SMART SAFETY MONITORING SYSTEM FOR

SEWAGE WORKERS WITH TWO WAY

COMMUNICATION
Abstract

Sewage system is an underground system of pipes commonly used to transport

waste water from homes and business either to a treatment facility, where the
water is treated and released into natural water bodies like lakes and streams or in
any river to permanently drain out from the area. Sewer manhole is one of the
most important parts of the sewer system. Sewer manhole is a structure through
which a person can gain access to the underground wastewater collection system.
Manholes are not designed for someone to work in regularly, but workers may
need to enter inside the manhole to complete their jobs such as cleaning, repair,
inspection etc.. A large number of sanitation workers die every year due to erratic
and lack of facilities available, and harmful toxic gases released while cleaning
the sewage. Real time health monitoring systems for such workers will prove
helpful. This real time health monitoring device will work in a sewage as a safety
equipment. In this paper, the device presented will monitor the pulse rate of a
person using a pulse oximetry sensor, the methane concentration and the
atmospheric oxygen concentration and provide alert to worker and exterior unit.
when parameters deviate from the safe range. This parameters in real time will
promptly alert the workers to stay safe and detect toxic gases before any harm.

Keywords: Toxic gases, communication, micro controller

 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

In industries , the toxic gas release and temperature increases in the working zone
are the major cause for the huge disasters .For example ,in the power plants there
is a possibility of increase of temperature and the toxic gas leakage which cause
the reactor to burst and damage the plant and harm the workers Protection
functions are normally separated from monitoring and control facilities in
traditional industrial and commercial power systems. They were designed by
different suppliers with separate databases and separate human–machine
interfaces. Today, communicating devices and computer software are available
that make it possible to integrate protection, monitoring, and control in a more
cost-effective system. The architecture of integrated systems makes it possible to
configure a system for one or more purpose. The architecture is easy to expand
the system after it has been installed to add more of the same functions or to add
additional functions. For example, it may be desirable to do monitoring at first
and add control later. It should be helpful when considering any new monitoring,
protection, or control system. Wireless sensor-based controls have drawn industry
attention on account of reduced costs, better power management, ease in
maintenance, and effortless. They have been successfully deployed in many
industrial applications such as maintenance, monitoring, control, security, etc. In
various industries ,the technological processes are conducted in the air of the
working zone and various toxic gases are released. For example, in air boilers it is
often possible to detect excess concentrations of carbon monoxide and nitrogen
oxides, and in the air of sewage pumping stations can repeatedly exceed the
maximum allowable concentration of ammonia. In flats or offices located on the
ground floor, the source of toxic substances in the air can be exhaust gases from
parked cars in the courtyard. The source of hydrogen sulfide, ammonia in flats
may be a faulty sewage system, and in new buildings from walls and ceilings,
ammonia can be released, which is used in construction to increase the frost
resistance of concrete. Many harmful substances do not have a smell and cannot
be felt, but in high concentrations affect health and

well-being. The method of monitoring the air state in continuous monitoring

system of harmful gases and vapors which deterUnder Drinages their
concentration. It is known that carbon monoxide is one of the most deadly
poisonous gases of all gases. It is often referred as “silent killer”. It is colorless,
tasteless and odorless compound . It is 200x stronger than oxygen. So it is
virtually not detectable without using detection technology and mostly people do
not realize they are being poisoned. On the other hand, measurement of ambient
temperature and object temperature can give us a better idea of a place without
going there. This paper exhibits the ideas of temperature detection, motion
detection and gas detection which is possible and will open a new possibility of
introducing modern technology to real life motion detection is a basic method to
identify moving object or person. It is a process of detecting the IR radiations
emitted by the object. Sewage Under Drinage safety problem is an important
problem to be resolved. In order to prevent the occurrence of Sewage Under
Drinage accidents, Sewage Under Drinage invested a lot of manpower, material
and financial resources to construct a variety of monitoring systems to monitor
various data about Sewage Under Drinage safety. Through these monitoring data,
Sewage Under Drinage safety can be judged. As one of the largest Sewage
production and consumption countries in the world, China is also one of the
related accidents occurred frequently countries such as gas explosion, flood,
breaking out of fire during the exploitation of Sewage Under Drinage. Sewage
Under Drinage Detection Robot can be substituted or partial substituted for
emergency workers to enter the Under Drinage shaft disaster site and detect
hazardous gas and do some environmental exploration . Under Drinage Detection
Robot uses gas sensor to absorption way to detect methane, carbon monoxide
gases. The surface of those places is uneven due to fallen trees and rocks, and
could be severely uneven and terrains were shaped by rain, roots of trees, rocks,
and other effects. Secondly, the size must be small enough to pass through
between rocks. In underground, Under Drinages are usually extensive
labyrinths ,in which the tunnels are generally long and narrow with a few
kilometers in length and a few meters in width. Thousands of Under Drinagers die
from mining accidents every year. It is now widely approved that the underground
mining operations are of high risk. However, underground Sewage Under
Drinages mainly consist of random passages , branch tunnel and toxic gases . In
order to avoid human to be exposed in such environment, robot systems have
been being developed for the last decade. This robot system has been built to be
used in real Under Drinagefields. In order to be suitable for Under Drinagefields,
the system must be faster than manual operation of human. Since the aim of this
system is development of a commercial Under Drinage detection robot system
must be faster than human. For a process system, alarm signals can be generated
in the respective controller system based on the information received from the
sensors as well as from other relevant devices. The process signal can represent
any measured signal of interest In such case, the utilization of a wireless sensor
network (WSN) and other sensing devices are used for realizing the automation of
underground monitoring. In this paper is that light weight sensor like temperature
sensor, gas sensor, noise sensor, metal sensor and PIR sensor are connected to
monitoring the environmental change in both the industry monitoring and Under
Drinage detection robot system and all the data are continuously monitor through
the web page. The main goal of the work is to develop the hardware and software
of the information- measuring system based on the inexpensive Arduino platform
which detects toxic gases and gas leakage in the air, when exceeding their
maximum permissible concentration in industries and Under Drinage fields and it
gives the output in web page along with alarm indication.

Using robots to assist rescue personnel in Under Drinage rescue missions is an

active area of research. We are going to develop a robot to send it into the Under
Drinage together information about the environment inside a Under Drinage and
to search for victims. Sewage Under Drinage is a dangerous place in which many
fatal factors are dangerous for human life, especially when blasts occur.

Rescue persons usually don't know the actual situation of the Under Drinage
tunnel under such circumstances. Therefore it can be very dangerous for rescuers
to go into Under Drinage tunnels to search survivors without detecting
environmental information beforehand. To solve this problem, the Sewage Under
Drinage detect and rescue robot can be

developed for assisting people to do the rescue work.

The Sewage Under Drinage detect and rescue robot is used for detecting the
explosion environment of Sewage Under Drinage and rescuing Under Drinagers
who are trapped in the underground Sewage Under Drinage after gas explosion.
We will develop prototype of a fully autonomous robot which can be used to
indicate presence of harmful gases inside a Under Drinage for Under Drinage
rescue operations in case of emergencies caused by natural calamities such as
explosion. Sewage Under Drinage rescue robot is a kind of mobile robot. It can go
into explosion environment and detect gas content. This paper designs a Sewage
Under Drinage detect and rescue robot. It has many characters suitable to Under
Drinage tunnel. It is composed of mechanical, electrical, computer, control,
communication, sensor, etc. There are three major parts in constructing the robot
and they are mechanical, electronic and software design. In this paper, the
implementation of embedded control system based on the microprocessor is
presented. The embedded control system can achieve many tasks of the robot,
such as motion control, environmental information acquisition communication
with the remote control system and executing complex control algorithms.

