detail categories shall be as given in
Table I2 for cracks initiating from—
(a) toes of butt welds;
(b) toes of fillet welded attachments; or
(c) toes of fillet welds in cruciform joints.
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TABLE I2
DETAIL CATEGORIES FOR USE WITH GEOMETRIC (HOT SPOT)
STRESS METHOD
Detail
category
1) Full penetration butt 1)
joint. -All welds ground flush to
plate surface parallel to
direction of the arrow.
-Weld run-on and run-off
pieces to be used and
112 1 subsequently removed, plate
edges to be ground flush in
direction of stress.
-Welded from both sides,
checked by NDT.
-For misalignment, see
Note 1.
2) Full penetration butt 2)
joint. -Weld not ground flush.
-Weld run-on and run-off
pieces to be used and
subsequently removed, plate
100 2
edges to be ground flush in
direction of stress.
-Welded from both sides.
-For misalignment, see
Note 1.
3) Cruciform joint with full 3)
penetration K-butt welds. -Weld toe angle  60°.
100 3 -For misalignment, see
Note 1.
4) Non load-carrying fillet 4)

welds. -Weld toe angle  60°.
100 -See also Note 2.
4
5) Brackets ends, ends of 5)

longitudinal stiffeners. -Weld toe angle  60°.
100 5 -See also Note 2.
6) Cover plate ends and 6)

similar joints. -Weld toe angle  60°.
100 6 -See also Note 2.
7) Cruciform joints with 7)