Added to the above reasons is the problem of spontaneous combustion, which is

more common in Indian SewageUnder Drinages. This is the case especially with
the Jharia Sewage fields, where millions of ton of Sewage is burnt underground.
Spontaneous combustion, if not detected in the early stages, could be very fatal
both in terms of material loss as well as loss of life. The major problems
encountered while working underground are confined space, high heat and
humidity, unpleasant atmosphere and most importantly poor lighting conditions.
These conditions are worsened immediately after an accident thereby making it
difficult for rescue personnel to enter the accident zones and carry out the rescue
operations on time. Owing to the high concentration of dust and smoke that fills
up the atmosphere immediately after an accident, it is nearly impossible for the
rescue team to proceed forward as they are virtually blinded with the thick cloud
of dust. Therefore until the smoke and dust settles down, the rescue operations
come to a standstill, where the first few critical hours are lost. In case of Sewage
Under Drinages, noxious gases are present in the atmosphere and also, there are
chances of second explosions due to Sewage-dust or firedamp, thus rendering the
situation even more dangerous. It is in such situations that the contribution of
mobile subterranean robot becomes invaluable. Irrespective of the atmosphere,
the robot can be put into action immediately after an accident and comes handy
during surveillance of panels sealed in Sewage Under Drinages on account of
spontaneous combustion. The application of robots have saved over 800 lives all
over the world in various sectors and when such technology is adopted in
underground Under Drinages, the number can rise manifold. The robot could also
be used for 3-D mapping of the Under Drinage and collecting valuable data from
inaccessible locations. This paper describes some recent works in the field of
Under Drinage rescue robots, the on-going research in the field along with
highlighting the requirements of rescue robots and the problems faced by them
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

TITLE: LIGHT WEIGHT MASHUP MIDDLEWARE FOR SEWAGE SAFETY

MONITORING ANDCONTROL

AUTOMATION AUTHOR : BOCHENG,SHUAI ZHAO The main objective of this paper is to

improve the Sewage Under Drinage monitoring and control automation by using the zigbee
wireless sensor network (WSN) and open service gateway initiative based on uniform device
access with the help of visualization technology and analyzed the data with an efficient cost.

TITLE : A COST EFFECTIVE WAY TO BUILD A WEB CONTROLLED SEARCH AND

CO DETECTOR ROVER

AUTHOR : ALI ADIB ARNAB This paper describes the combination of surveillance, motion
detection and poisonous gas detection. It detects the presence of carbon monoxide gas in order
to prevent the carbon monoxide poisoning in small area , cave ,Under Drinage in an area of
hazardous accident .It also includes detecting movements , distance and temperature and
enhanced with the robotic setup.

TITLE: DEVELOPMENT OF ARDUINO BASED EMBEDDED SYSTEM FOR

DETECTION OF TOXIC GASES IN

AIR AUTHOR : ANDIRY HOLOVATYY In this paper the device monitor the real time
monitoring system and detects the concentration of toxic gases and vapor in air ,when the
system changes its state the device gave the output as alarm and the alarm message to the LCD
module and also sends SMS to the mobile device via GSM module.

TITLE: ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIROMENTAL OF INDUSTRIAL FREQUENCY

INTELLIGENT MONITORING SYSTEM IN CITY

AUTHOR : PING LIU This system is used to monitor the electromagnetic environment of
industrial frequency in city for eliminating industrial frequency radiation harm to peoples .It
automatically acquire , analyses the measured data and interfaced with PC this system can
operate normally in wicked environment and is low loss of power rating and it is fit for
distributed and remote monitoring.

TITLE: MONITORING AND ALARM SYSTEM FOR SEWAGE WORKER SAFETY

BASED ON THE WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK

AUTHOR : JIANMIN WANG This paper is describes the monitoring of Sewage Under
Drinage safety based on wireless network For the purpose of meeting the requirements of
monitoring the signals ,nRF2401 is used for short range wireless communication and GPRS is
used for the long distance wireless communication MSP430F149 microprocessor is used to find
the disaster happen in Sewage Under Drinages and uses the GPRS to transmit the SMS to the
Under Drinage command center

According to Robin R. Murphy, 2001, rescue robots can be classified into four major types as
follows: x Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGVs)- UGVs work on the ground surface and can
assist rescuers find and interact with trapped victims, in areas were it is dangerous or difficult
for rescue personnel to enter. x Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs)- USVs float on the surface
of water, and can help rescuers to locate and bring the right equipment to the victims. x
Unmanned Underwater Vehicles (UUVs)- UUVs have the ability to search through water and
identify fatalities, hazardous subject or material. x Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)- UAVs
work without any contact with ground surface and can help in transporting medical aids to
victims and to present a rough scenario of the accident site to the rescue team. An efficient
robot for underground rescue operations should be a combination of all the above four types to
tackle with different situations existing in a disaster prone Under Drinage. However, this paper
only deals with the UGVs. Some of the notable examples from the past are described below.

The Under Drinage Health and Safety Administration (MHSA), USA, acquired the Wolverine
robot (Figure.1) in 2001 from Remotec (B. Bharathi, 2013). It was a military robot, which used
to serve as a traditional bomb squad robot and has been made Under Drinage permissible. It
consists of a gas sensor input for continuous sampling and three cameras with remote display
for the operator and is remotely operated by a fibre optic tether. It is designed to be operated
from a safe place with a range of 5000 ft and transmit valuable data along with a live video
feed. The robot is 1.27 m tall, 0.76 m wide and weighs approximately 550kg. Total cost was
approximated to be $2,80,000. It was not easily deployable owing to its heavy weight and the
use of a fibre cable for communications. It has been deployed in a few Under Drinage disasters
although it did not the serve the purpose it was designed for.

Sandia Laboratories developed the Gemini scout (Figure.2) for the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) (Raghuram et al, 2012). It is a Sewage Under
Drinage specific development that is 0.6 m tall and 1.2 m long. The Gemini-Scout is equipped
with gas sensors, a thermal camera to locate survivors and another higher mounted pan-and-tilt
camera to spot obstacles and the continuous gas monitoring information is wirelessly fed back
to the operator along with colour imagery, and stereo camera depth information. It is
lightweight enough to crawl over boulders and rubble piles and strong enough to withstand the
pressures found underground. It is intrinsically safe, and thus allowed to operate in hazardous
Under Drinage environments (R. P. Chatterjee et al, 2009). The articulated body and rubber
tracks enable it to tackle very rough terrain. The robot is guided by remote control and to make
the control system as intuitive and easy to learn as possible, the engineers used an Xbox 360
game controller. Three units were manufactured and it has never been operationally deployed.

[1]The system which is already existing contain intelligent server management but does not
contains efficient implementation. In this system, the robustness is an important issue. The
departure of nodes may cause destruction of subnetworks. S0 improvement of the robustness is
very much needed.

[2]Here the authors flourished a mathematical model for solar energy harvesting. In [2] it was
proposed that during the transmission of data there would be electro magnetic energy is
produced. So the devices in the network should share this electromagnetic energy .But resource
allocation and interference management rises a challenging tasks. Also the proximity which can
be covered in transmission by user due to low energy emitted.
[3]The Seebeck effect is an effect when there is temperature difference between two electrical
conductors which are dissimilar produces a difference in voltage between twoconductors. AS
we have already discussed, Sewage Under Drinages are the hottest spots, this heat energy is
utilized for the production of power supply for this robots. With the principle of seebeck effect,
the heat energy can be converted into electrical energy which can be used as a part of the power
supply.

[4]IOT refers to the internet of things. The Internet of things is the network of physical devices,
embedded with electronics, and sensors, which enables the objects to connect and exchange
data. This device collect the useful data with the help of various technologies such as sensors
and then autonomously flow the data between other devices.To implement internet of things in
Under Drinages is a complicated process. Under this architecture , all the sensor nodes produces
huge amount of data while monitoring system is an important factor in it.At present, large
system includes C-S framework which is used in development and maintenance of LAN.

[5]Robotic arm can be controlled according the action of hand. The ARDUINO UNO and
NUC140VE3CN were used to process the sensed signal and control the robotic arm without
any wire. This design can be used in the dangerous operation environment. But the drawback is
that gesture control is not implemented in a proper way.so failure of signal May leads to
breakdown of the system.

In [6]many researches are involved in many hardware such as UAV and internet of things
devices. They were combined with software tools like ROS and opens, to create a open source
interface which can able to reduce the communication schemes. The intermediate software
layer is communicated with the devices via COA protocol

In [7] the paper is presented with pick and place robotic arm vehicle. The soft-catching gripper
is present in this robotic arm. Designing of robot in such a way that it should not put extra
pressure on the targeted object due to safety purposes. This type of robot is suitable for working
in all types of polluted environments, chemical as well as nuclear.

In [8], the design of a gesture controlled anthropomorphic robotic arm is proposed. The
proposed system consists of 4 movable finger like structure. Here hand glove is used. So the
movement is possible with the help of the hand glove. Finger movements are achieved with the
help of potentiometers while the wrist and elbow movements are achieved with the help of
accelerometers. The servomotors act as a actuators for robotic arm .A wireless module is used
to control a robotic arm from distant location. Low cost aluminium sheet is used for its
construction. Since the finger has three linkages, its movement is similar to human finger.
Hinge joint is used to connect opposite finger with the joint. Plywood is attached to its base.The
triple axis accelerometer and five linear slide potentiometers were used to control the
movement of the hand.RF transmitter and receiver circuit is used to control the robotic arm
wirelessly from distant location. This project can be implemented for long distance
communication a zigbee or other protocols are used by alternate for RF module.

EXISTING METHOD

POWER
LCD
SUPPLY

Motion
Sensor MICROCONTROLLER

(ATMEGA 8)

RS 232

ZIGBEE
EXISTING SYSTEM DISADVANTAGE

• The current system used in detection of Under Drinage safety include

sensors which are incorporated in a room or other area.

• Sensor Datas are monitored using Wires or LAN

• Not suitable for all regions

• Application is less

• No remedial measures undertaken by the system by itself

 CHAPTER 3

PROPOSED SYSTEM

PROPOSED SYSTEM

• Here the system uses sensor to detect gases, Fire and earthquake or
vibration

• The signals from the sensors in robot are fed to the adc of the
microcontroller where the analog to digital conversion takes place

• The parameters are sent via the esp8266 through which we can monitor it
remotely via wifi in IOT

• Incase of any increased toxic air concentration, the microcontroller will

switch a relay system that runs alert to control room through IOT from
Rescue Robot
BLOCK DIAGRAM

POWER RF signal
TX
SUPPLY module

ESP 8266
LCD
Micro
HB sensor display
controller

Air quality
sensor Buzze
r

Temperature
sensor

BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

The block diagram includes air quality sensors which sense hazardous gases like
CO, hydrogen sulphide, methane. A better knowledge related to hazards in the
surroundings is necessary for the prevention of poisoning of gases. These gases
have to be keep on track so that enormous rise in the normal level of effluents
should be known and corrective measures can be taken. In contrary, the existing
systems available are not much portable and are not affordable. In the previous
the designed Surveillance rover detects the presence of CO gas for monitoring
system. The device consists of a processing section which takes input, processes it
and provides output. This system requires base station should near to the sensors.
In our project an embedded system is designed with Arduino MC and various gas
sensors for the purpose of detection and altering that helps in eliminating the lives
of human which is being endangered. The system is affordable to implement at
well-defined monitored.In the existing system, a number of jobs related with gas
detection and ensure security system. It has been implemented among these some
were theoretical research approach and some were demonstrated in practical field
to detect the gas but both approaches were effective manhole gas sensing unit has
been developed which is capable to detect the toxic and explosive gases
individually within a minute and LCD Display. Harmful gases like CO detection,
Methane gas detection, Hydrogen Sulphide gas detection these gases are very
toxic to the human, Heart Beat sensor this will be fixed on the workers hand
watch and message will be sends to outside workers and Municipal Officers by
using IOT.

DISADVANTAGE

• Not suitable for all regions

• Application is less

• No remedial measures undertaken by the system by itself

ADVANTAGE

• Here the system uses sensor to detect gases and fire or abnormal water

• The signals from the sensors are fed to the adc of the microcontroller where
the analog to digital conversion takes place

• The parameters are sent via the RF transmitter through which we can
monitor it remotely via RF signal
APPLICATION

• Sewage workers

• Under drainage work

• Industrial works

• Research labs air concentration control

 CHAPTER 4

HARDWARE DISCRIPTION

POWER SUPPLY

Fig 3.2: Block diagram of power supply

The given block diagram includes following:

Transformer: A transformer is an electro-magnetic static device,

which transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another, either at
the same voltage or at different voltage but at the same frequency.
Rectifier: The function of the rectifier is to convert AC to DC current
or voltage. Usually in the rectifier circuit full wave bridge rectifier is
used.

Filter: The Filter is used to remove the pulsated AC. A filter circuit
uses capacitor and inductor. The function of the capacitor is to block
the DC voltage and bypass the AC voltage. The function of the inductor
is to block the AC voltage and bypass the DC voltage.

Voltage Regulator: Voltage regulator constitutes an indispensable part

of the power supply section of any electronic systems. The main
advantage of the regulator ICs is that it regulates or maintains the
output constant, in spite of the variation in the input supply.