load-carrying fillet welds. -Weld toe angle  60°.
90 7 -For misalignment, see
Note 1.
-See also Note 2.
NOTES:
1 This Table does not cover effects of misalignment. They have to be considered explicitly in determination
of stress.
2 This Table does not cover fatigue initiation from the root followed by propagation through the throat.
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APPENDIX J
GUIDANCE ON USING STEELS OTHER THAN STEELS SPECIFIED IN
SECTION 2
(New Zealand only)
Informative
J1 SCOPE
This Appendix covers some of the key issues designers need to consider when other steels
specified in Appendix H are used in conjunction with AS/NZS 5100.6. The issues covered
in this Appendix are not exhaustive, designers need to satisfy themselves that they have
considered all the relevant matters.
J2 GENERAL
The basis for most limit state design Standards, such as AS/NZS 5100.6, is that there is a
sufficiently low probability of the actual resistance falling below the design resistance
through structural reliability analyses. These reliability analyses use statistical data from
element testing and material production data in conjunction with allowable section
geometry tolerances specified in structural steel manufacturing Standards to establish the
required values of the strength reduction factors (), thereby enabling design capacities to
be established.
When using steels other than those specified in Clause 2.2.2, it is important that these steels
be compatible for use in conjunction with this Standard to ensure that the design
assumptions remain valid and margins of safety are not eroded.
J3 TRACEABILITY
JIS and EN standards allow a range of product marking options. The method of marking is
to be specified by the purchaser. The manufacturer may mark individual products or, if it
they are securely tied together, they may be labelled as a bundle. This places greater onus
on the supply chain to maintain traceability in the eventuality the bundle is broken prior to
delivery to the fabricator’s workshop. Engineers should specify individual product marking.
The method of such marking should be sufficiently durable to remain visible up until the
fabrication stage.
J4 PRODUCT CONFORMITY
J4.1 Conformity requirements
Conformity requirements set out in product Standards provide the following:
(a) The characteristics of the product that are needed to provide an expected
performance.
(b) The measurement and test methods, which specify the procedure for determining the
values of the characteristics or for checking conformity to stated requirements.
(c) The required frequency of the measurements.
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For manufacturers or suppliers of structural steel products, the stated values and
characteristics given in a product Standard are demonstrated through the following:
(i) Initial type testing (ITT)—which consists of the complete set of tests described in a
Standard for a manufacturer or supplier to determine the characteristics of their
products before they are placed on the market. ITT should be performed at the
beginning of a new method of production (where this may affect the stated
properties).
(ii) Factory production control (FPC)—which is the permanent internal control of
production exercised by the manufacturer or supplier. It provides a means by which a
manufacturer or supplier ensures that the declared performances (obtained on the
basis of ITT) continue to be valid for all subsequent products. This generally involves
ensuring that subsequent products remain substantially the same as those submitted to
ITT (i.e., having the same characteristics).
For the Standards listed in Section 2, ITT and FPC requirements are given only in
AS/NZS 1163, AS/NZS 3678, AS/NZS 3679.1 and AS/NZS 3679.2. Conversely, for the EN
products listed in Appendix H, when an evaluation of conformity is required for regulatory
purposes (see conformity assessment below), ITT and FPC requirements are given in
EN 10025-1 for EN 10025-2, EN 10025-3, EN 10025-4 and EN 10025-5. However, in
Australia and New Zealand there is no regulation that invokes the evaluation of conformity
requirements relating to ITT and FPC in EN products.
J4.2 Conformity assessment
Conformity assessment involves a set of processes that show a product, service or system
meets the requirements of a Standard. The main forms of conformity assessment are testing,
certification and inspection. Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand strictly adhere
to the following rules*:
(a) Adherence to ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2, ‘neutrality principle’, such that conformity
can be assessed by a first-party (manufacturer or supplier), second-party (a user or
purchaser), or third-party (an independent body).
(b) No document containing requirements for products, processes, services, persons,
systems (such as an FPC system) and bodies can make conformity dependent on a
quality management systems Standard (e.g., it cannot make normative reference to
AS/NZS ISO 9001).
(c) Conformity assessment is to be considered in a separate Standard containing the
specific requirements for assessment of conformity or for a relevant conformity
assessment scheme.
J5 REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS
Other international bodies do not necessarily adhere to the Standards Australia and
Standards New Zealand rules when considering conformity assessment of structural steel
products. In these situations, the type of assessment, together with the assignment of roles
and responsibilities may be set by legislation in the countries where the national Standards
were developed. Conformity assessment requirements are not mandatory in Australia nor
are they mandatory in New Zealand. In these circumstances, the purchaser may wish to
specify conformity assessment requirements.
* SG 006, Rules for the structure and drafting of Australian Standards.
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NOTES:
1 In Europe, the Construction Products Regulation (CPR)* introduced the requirement of CE
Marking for all construction products permanently incorporated into construction works.
Under the CPR, harmonized European product Standards (hENs) are characterized by the
inclusion of an informative Annex ZA, which lists the regulated requirements according to a
mandate issued by the European Commission and the clauses within the hEN in which they
are addressed. Depending on the impact the product has on health and safety of citizens,
Annex ZA defines the degree of involvement of third-party notified bodies in assessing the
conformity of a product. EN 10025-1 is an example of an hEN for structural steelwork.
2 Following the revision of Industrial Standardization Law, steel products used in Japan have
been required to have a JIS Mark since 2005. The JIS Mark scheme requires steel products to
be certified by an Accredited Certification Body according to the conformity assessment
requirements given in JIS Q 1001 and JIS Q 1013 (Refs 1, 2 Bibliography).
3 The Building and Construction Authority (BCA) in Singapore has introduced guide BC1
(Ref. 3 Bibliography) to enable designers to use alternative steel products that are deemed to
have equivalent performance to the European hENs. As well as the EN and JIS products listed
in Appendix H, BC1 deems AS/NZS 1163, AS/NZS 3678 and AS/NZS 3679.1 to be
equivalent, together with American (ASTM and API) and Chinese (GB) product Standards. In
this territory, conformity assessment is based on the manufacturer or supplier demonstrating
that their FPC has been validated by a third-party, together with mill certificates that are
traceable to the heat number.
J6 WELDABILITY
The weldability of the steel products presented in Appendix H may be different to that
presented to the AS and AS/NZS products listed in Section 2. As a consequence of this,
welding procedure qualification tests should follow the testing requirements for non-
prequalified materials.