IC Voltage Regulators
• Regulation circuits in integrated circuit form are widely used.
• Their operation is no different but they are treated as a single
device with associated components.
• These are generally three terminal devices that provide a positive
or negative output.
• Some types have variable voltage outputs.
• A typical 7800 series voltage regulator is used for positive
voltages.
• The 7900 series are negative voltage regulators.
• These voltage regulators when used with heatsinks can safely
produce current values of 1A and greater.
• The capacitors act as line filtration.
• Several types of both linear (series and shunt) and switching
regulators are available in integrated circuit (IC) form.
• Single IC regulators contain the circuitry for:
• reference source
• comparator amplifier
• control device
• overload protection
• Generally, the linear regulators are three-terminal devices that
provides either positive or negative output voltages that can be
either fixed or adjustable
Fixed Voltage Regulator
• The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage Vi
applied to one input terminal, a regulated output dc voltage Vo
from a second terminal, and the third terminal connected to
ground.
• The series 78XX regulators are the three-terminal devices that
provide a fixed positive output voltage.
 MICROCONTROLLER – ATMEGA 8

Features

• High-performance, Low-power AVR®

- 8-bit Microcontroller

• Advanced RISC Architecture

– 130 Powerful Instructions – Most Single-clock Cycle Execution

– 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers

– Fully Static Operation

– Up to 16 MIPS Throughput at 16 MHz

– On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier

• High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments

– 8K Bytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program

memory

– 512 Bytes EEPROM

– 1K Byte Internal SRAM

– Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM

– Data retention: 20 years at 85°C/100 years at 25°C (1)

– Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits

• In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program

– True Read-While-Write Operation

– Programming Lock for Software Security

• Peripheral Features

– Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler, one compare

•Six Channels 10-bit Accuracy

– Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface

– Programmable Serial USART

– Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface

– Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip

•Oscillator

– On-chip Analog Comparator

•Special Microcontroller Features

– Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection

– Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator

– External and Internal Interrupt Sources

– Five Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save

•I/O and Packages

– 23 Programmable I/O Lines

– 28-lead PDIP, 32-lead TQFP, and 32-pad QFN/MLF

•Operating Voltages
– 2.7 - 5.5V (ATmega8L)

– 4.5 - 5.5V (ATmega8)

•Power Consumption at 4 Mhz, 3V, 25°C

– Active: 3.6 mA

– Idle Mode: 1.0 mA

– Power-down Mode: 0.5 µA

Pin Configurations

The ATmega8 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on

the AVR RISC architecture.

By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the

ATmega8 achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz,
allowing the system designer to optimize power consumption versus
processing speed.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Pin Descriptions

VCC :-Digital supply voltage.

GND:- Ground.

Port B(PC7..PB0) :- is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal

pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port B output buffers have
symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will
source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are
tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,even if the clock is not
running.

Port C (PC5..PC0) :- Port C is an 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with

internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port C output
buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low
will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins
are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is
not running.
Port D (PD7..PD0) :- Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with
internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port D output
buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low
will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins
are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,even if the clock is
not running.

RESET (Reset input):- A low level on this pin for longer than the
minimum pulse length will generate a reset, even if the clock is not
running. The Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a reset.

AVCC:- AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, Port C
(3..0), and ADC (7..6). It should be externally connected to VCC, even
if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected to
VCC through a low-pass filter.

AREF:- AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.These
pins are powered from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC
channels.
Basic Function:- The main function of the CPU core is to ensure
correct program execution. The CPU must therefore be able to access
memories,

In order to maximize performance and parallelism, the AVR uses a

Harvard architecture with separate memories and buses for program
and data.

Instructions in the Program memory are executed with a single level

pipelining. While one instruction is being executed, the next instruction
is pre-fetched from the Program memory. This concept enables
instructions to be executed in every clock cycle.

The Program memory is In-System Reprogrammable Flash

memory.The fast-access Register File contains 32 x 8-bit general
purpose working registers with a single clock cycle access time. This
allows single-cycle Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) operation. In a typical
ALU operation, two operands are output from the Register File, the
operation is executed, and the result is stored back in the Register File
in one clock cycle.
Six of the 32 registers can be used as three 16-bit indirect address
register pointers for Data Space addressing enabling efficient address
calculations. One of the these address pointers can also be used as an
address pointer for look up tables in Flash Program memory. These
added function registers are the 16-bit X, Y and Z-register.The ALU
supports arithmetic and logic operations between registers or between a
constant and a register. Single register operations can also be executed
in the ALU.After an arithmetic operation, the Status Register is updated
to reflect information about the result of the operation.The Program
flow is provided by conditional and unconditional jump and call
instructions, able to directly address the whole address space. Most
AVR instructions have a single 16-bit word format. Every Program
memory address contains a 16- or 32-bit instruction.

Program Flash memory space is divided in two sections, the Boot

program section and the Application program section. Both sections
have dedicated Lock Bits for write and read/write protection. The SPM
instruction that writes into the Application Flash memory section must
reside in the Boot program section.During interrupts and subroutine
calls, the return address Program Counter (PC) is stored on the Stack.
The Stack is effectively allocated in the general data SRAM, and
consequently the Stack size is only limited by the total SRAM size and
the usage of the SRAM. All user programs must initialize the SP in the
reset routine (before subroutines or interrupts are executed). The Stack
Pointer SP is read/write accessible in the I/O space.The data SRAM can
easily be accessed through the five different addressing modes
supported in the AVR architecture.The memory spaces in the AVR
architecture are all linear and regular memory maps.

A flexible interrupt module has its control registers in the I/O

space with an additional global interrupt enable bit in the Status
Register. All interrupts have a separate Interrupt Vector in the Interrupt
Vector table. The interrupts have priority in accordance with their
Interrupt Vector position. The lower the Interrupt Vector address, the
higher the priority.The I/O memory space contains 64 addresses for
CPU peripheral functions as Control Registers, SPI, and other I/O
functions. The I/O Memory can be accessed directly, or as the Data
Space locations following those of the Register File, 0x20 - 0x5F.
LCD
Liquid-crystal display

Fig 4.5 Pin Diagram of LCD

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other

electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating
properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly,
instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or
monochrome.. LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a
general-purpose computer display) or fixed images with low
information content, which can be displayed or hidden, such as preset
words, digits, and 7-segment displays, as in a digital clock. They use
the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of
a large number of small pixels, while other displays have larger
elements.
LCDs are used in a wide range of applications including computer
monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and
indoor and outdoor signage. Small LCD screens are common in
portable consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches,
calculators, and mobile telephones, including smartphones. LCD
screens are also used on consumer electronics products such as DVD
players, video game devices and clocks. LCD screens have replaced
heavy, bulky cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in nearly all applications.
LCD screens are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT
and plasma displays, with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from
tiny digital watches to huge, big-screen television set.

Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they do not suffer image
burn-in when a static image is displayed on a screen for a long time
(e.g., the table frame for an aircraft schedule on an indoor sign). LCDs
are, however, susceptible to image persistence.. The LCD screen is
more energy-efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT
can. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in
battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently than CRTs can
be. By 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded
sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most
purposes.
Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned
between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters (parallel
and perpendicular), the axes of transmission of which are (in most of
the cases) perpendicular to each other. Without the liquid crystal
between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter
would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. Before an electric
field is applied, the orientation of the liquid-crystal molecules is
deterUnder Drinaged by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a
twisted nematic (TN) device, the surface alignment directions at the
two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules
arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This induces the
rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears
gray. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules
in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the
polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the
liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized
perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel
will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid
crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in
varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray. Color LCD
systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red,
green, and blue pixelsThe optical effect of a TN device in the voltage-
on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than
that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low
information content and no backlighting are usually operated between
crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye
is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright
state). As most of 2010-era LCDs are used in television sets, monitors
and smartphones, they have high-resolution matrix arrays of pixels to
display arbitrary images using backlighting with a dark background.
When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used. For this
purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas
IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers. In many applications IPS LCDs
have replaced TN LCDs, in particular in smartphones such as iPhones.
Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain
ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied
for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces
and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by
applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the
electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid
crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).

Displays for a small number of individual digits or fixed symbols (as in

digital watches and pocket calculators) can be implemented with
independent electrodes for each segment. In contrast, full alphanumeric
or variable graphics displays are usually implemented with pixels
arranged as a matrix consisting of electrically connected rows on one
side of the LC layer and columns on the other side, which makes it
possible to address each pixel at the intersections. The general method
of matrix addressing consists of sequentially addressing one side of the
matrix, for example by selecting the rows one-by-one and applying the
picture information on the other side at the columns row-by-row. For
details on the various matrix addressing schemes see Passive-matrix
and active-matrix addressed LCDs

Reflective twisted nematic liquid crystal display.

1. Polarizing filter film with a vertical axis to polarize light as it
enters.
2. Glass substrate with ITO electrodes. The shapes of these
electrodes will deterUnder Drinage the shapes that will appear
when the LCD is switched ON. Vertical ridges etched on the
surface are smooth.

3. Twisted nematic liquid crystal.

4. Glass substrate with common electrode film (ITO) with horizontal

ridges to line up with the horizontal filter.
5. Polarizing filter film with a horizontal axis to block/pass light.

6. Reflective surface to send light back to viewer. (In a backlit LCD,

this layer is replaced with a light source.)

IOT- ESP8266

The IoT allows objects to be sensed or controlled remotely across existing network
infrastructure, creating opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into
computer-based systems, and resulting in improved efficiency, accuracy and economic
benefit in addition to reduced human intervention. When IoT is augmented with sensors and
actuators, the technology becomes an instance of the more general class of cyberphysical
system, which also encompasses technologies such as smart grids, virtual power plants,
smart homes and smart cities. Each thing is uniquely identified through its embedded
computing system but is able to interoperate within the existing internet infrastructure.

People also want to communicate with all non-living things through internet such as home
appliances, furniture’s, stationeries, cloths etc. The people already have a lot of technologies
to interact with living things butIoT enables to communicate with non-living things with
comfort manner. IoT is a convergence of several technologies like ubiquitous, pervasive
computing, Ambient Intelligence, Sensors, Actuators, Communications technologies,
Internet Technologies, Embedded systems etc.

This is WiFi serial transceiver module, based on ESP8266 SoC., The SOC has Integrated
TCP/IP protocol stack. ESP8266 is a highly integrated chip designed for the needs of a new
connected world. It offers a complete and self-contained Wi-Fi networking solution,
allowing it to either host the application or to offload all Wi-Fi networking functions from
another application processor.

ESP8266 has powerful on-board processing and storage capabilities that allow it to be
integrated with the sensors and other application specific devices through its GPIOs with
minimal development up-front and minimal loading during runtime. Its high degree of on-
chip integration allows for minimal external circuitry, and the entire solution, including
front-end module, is designed to occupy minimal PCB area.
Corresponding Interface:

• SDIO 2.0, SPI, UART

• 32-pin QFN package

• Integrated RF switch, balun, 24dBm PA, DCXO, and PMU

• Integrated RISC processor, on-chip memory and external memory interfaces

• Integrated MAC/baseband processors

• Quality of Service management

• I2S interface for high fidelity audio applications

• On-chip low-dropout linear regulators for all internal supplies

• Proprietary spurious-free clock generation architecture

• Integrated WEP, TKIP, AES, and WAPI engines

Specification:

• 802.11 b/g/n

• Wi-Fi Direct (P2P), soft-AP

• Integrated TCP/IP protocol stack

• Integrated TR switch, balun, LNA, power amplifier and matching network

• Integrated PLLs, regulators, DCXO and power management units

• +19.5dBm output power in 802.11b mode

• Power down leakage current of <10uA

• Integrated low power 32-bit CPU could be used as application processor

• SDIO 1.1/2.0, SPI, UART

 • STBC, 1×1 MIMO, 2×1 MIMO

• A-MPDU & A-MSDU aggregation & 0.4ms guard interval

• Wake up and transmit packets in < 2ms

• Standby power consumption of < 1.0mW (DTIM3)

GAS SENSOR

In current technology scenario, monitoring of gases produced is very important. From home
appliances such as air conditioners to electric chimneys and safety systems at industries
monitoring of gases is very crucial. Gas sensors are very important part of such systems. Small
like a nose, gas sensors spontaneously react to the gas present, thus keeping the system updated
about any alterations that occur in the concentration of molecules at gaseous state.

Gas sensors are available in wide specifications depending on the sensitivity levels, type of gas
to be sensed, physical dimensions and numerous other factors. This Insight covers a methane
gas sensor that can sense gases such as ammonia which might get produced from methane.
When a gas interacts with this sensor, it is first ionized into its constituents and is then adsorbed
by the sensing element. This adsorption creates a potential difference on the element which is
conveyed to the processor unit through output pins in form of current. What is this sensing
element? Is it kept in some chamber or is kept exposed? How does it get current and how it is
taken out? Let’s find out in this Insight!!!
The gas sensor module consists of a steel exoskeleton under which a sensing element is
housed. This sensing element is subjected to current through connecting leads. This current is
known as heating current through it, the gases coming close to the sensing element get ionized
and are absorbed by the sensing element. This changes the resistance of the sensing element
which alters the value of the current going out of it.
 Image01

Image 01 shows externals of a standard gas sensor module: a steel mesh, copper clamping ring
and connecting leads. The top part is a stainless steel mesh which takes care of the following:
{C}{C}{C}{C}1. {C}{C}{C}{C}Filtering out the suspended particles so that only gaseous
elements are able to pass to insides of the sensor.

{C}{C}{C}{C}2. {C}{C}{C}{C}Protecting the insides of the sensor.

{C}{C}{C}{C}3. {C}{C}{C}{C}Exhibits an anti explosion network that keeps the sensor
module intact at high temperatures and gas pressures.

In order to manage above listed functions efficiently, the steel mesh is made into two layers.
The mesh is bound to rest of the body via a copper plated clamping ring.
 image 2

The connecting leads of the sensor are thick so that sensor can be connected firmly to the circuit
and sufficient amount of heat gets conducted to the inside part. They are casted from copper
and have tin plating over them. Four of the six leads (A, B, C, D) are for signal fetching while
two (1,2) are used to provide sufficient heat to the sensing element.

The pins are placed on a Bakelite base which is a good insulator and provides firm gripping to
the connecting leads of the sensor.

Gas sensor measure and indicate the concentration of certain gases in an air via
different technologies. Typically employed to prevent toxic exposure and fire, gas
detectors are often battery operated devices used for safety purposes. They are
manufactured as portable or stationary (fixed) units and work by signifying high
levels of gases through a series of audible or visible indicators, such as alarms,
lights or a combination of signals. While many of the older, standard gas detector
units were originally fabricated to detect one gas, modern multifunctional or
multi-gas devices are capable of detecting several gases at once. Some detectors
may be utilized as individual units to monitor small workspace areas, or units can
be combined or linked together to create a protection system.

As detectors measure a specified gas concentration, the sensor response serves as

the reference point or scale. When the sensors response surpasses a certain pre-set
level, an alarm will activate to warn the user. There are various types of detectors
available and the majority serves the same function: to monitor and warn of a
dangerous gas level. However, when considering what type of detector to install,
it is helpful to consider the different sensor technologies.