NOTE: Background information on the chemical composition of international iron and steel can
be found in Worldwide guide to equivalent irons and steels (Ref. 4 Bibliography).
J7 STRUCTURAL RELIABILITY
AS 5104 and ISO 2394 provide a common basis for defining design rules relevant to
construction and use of a wide majority of buildings, bridges and civil engineering works,
whatever the nature or combination of the materials used. They include methods for
establishing and calibrating reliability-based design Standards for both actions and
resistances. In addition, reliability differentiation is also given, where different levels of
reliability can be achieved through the introduction of different quality levels.
In reliability-based design, the probability of failure (pf) or the reliability index (β) are the
basic reliability measures used in AS 5104 and ISO 2394. The target reliability index is
related to the expected social and economic consequences from a design failure. The first
order reliability method (FORM) is generally promoted in AS 5104 and ISO 2394, as this
permits the design actions and design resistances to be evaluated separately. For steel
together with steel-concrete composite beams and columns, the basic variables that are
considered in the evaluation of the design resistance are the statistical properties of the
material strengths and the geometrical tolerances. Comprehensive reliability analyses were
undertaken to evaluate the design resistances (assuming ITT and FPC requirements were
satisfied) and capacity reduction factors in Section 3 to demonstrate that products listed in
Section 2 and Appendix H provide the same margins of safety.
NOTE: Background information on the evaluation of the capacity reduction factors for
Appendix H are given in Kang and al and Uy and al (Refs 5, 6 Bibliography).
* EU (European Union) (2011) Regulation (EU) No 305/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council
of 9 March 2011 laying down harmonized conditions for the marketing of construction products and
repealing Council Directive 89/106/EEC. Official Journal of the European Union.
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APPENDIX K
STATISTICAL DATA
(Normative)
K1 SCOPE
This Appendix sets out the test requirements to produce the statistical data required for
products not covered by Table 14.5.1.
K2 STATISTICAL DATA
Statistical data collected from impact tests conducted in accordance with the appropriate
Standard shall be assessed to ensure products meet the requirements of Table 14.5.1.
Cold-formed structural hollow section tests shall comply with the requirements of
AS/NZS 1163.
Hot-rolled plate and hot-rolled steel flat product tests shall comply with the requirements of
AS/NZS 3678.
Hot-rolled bars and section tests shall comply with the requirements of AS/NZS 3679.1.
K3 TESTING
K3.1 General
Testing shall be in accordance with Section 15 and the following Standards, as applicable:
(a) AS/NZS 1163.
(b) AS/NZS 3678.
(c) AS/NZS 3679.1.
(d) AS/NZS 3679.2.
K3.2 Minimum number of tests
The minimum number of tests shall be in accordance with the initial type testing
requirements for impact grades in Appendix B of the relevant Standard noted in
AS/NZS 1163, AS/NZS 3678, AS/NZS 3679.1 and AS/NZS 3679.2. All tests shall be from
the same facility with factory production control compliant with the requirements in
AS/NZS 1163, AS/NZS 3678, AS/NZS 3679.1 and AS/NZS 3679.2.
K4 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The absorbed energy values for all tests conducted for the temperatures listed in
Table 14.5.1 shall conform to the limits given in Table K4. Retests shall only be permitted
in accordance with the retest requirements in AS/NZS 1163, AS/NZS 3678, AS/NZS 3679.1
and AS/NZS 3679.2.
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TABLE K4
CHARPY V-NOTCH IMPACT TEST REQUIREMENTS
Size of test piece, mm
10  10 10  7.5 10  5
Average of Individual Average of Individual Average of Individual
3 tests test 3 tests test 3 tests test
27 Joules 20 Joules 22 Joules 16 Joules 18 Joules 13 Joules
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APPENDIX L
GUIDANCE ON DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTRUCTION CATEGORY
(Informative)
L1 INTRODUCTION
This Appendix provides guidance on the choice of the construction category relevant to the
building or structure as a whole or to components of the structure where it is appropriate to
assign different construction categories.
NOTE: The process outlined for defining a construction category is consistent with the
philosophy and principles on which AS/NZS 1170.0 is based and intended to provide a level of
consistency between the basis for the design assumptions and those for the ensuing fabrication
and erection of the building or structure.
The determination of the construction category is undertaken in the design phase, based on
the known loading for the building, the intended function, what maintenance and inspection
measures will be in place, the elements that comprise the structure and the expected
complexity of fabrication or erection for the structure. The construction specification
should embody the specifics of these decisions and the additional and optional information
necessary to fully define the necessary requirements for the chosen construction category or
categories.
L2 BACKGROUND
The selection of a ‘Construction Category’, as applicable to a steel structure or components
thereof, is a risk based approach intended to provide consistency with the reliability based
philosophy and principles on which the fundamental load assessment (AS/NZS 1170 series)
and structural design (AS 4100) is based. The approach translates into a fit-for-purpose
assessment that ensures the fabrication and erection of steel structures is based on a rational
risk assessment, recognizing the importance of the structure, what maintenance and
inspection measures will be in place, the consequences of failure and the complexity of the
fabrication and erection.
AS/NZS 1170 series is based on the philosophy and principles set out in ISO 2394, which
provides a common basis for defining design rules relevant to the construction and use of a
wide variety of buildings, bridges and civil engineering works. It includes methods for
establishing and calibrating limit states design Standards. The required reliability is related
to the expected social and economic consequences from a design failure. Significantly, the
required reliability may be achieved through suitable combinations of the following
measures:
(a) Measures related to design, such as choice of values of action variables, reliability of
design calculations, accuracy of mechanical models used and the like.
(b) Measures relating to quality assurance, to reduce the risk of hazards from gross
human errors, design and execution (fabrication and erection).
The construction category classification provides a fit-for-purpose level of quality
assurance to reduce risks associated with fabrication and erection. It achieves this through
reliability differentiation from inspection and supervision levels.
AS/NZS 1170.0 references the ‘importance level’ for the building or structure as the
primary indicator of the relative risk to life in extreme events (consequences of failure), and
is based on the philosophy and principles set out in AS 5104 (ISO 2394). For Australia, the
importance level is defined in the National Construction Code (NCC). For New Zealand, or
for structures in Australia not covered by the NCC, AS/NZS 1170.0, Section 3 is utilized.
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The importance level is one component of the risk assessment that provides the basis for the
calculation of the construction category. Other components reflect the type of loading the
structure is subjected to and the complexity of the fabrication. Taken together, these
components formalize the reliability differentiation that is included in AS 5104 and is
implicit within AS/NZS 1170.0.
L3 INPUT FACTORS DETERMINING THE CHOICE OF CONSTRUCTION

CATEGORY
L3.1 General
The selection of the construction category defined in Paragraph L4 is based on three input
variables:
(a) The ‘importance factor’, which reflects the risk to life and consequences of failure
(see Paragraph L3.2).
(b) The ‘service category’, which reflects the actions to which the structure and its parts
are likely to be exposed, such as earthquake or fatigue (see Paragraph L3.3).
(c) The ‘fabrication category’, which reflects the complexity of the fabrication of the
structure and its components (see Paragraph L3.4).
L3.2 Importance factor
National Construction Code (for Australia) or Section 3 of AS/NZS 1170.0 (for New
Zealand) defines the importance levels for different structure types. Importance levels are
designated from 1 (representing the lowest risk to life) up to 4 (representing the highest risk
to life and/or post disaster recover functions). An additional importance level of 5 is
designated for New Zealand only, representing special structures outside the scope of the
Standard.
Where the structure type falls outside the scope of the NCC, Section 3 of AS/NZS 1170.0,
should be referred to.
NOTE: There is no provision in the NCC or in AS/NZS 1170.0 for designating parts of a structure
with different importance factors.
L3.3 Service category
The selected service category reflects the uncertainty in the exposure of the structure to
actions that may expose flaws in the structure during use. The service category may be
selected based on Table L1.
The structure or part of the structure can contain components or structural details that are
categorized under different service categories.
NOTE: The service category is also used to assess the recommended extent of non-destructive
examination (NDE) of welds (see Clause 12.6.10) and therefore should be nominated in the
construction specification.
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TABLE L1
SUGGESTED CRITERIA FOR SERVICE CATEGORIES
Service category Criteria
• Structures or components designed for predominantly quasi-static actions only.
Examples include typical multi-level buildings, warehouses and storage facilities.
or
• Structures and components subject to low seismic demand (Categories 3, 4 systems
SC1
in New Zealand and earthquake design Categories I and II in Australia).
or
• Structures and components designed for low level fatigue actions where fatigue
assessment is not required.
• Structures and components with members and connections subject to fatigue
assessment in accordance with Section 13. [Examples include road and rail bridges,
cranes and immediate supporting structure (where supported off the building or
structure) and structures susceptible to vibrations produced by wind, crowds or
vibrating machinery.]
SC2
or
• Structures and connections subject to medium to high seismic demand
(Categories 1, 2 systems in New Zealand and earthquake design Category III in
Australia).
L3.4 Fabrication category