Gas Detector Technologies

Gas detectors are categorized by the type of gas they detect: combustible or toxic.
Within this broad categorization, they are further defined by the technology they
use: catalytic and infrared sensors detect combustible gases and electrochemical
and metal oxide semiconductor technologies generallydetect toxic gases .
Measurement of Toxic Gases

Electrochemical sensors or cells are most commonly used in the detection of toxic
gases like carbon monoxide, chlorine and nitrogen oxides. They function via
electrodes signals when a gas is detected. Generally, these types of detectors are
highly sensitive and give off warning signals via electrical currents. Various
manufacturers produce these detectors with a digital display.

Metal Oxide Semiconductors, or MOS, are also used for detecting toxic gases
(commonly carbon monoxide) and work via a gas sensitive film that is composed
of tin or tungsten oxides. The sensitive film reacts with gases, triggering the
device when toxic levels are present. Generally, metal oxide sensors are
considered efficient due their ability to operate in low-humidity ranges. In
addition, they are able to detect a range of gases, including combustibles.

Measurement of Combustible Gases

Catalytic sensors represent a large number of gas detector devices that are
manufactured today. This technology is used to detect combustible gases such as
hydrocarbon, and works via catalytic oxidation. The sensors of this type of
detector are typically constructed from a platinum treated wire coil. As a
combustible gas comes into contact with the catalytic surface, it is oxidized and
the wiring resistance is changed by heat that is released. A bridge circuit is
typically used to indicate the resistance change.

Infrared sensors or IR detectors work via a system of transmitters and receivers to

detect combustible gases, specifically hydrocarbon vapors. Typically, the
transmitters are light sources and receivers are light detectors. If a gas is present
in the optical path, it will interfere with the power of the light transmission
between the transmitter and receiver. The altered state of light deterUnder
Drinages if and what type of gas is present.

Common Gas Detector Applications

Although detectors are an essential application for home and commercial safety,
they are also employed in numerous industrial industries. Gas detectors are used
in welding shops to detect combustibles and toxics and in nuclear plants, to detect
combustibles. They are also commonly used to detect hazardous vapors in
wastewater treatment plants.

Gas detectors are very efficient in confined spaces where there is no continuous
employee occupancy. Such spaces include tanks, pits, vessels and storage bins.
Detectors may also be placed at a site to detect toxins prior to occupant entry.

Additional Gas Detector Information:

Although gas detectors are generally a reliable technology, with some models
capable of lasting up to five years, their proper function is generally dependent on
user maintenance, battery inspection and calibration. Calibration is a safety
procedure executed to ensure that detectors are measuring the correct level of gas.
In addition, the life-span of gas detectors also often depends on the amount of gas
vapors to which they are exposed. Contaminated sensors may not register
dangerous gas levels, which is why frequent calibration is essential
VIBRATION SENSOR

This Normally open vibration sensor module is for a variety of vibration trigger function,
reported theft alarm, smart car, electronic building blocks and so on. Please note that Normally
open vibration sensor module in the induction of a small vibration when the trigger time is very
short, not enough to drive the relay, some of the information display can be directly connected
to the relay module, the actual use of ineffective.

When the product does not shake, the vibration switch is held in off state, the output is high and
the green light does not shine and when the product vibrates, the vibration switch goes in
momentary conduction mode, the output end of the output goes low and the green indicator
light-up.

Output can be directly connected to the microcontroller through the microcontroller to detect
high and low levels, thus to detect whether there is a vibration of the environment, play an
alarming role.

Connection:-

VCC: Connect the positive power supply

GND: Connect to the negative power supply

DO: The digital signal output

Features :

1. Using the company's high-sensitivity vibration switch, the default with SW-18015P
vibration sensor.
2. The comparator output, the signal clean, good waveform, driving ability, more than
15mA
 3. With a fixed bolt hole, easy to install.

4. The use of wide voltage LM393 comparator.

DC MOTOR

A DC series motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. Its principle of operation is
based on a simple electromagnetic law that states that when a magnetic field is created around
current carrying conductor and interacts with an external field, rotational motion is generated.

 The key components of a DC series motor are the armature (rotor), stator, commutator,

field windings, axle, and brushes. The stationary part of the motor, the
stator is made up of two or more electromagnet pole pieces, and the rotor is comprised of the
armature, with windings on the core connected to the commutator. The output power source is
connected to the armature windings through a brush arrangement connected to the commutator.
The rotor has a central axle about which the rotor rotates.

The field winding should be able to support high current because the greater the amount of
current through the winding, the greater will be the torque generated by the motor. So the
winding of the motor is made up of thick heavy gauge wire. Heavy gauge wire does not allow a
large number of turns. The winding is made up of thick copper bars as it helps in easy and
efficient dissipation of heat generated as a result of flow of large amount of current through
winding.

 Principle of Operation
 An external voltage source is applied across the series configuration of field winding and
armature. So one end of the voltage source is connected to the winding and the other end is
connected to the armature through the brushes.

Initially at the motor start up, with the voltage source connected to the motor, it draws a huge
amount of current because both the winding and the armature of the motor, both made up of
large conductors, offer minimum resistance to the current path. The large current through the
winding yields a strong magnetic field.

This strong magnetic field provides high torque to the armature shaft, thus invoking the
spinning action of the armature. Thus the motor starts rotating at its maximum speed in the
beginning. The rotating armature in the presence of the magnetic field results in counter EMF,
which limits the current build up in the series combination of armature and winding.

Thus series motors once started will offer maximum speed and torque but gradually, with an
increase in speed, its torque will come down because of its reduced current. Practically this is
what required from the motors. Due to the high torque provided by the armature, the load on the
shaft is set to rotate initially. Subsequently lesser torque will keep the load on the move. This
further helps in increasing the heat dissipation of the motor. However, the amount of torque
generated by motor is directly proportional to the winding current. The higher current demands
a higher power supply, too.

 Motor Speed

In DC series motors, a linear relationship exists between the amount of torque produced and the
current flowing through the field windings. The speed of the motor can be controlled by varying
the voltage across the motor, which further controls the torque of motor.

To increase the speed of the motor, decrease the field current by placing a small resistance in
parallel to the winding and armature. The decrease in current will result in lowering of magnetic
flux and counter EMF, which further hastens the motor’s speed.
To decrease the speed, use an external series resistance along with the field winding and
armature. This will reduce the voltage across the armature with the same counter EMF, thus
resulting in a lower speed of motor.

Unlike DC shunt motors, series motor does not operate at the constant speed. The speed of the
motor varies with change in the shaft load, so speed control of the motor is not easy to put into
practice.

SOFTWARE

Atmel AVR

Atmel ATmega8 in 28-pin narrow DIP

The AVR is a modified Harvard architecture 8-bit RISC single chip

microcontroller which was developed by Atmel in 1996. The AVR was one of the
first microcontroller families to use on-chip flash memory for program storage, as
opposed to one-time programmable ROM, EPROM, or EEPROM used by other
microcontrollers at the time.


Device overview

The AVR is a modified Harvard architecture machine where program and data are
stored in separate physical memory systems that appear in different address
spaces, but having the ability to read data items from program memory using
special instructions.