The selected fabrication category reflects the complexity of the fabrication inherent in the
structure or parts of the structure. The fabrication category is selected based on Table L2.
The structure or part of the structure can contain components or structural details that are
categorized under different fabrication categories.
TABLE L2
SUGGESTED CRITERIA FOR FABRICATION CATEGORIES
Fabrication category Criteria
• Non-welded components manufactured from any steel grade products.
FC1 • Welded components manufactured from steel grade components less than or equal
to Grade 450.
• Welded components manufactured from steel above Grade 450.
• Site welded components essential for structural integrity.
FC2
• Components receiving thermic treatment during manufacturing.
• Components of CHS trusses requiring end profile cuts.
L4 DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTRUCTION CATEGORY

The construction category may be determined by the following process:
(a) Selection of the building or structure importance level, from the National
Construction Code (for projects in Australia covered by the NCC) or Section 3
AS/NZS 1170.0, (for projects in New Zealand or projects in Australia not covered by
the NCC).
(b) Selection of the service category (see Table L1).
(c) Selection of the fabrication category (see Table L2).
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325 AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
(d) Determination of the construction category from Table L3 (for Australia) or Table L4
(for New Zealand).
TABLE L3
RISK MATRIX FOR DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTRUCTION CATEGORY
(FOR AUSTRALIA)
Importance level 1 2 3 4
Service categories SC1 SC2 SC1 SC2 SC1 SC2 SC1 SC2
Fabrication FC1 CC1 CC3 CC2 CC3 CC3 CC3 CC3 CC3
categories FC2 CC2 CC3 CC2 CC3 CC3 CC3 CC3 CC4
NOTES:
1 The determination of the construction category is the responsibility of the designer, taking national
provisions, published guidance from industry associations and the relevant Work, Health and Safety
regulations and codes of practice into account.
2 The requirements for CC4 are additional to CC3. The additional requirements are not fully defined in this
Standard. CC4 applies to unusual or special structures for which it is expected that requirements
additional to those for CC3 will be defined at a project -specific level or by a particular organization,
agency or business.
TABLE L4
RISK MATRIX FOR DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTRUCTION CATEGORY
(FOR NEW ZEALAND)
Importance level 1 2 3 and 4 (see Note 1)
Service categories SC1 SC2 SC1 SC2 SC1 SC2
Fabrication FC1 CC1 CC2 CC2 CC3 CC3 CC3

categories FC2 CC2 CC2 CC2 CC3 CC3 CC3
NOTES:
1 Importance Level 5 structures are outside the scope of this determination. Project specific requirements
should be determined for such structures.
2 Road and rail bridges with fracture critical components are CC4.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
AS/NZS
2312 Guide to the protection of structural steel against atmospheric corrosion by the
use of protective coatings
2312.1 Part 1: Paint coatings
2312.2 Part 2: Hot dip galvanizing
ISO
2394 General principles on reliability for structures
WTIA Welding Technology Institute of Australia
TGN-D-02 Introduction to Fatigue of Welded Steel Structures and Post-Weld Improvement
Techniques
Key, P.W. and Syam, A.A., Tubular Design Guide, Australian Steel Institute, 2014.
Hobbacher, A.F., Hicks, S.J., Karpenko, M., Thole, F. and Uy, B., Transfer of Australasian
bridge design to fatigue verification system of Eurocode 3, Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, Volume 122, July 2016, pp 532–542, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2016.03.023
PD 6695-1-9 Recommendations for the design of structures to BS EN 1993-1-9.
HERA Report R4-133:2011.
APPENDIX A
1 Barsoum, R.S. and Gallagher, R.H., Finite Element Analysis of Torsional and
Torsional Flexural Stability Problems, International Journal for Numerical Methods
in Engineering, Vol. 2, 1970, pp 335–352.
2 Hancock, G.J. and Trahair, N.S., Finite Element Lateral Buckling of Continuously
Restrained Beam-Columns, Civil Engineering Transactions, Institution of Engineers,
Australia, Vol. CE20, No. 2, 1978, pp 120–127.
3 Timoshenko, S.P. and Gere, J.M., Theory of Elastic Stability, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1961.
4 Column Research Committee of Japan, Handbook of Structural Stability, Corona,
Tokyo, 1971.
5 Structural Stability Research Council, Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal
Structures, 3rd ed, ed. B.G. Johnston, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1976.
6 Trahair, N.S., Behaviour and Design of Steel Structures, Chapman and Hall, London,
1977.
7 Nethercot, D.A., Elastic Lateral Buckling of Beams, Chapter 1 in Developments in
the Stability and Strength of Structures, Vol. 2, Beams and Beam-Columns, Applied
Science Publishers, 1983, pp 1–33.
8 Nethercot, D.A. and Rockey, K.C., A Unified Approach to the Elastic Lateral
Buckling of Beams, The Structural Engineer, Vol. 49, No. 7, July 1971, pp 321–330.
9 Nethercot, D.A. and Trahair, N.S., Lateral Buckling Approximations for Elastic
Beams, The Structural Engineer, Vol. 54, No. 6, June 1976, pp 197–204.
10 Trahair, N.S., Lateral Buckling of Overhanging Beams, Instability and Plastic
Collapse of Steel Structures, ed L.J. Morris, Granada, London 1983, pp 503–518.
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11 Bridge, R.Q. and Trahair, N.S., Bending, Shear and Torsion of Thin-Walled Beams,
Steel Construction, Vol. 15, No. 1, 1981, pp 2–18.
12 El Darwish, I.A. and Johnston, B.G., Torsion of Structural Shapes, Journal of the
Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 91, No. ST1, 1965, pp 203–228.
APPENDIX H
European Standards on design of steel structures
EN 1993-1-1:2005 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures—Part 1-1: General rules
and rules for buildings
EN 1993-1-3:2006 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures—Part 1-3: General rules—
Supplementary rules for cold-formed members and sheeting
EN 1993-1-12:2007 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures—Part 1-12: Additional
rules for the extension of EN 1993 up to steel grades S 700
European Standards on execution of steel structures
EN 1090-1:2009 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures—Part 1:
Requirements for conformity assessment of structural components
EN 1090-2:2008 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures—Part 2:
+A1:2011 Technical requirements for steel structures
European Standards steel materials
EN 10020:2000 Definition and classification of grades of steel
EN 10021:1993 General technical delivery requirements for steel and iron products
EN 10025-1:2004 Hot-rolled products of structural steels—Part 1: General technical
delivery conditions
EN 10025-2:2004 Hot-rolled products of structural steels—Part 2: Technical delivery
conditions for non-alloy structural steels
conditions for normalized/normalized rolled weldable fine grain
structural steels
conditions for thermomechanical rolled weldable fine grain
structural steels
conditions for structural steels with improved atmospheric
corrosion resistance
conditions for flat products of high yield strength structural steels
in the quenched and tempered condition
EN 10027-1:2005 Designation systems for steels—Part 1: Steel names
EN 10079:2007 Definition of steel products
EN 10149-1:1996 Specification for hot-rolled flat products made of high yield
strength steels for cold forming—Part 1: General delivery
conditions
strength steels for cold forming—Part 2: Delivery conditions for
thermomechanically rolled steels
strength steels for cold forming—Part 3. Delivery conditions for
normalized or normalized rolled steels
EN 10164:2004 Steel products with improved deformation properties
perpendicular to the surface of the product—Technical delivery
conditions
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European Standards on manufacturing tolerances