Basic families

AVRs are generally classified into five broad groups:

 tinyAVR — the ATtiny series

o 0.5–8 kB program memory

o 6–32-pin package

o Limited peripheral set

 megaAVR — the ATmega series

o 4–256 kB program memory

o 28–100-pin package

o Extended instruction set (Multiply instructions and instructions for

handling larger program memories)

o Extensive peripheral set

 XMEGA — the ATxmega series

o 16–384 kB program memory

o 44–64–100-pin package (A4, A3, A1)

 o Extended performance features, such as DMA, "Event System", and
cryptography support.

o Extensive peripheral set with DACs

 Application-specific AVR

o megaAVRs with special features not found on the other members of

the AVR family, such as LCD controller, USB controller, advanced
PWM, CAN etc.

 FPSLIC™ (AVR with FPGA)

o FPGA 5K to 40K gates

o SRAM for the AVR program code, unlike all other AVRs

o AVR core can run at up to 50 MHz [5]

 32-bit AVRs

Main article: AVR32

In 2006 Atmel released microcontrollers based on the new, 32-bit, AVR32
architecture. They include SIMD and DSP instructions, along with other
audio and video processing features. This 32-bit family of devices is
intended to compete with the ARM based processors. The instruction set is
similar to other RISC cores, but is not compatible with the original AVR or
any of the various ARM cores.

Device architecture
Flash, EEPROM, and SRAM are all integrated onto a single chip, removing the
need for external memory in most applications. Some devices have a parallel
external bus option to allow adding additional data memory or memory-mapped
devices. Almost all devices (except the smallest TinyAVR chips) have serial
interfaces, which can be used to connect larger serial EEPROMs or flash chips.

Program memory

Program instructions are stored in non-volatile flash memory. Although the

MCUs are 8-bit, each instruction takes one or two 16-bit words.

The size of the program memory is usually indicated in the naming of the device
itself (e.g., the ATmega64x line has 64 kB of flash while the ATmega32x line has
32 kB).

There is no provision for off-chip program memory; all code executed by the
AVR core must reside in the on-chip flash. However, this limitation does not
apply to the AT94 FPSLIC AVR/FPGA chips.

Internal data memory

The data address space consists of the register file, I/O registers, and SRAM.

Internal registers
Atmel ATxmega128A1 in 100-pin TQFP package

The AVRs have 32 single-byte registers and are classified as 8-bit RISC devices.

In most variants of the AVR architecture, the working registers are mapped in as
the first 32 memory addresses (000016–001F16) followed by the 64 I/O registers
(002016–005F16).

Actual SRAM starts after these register sections (address 0060 16). (Note that the
I/O register space may be larger on some more extensive devices, in which case
the memory mapped I/O registers will occupy a portion of the SRAM address
space.)

Even though there are separate addressing schemes and optimized opcodes for
register file and I/O register access, all can still be addressed and manipulated as
if they were in SRAM.

In the XMEGA variant, the working register file is not mapped into the data
address space; as such, it is not possible to treat any of the XMEGA's working
registers as though they were SRAM. Instead, the I/O registers are mapped into
the data address space starting at the very beginning of the address space.
Additionally, the amount of data address space dedicated to I/O registers has
grown substantially to 4096 bytes (000016–0FFF16). As with previous generations,
however, the fast I/O manipulation instructions can only reach the first 64 I/O
register locations (the first 32 locations for bitwise instructions). Following the
I/O registers, the XMEGA series sets aside a 4096 byte range of the data address
space which can be used optionally for mapping the internal EEPROM to the data
address space (100016–1FFF16). The actual SRAM is located after these ranges,
starting at 200016.

EEPROM

Almost all AVR microcontrollers have internal EEPROM for semi-permanent

data storage. Like flash memory, EEPROM can maintain its contents when
electrical power is removed.

In most variants of the AVR architecture, this internal EEPROM memory is not
mapped into the MCU's addressable memory space. It can only be accessed the
same way an external peripheral device is, using special pointer registers and
read/write instructions which makes EEPROM access much slower than other
internal RAM.

[6]
However, some devices in the SecureAVR (AT90SC) family use a special
EEPROM mapping to the data or program memory depending on the
configuration. The XMEGA family also allows the EEPROM to be mapped into
the data address space.

Since the number of writes to EEPROM is not unlimited — Atmel specifies

100,000 write cycles in their datasheets — a well designed EEPROM write
routine should compare the contents of an EEPROM address with desired
contents and only perform an actual write if contents need to be changed.

Program execution

Atmel's AVRs have a two stage, single level pipeline design. This means the next
machine instruction is fetched as the current one is executing. Most instructions
take just one or two clock cycles, making AVRs relatively fast among the eight-
bit microcontrollers.

The AVR family of processors were designed with the efficient execution of
compiled C code in mind and has several built-in pointers for the task.

Instruction set

Main article: Atmel AVR instruction set

The AVR Instruction Set is more orthogonal than those of most eight-bit
microcontrollers, in particular the 8051 clones and PIC microcontrollers with
which AVR competes today. However, it is not completely regular:

 Pointer registers X, Y, and Z have addressing capabilities that are different

from each other.
 Register locations R0 to R15 have different addressing capabilities than
register locations R16 to R31.

 I/O ports 0 to 31 have different addressing capabilities than I/O ports 32 to

63.

 CLR affects flags, while SER does not, even though they are
complementary instructions. CLR set all bits to zero and SER sets them to
one. (Note that CLR is pseudo-op for EOR R, R; and SER is short for LDI
R,$FF. Math operations such as EOR modify flags while
moves/loads/stores/branches such as LDI do not.)

 Accessing read-only data stored in the program memory (flash) requires

special LPM instructions; the flash bus is otherwise reserved for instruction
memory.
Additionally, some chip-specific differences affect code generation. Code pointers
(including return addresses on the stack) are two bytes long on chips with up to
128 kBytes of flash memory, but three bytes long on larger chips; not all chips
have hardware multipliers; chips with over 8 kBytes of flash have branch and call
instructions with longer ranges; and so forth.

The mostly-regular instruction set makes programming it using C (or even Ada)
compilers fairly straightforward. GCC has included AVR support for quite some
time, and that support is widely used. In fact, Atmel solicited input from major
developers of compilers for small microcontrollers, to deterUnder Drinage the
instruction set features that were most useful in a compiler for high-level
languages.

MCU speed

The AVR line can normally support clock speeds from 0-20 MHz, with some
devices reaching 32 MHz. Lower powered operation usually requires a reduced
clock speed. All recent (Tiny, Mega, and Xmega, but not 90S) AVRs feature an
on-chip oscillator, removing the need for external clocks or resonator circuitry.
Some AVRs also have a system clock prescaler that can divide down the system
clock by up to 1024. This prescaler can be reconfigured by software during run-
time, allowing the clock speed to be optimized.

Since all operations (excluding literals) on registers R0 - R31 are single cycle, the
AVR can achieve up to 1 MIPS per MHz, i.e. an 8 MHz processor can achieve up
to 8 MIPS. Loads and stores to/from memory take 2 cycles, branching takes 2
cycles. Branches in the latest "3-byte PC" parts such as ATmega2560 are one
cycle slower than on previous devices.
Development

AVRs have a large following due to the free and inexpensive development tools
available, including reasonably priced development boards and free development
software. The AVRs are sold under various names that share the same basic core
but with different peripheral and memory combinations. Compatibility between
chips in each family is fairly good, although I/O controller features may vary.