EN 10024:1995 Hot-rolled taper flange I sections—Tolerances on shape and
dimensions
EN 10029:1991 Specification for tolerances on dimensions, shape and mass for
hot-rolled steel plates 3 mm thick or above
EN 10034:1993 Structural steel I and H sections—Tolerances on shape and
dimensions
EN 10051:1992 Continuously hot-rolled uncoated plate, sheet and strip of non-
alloy and alloy steels—Tolerances on dimensions and shape
EN 10055:1996 Hot-rolled steel equal flange tees with radiused root and toes—
Dimensions and tolerances on shape and dimensions
EN 10056-2:1993 Specification for structural steel equal and unequal leg angles—
Part 2: Tolerances on shape and dimensions
EN 10279:2000 Hot-rolled steel channels—Tolerances on shape, dimension and
mass
European Standards on material testing
EN 1597-1:1997 Welding consumables—Test methods—Part 1: Test piece for all-
weld metal test specimens in steel, nickel and nickel alloys
EN ISO 6892-1:2009 Metallic materials—Tensile testing—Part 1: Method of test at
ambient temperature
EN 10045-1:1990 Charpy impact test on metallic materials—Part 1: Test method (V-
and U-notches)
EN 20898-2:1994 Mechanical properties of fasteners—Part 2: Nuts with specified
proof load values—Coarse thread
EN ISO 2566-1:1999 Steel—Conversion of elongation values—Part 1: Carbon and low
alloy steels
EN ISO 14284:2002 Steel and iron—Sampling and preparation of samples for the
determination of chemical composition
European Standards on inspection documents
EN 10168:2004 Steel products—Inspection documents—List of information and
description
EN 10204:2004 Metallic products—Types of inspection documents
Japanese Standards on design of steel structures
JSCE: 1997 Design Code for Steel Structures—Part A: Structures in General
JSCE: 1997 Design Code for Steel Structures—Part B: Composite Structures
Japanese Standards on steel material
JIS G 3101:2004 Rolled steels for general structure
JIS G 3106:2004 Rolled steels for welded structure
JIS G 3114:2008 Hot-rolled atmospheric corrosion resisting steels for welded
structure
JIS G 3128:1999 High yield strength steel plates for welded structure
JIS G 3131:2005 Hot-rolled mild steel plates, sheets and strip
JIS G 3136:2005 Rolled steels for building structure
Japanese Standards on manufacturing tolerances
JIS G 3191:2002 Dimensions, mass and permissible variations of hot-rolled steel
bars in coil
sections
plates, sheets and strip
JIS G 3194:1998 Dimensions, mass and permissible variations of hot-rolled flat
steel
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APPENDIX J
1 JIS Q 1001 Conformity assessment—Conformity assessment for Japanese Industrial
Standards—General guidance on a third-party certification system for products.
2 JIS Q 1013 Conformity assessment—Conformity assessment for Japanese Industrial
Standards—General guidance on a third-party certification system for steel products.
3 BC1, Design guide on use of alternative structural steel to BS 5950 and Eurocode 3.
BCA, Singapore, 2012.
4 Worldwide guide to equivalent irons and steels (Fifth edition), ASM International,
2006, Ohio, USA.
5 Kang W-H, Hicks S, Uy B. Safety factors for the resistance of steel sections.
Australian Journal of Structural Engineering. 2015. 16(2), pp. 116–128,
DOI:10.7158/S14-020.2015.16.2.
6 Uy B, Hicks S, Kang W-H. Australasian advances in steel & composite structures to
enhance cross-border practice. 17th ASEP International Convention (17AIC),
28–30 May 2015, Pasig City, Philippines.
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NOTES
331 AS/NZS 5100.6:2017
NOTES
AS/NZS 5100.6:2017 332
NOTES
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COPYRIGHT NOTICE & TERMS OF USE

SAI GLOBAL, Index House, Ascot, Berks, SL5 7EU, UK

SAI GLOBAL, 286 Sussex Street, Sydney NSW 2000, Australia

Australian/New Zealand Standard™

Part 6: Steel and composite

The following are represented on Committee BD-090:

Australian Industry Group

Keeping Standards up-to-date

Australian/New Zealand Standard™

Part 6: Steel and composite

SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

SECTION 3 GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

SECTION 4 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

SECTION 5 STEEL BEAMS

SECTION 6 COMPOSITE BEAMS

SECTION 7 BOX AND LONGITUDINALLY STIFFENED GIRDERS

SECTION 8 TRANSVERSE MEMBERS AND RESTRAINTS

SECTION 9 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO AXIAL TENSION

SECTION 10 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO AXIAL COMPRESSION

SECTION 11 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO COMBINED ACTIONS

SECTION 14 BRITTLE FRACTURE AND LAMELLAR TEARING

SECTION 15 TESTING OF STRUCTURES OR ELEMENTS

BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................... 326

STANDARDS AUSTRALIA/STANDARDS NEW ZEALAND

Australian/New Zealand Standard

Part 6: Steel and composite construction

SECTI ON 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

1.4 NORMATIVE REFERENCES

1.6 MATTERS FOR RESOLUTION BEFORE DESIGN COMMENCES

1.8 ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS—NEW ZEALAND ONLY

f a* total vertical stress in a bearing stiffener

f b* maximum longitudinal stress due to in-plane bending of an individual panel

f c* concrete compressive stress in regions of sagging moment

f f* longitudinal stress at mid-plane of the flange plate; or

f i* design stress range for loading event ‘i’

f n* design stress range for normal stresses

f q* stresses in diaphragm stiffeners

2.1 YIELD STRESS AND TENSILE STRENGTH USED IN DESIGN

2.2 STRUCTURAL STEEL

2.2.6 Through-thickness deformation properties

2.3 CONCRETE, REINFORCEMENT AND PRESTRESSING STEELS

2.6 WELDED STUD SHEAR CONNECTORS

2.7 STEEL CASTINGS

2.8 WROUGHT IRON

2.10 CAST IRON

2.11 DUCTILITY REQUIREMENTS

TABLE 2.1 (continued)

Thickness of Yield stress Tensile strength

SECTI ON 3 GENERAL DESIGN

3.2 DESIGN FOR ULTIMATE (STRENGTH) LIMIT STATE

TABLE 3.2 (continued)

3.3 DESIGN FOR SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE

3.3.7 Steel and cast iron components for bridge bearings

3.4 DESIGN FOR STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY BY LOAD TESTING

3.5 AVOIDANCE OF BRITTLE FRACTURE AND LAMELLAR TEARING

3.8 DESIGN FOR FIRE RESISTANCE

3.9 PARTICULAR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS—GENERAL

3.10 PARTICULAR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS—RAIL BRIDGES

3.10.6 Minimum moment on end connections in rail bridges

3.11 DESIGN FOR EARTHQUAKE

Au str ali a N ew Zea l an d

FIGURE 3.11 FLOWCHART FOR DESIGN OF STRUCTURES FOR EARTHQUAKES