Features

Current AVRs offer a wide range of features:

 Multifunction, bi-directional general-purpose I/O ports with configurable,

built-in pull-up resistors
 Multiple internal oscillators, including RC oscillator without external parts

 Internal, self-programmable instruction flash memory up to 256 kB

(384 kB on XMega)

o In-system programmable using serial/parallel low-voltage proprietary

interfaces or JTAG

o Optional boot code section with independent lock bits for protection

 On-chip debugging (OCD) support through JTAG or debugWIRE on most

devices

o The JTAG signals (TMS, TDI, TDO, and TCK) are multiplexed on
GPIOs. These pins can be configured to function as JTAG or GPIO
depending on the setting of a fuse bit, which can be programmed via
 ISP or HVSP. By default, AVRs with JTAG come with the JTAG
interface enabled.

o debugWIRE uses the /RESET pin as a bi-directional communication

channel to access on-chip debug circuitry. It is present on devices
with lower pin counts, as it only requires one pin.

 Internal data EEPROM up to 4 kB

 Internal SRAM up to 16 kB (32 kB on XMega)

 External 64 kB little endian data space on certain models, including the

Mega8515 and Mega162.

o The external data space is overlaid with the internal data space, such
that the full 64 kB address space does not appear on the external bus.
An accesses to e.g. address 0100 16 will access internal RAM, not the
external bus.

o In certain members of the XMega series, the external data space has
been enhanced to support both SRAM and SDRAM. As well, the
data addressing modes have been expanded to allow up to 16 MB of
data memory to be directly addressed.

o AVRs generally do not support executing code from external

memory. Some ASSPs using the AVR core do support external
program memory.

 8-bit and 16-bit timers

o PWM output (some devices have an enhanced PWM peripheral

which includes a dead-time generator)
 o Input capture

 Analog comparator

 10 or 12-bit A/D converters, with multiplex of up to 16 channels

 12-bit D/A converters

 A variety of serial interfaces, including

o I²C compatible Two-Wire Interface (TWI)

o Synchronous/asynchronous serial peripherals (UART/USART) (used

with RS-232, RS-485, and more)

o Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI)

o Universal Serial Interface (USI) for two or three-wire synchronous

data transfer

 Brownout detection

 Watchdog timer (WDT)

 Multiple power-saving sleep modes

 Lighting and motor control (PWM-specific) controller models

 CAN controller support

 USB controller support

o Proper full-speed (12 Mbit/s) hardware & Hub controller with

embedded AVR.
 o Also freely available low-speed (1.5 Mbit/s) (HID) bitbanging
software emulations

 Ethernet controller support

 LCD controller support

 Low-voltage devices operating down to 1.8 V (to 0.7 V for parts with built-
in DC–DC upconverter)

 picoPower devices

 DMA controllers and "event system" peripheral communication.

 Fast cryptography support for AES and DES

Programming interfaces

There are many means to load program code into an AVR chip. The methods to
program AVR chips varies from AVR family to family.

ISP

The In-system programming (ISP) programming method is functionally

performed through SPI, plus some twiddling of the Reset line. As long as the SPI
pins of the AVR aren't connected to anything disruptive, the AVR chip can stay
soldered on a PCB while reprogramming. All that's needed is a 6-pin connector
and programming adapter. This is the most common way to develop with an
AVR.

The Atmel AVR ISP mkII device connects to a computer's USB port and
performs in-system programming using Atmel's software.
AVRDUDE (AVR Downloder UploaDEr) runs on Linux, FreeBSD, Windows,
and Mac OS X, and supports a variety of in-system programming hardware,
including Atmel AVR ISP mkII, Atmel JTAG ICE, older Atmel serial-port based
programmers, and various third-party and "do-it-yourself" programmers.[7]

PDI

The Program and Debug Interface (PDI) is an Atmel proprietary interface for
external programming and on-chip debugging of XMEGA devices. The PDI
supports high-speed programming of all non-volatile memory (NVM) spaces;
flash, EEPROM, fuses, lock-bits and the User Signature Row. This is done by
accessing the XMEGA NVM controller through the PDI interface, and executing
NVM controller commands. The PDI is a 2-pin interface using the Reset pin for
clock input (PDI_CLK) and a dedicated data pin (PDI_DATA) for input and
output.[8]

Conclusion
Our project is a growing application in Robotics field. Many new features are
being added to enhance the Rescue Operations using recent technologies. Our
attempt is to design the best prototype for the same. The Sewage Under Drinage
detect and rescue robot will be designed to help people execute tasks of detecting
and rescuing after gas explosion in the underground SewageUnder Drinage.
Sewage Under Drinage detect and rescue robot is a kind of mobile robot. Many
factors of Under Drinage are considered. It has many characters suitable to Under
Drinage tunnel. It can go into explosion environment and detect gas content. The
data can be sent to control man in safe field. It includes various fields i.e.
mechanical, electronics, computer, communication etc.

REFERENCE

[1] Nitin Asthana, Ridhima Bahl. ―IoT Device for Sewage Gas Monitoring and Alert System‖.
[2]Liu, Z., Wang, Z., Chen, R., and Wu, X. (2008). ―Intelligent residential security alarm and remote
control system based on single chip computer.‖2008 3rd IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and
Applications, 159–161 (June).

[3] Haswani, Navin Deore, Pramod (2018). Web-based real time underground drainage or sewage
monitoring system using Wireless Sensor Networks.

[4] B. Sumathy, G. Gowthaman, K. Hari Haran, G. Keerthee Rajan, A. Sweeto Jeison, 2018. SEWAGE
LEVEL MAINTENANCE USING IOT. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology
(IJMET).Volume:9,Issue:2,Pages:389-397.

[5] Hill, J., and Culler, D. Mica: A Wireless Platform for Deeply Embedded Networks. IEEE Micro archive,
Volume 22, Issue 6, p. 12–24, November 2002.

[6] ZigBee Alliance, ―Understanding ZigBee gateway‖, ZigBee Document 095465r13, September 2010.

[7] Horauer, M, PSynUTC.‘ Evaluation of a High PrecisionTime Synchronization Prototype System for
Ethernet LANs. 34th Annual Precise Time and Time Interval Meeting (PTTI), December 2002

[8] Wemer Allen, G., Johnson, J., Ruize, M., Less, J., and Welsh,Matt ‗Monitoring Volcanic Eruptions
with a Wireless sensor Network‘. Proceedings of 2nd European Workshop on Wireless Sensor Network,
2005.

[9] Windarto, J, Flood Early Warning System develop at Garang River Semarang using Information
Technologybase on SMS and Web‘. International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences Vol. 1 No. 1,
2010

[10]Geoffrey Werner-Allen , Jeff Johnson , Mario Ruiz ,Jonathan Lees , and Matt Welsh, ‗Monitoring
Volcanic Eruptions with a Wireless Sensor Network,‘ in Published in Proceedings of the Second
European Workshop on 2005.

[11]Chang A.Y, Chang-Sung Yu, Sheng-ZhiXin Lin-Yih Chang, Pei-Chi Ho, ‗Search, Identification and
Positioning of the Underground Manhole with RFID Ground Tag‘ INC, IMS and IDC, 2009. NCM '09. Fifth
International Joint Conference on vol no. pp.1899, 1903 25-27 Aug.2009.
[12] M. Maroti, B. Kusy, G. Simon, and A. Ledeczi, ―The flooding time synchronization protocol,‖ in
Proc. ACM SenSys‘04,Baltimore, MD, November 2004