Module 1
INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS
RULES- set of guidelines, useful tools
in guiding and monitoring the
interactions of humans. It organizes
people and regulates the flow of the
processes.
Philosophy- systematized study of
general and fundamental questions,
such as those about existence, reason,
knowledge, values, mind, and language.
10 BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
● epistemology- the theory of
knowledge
● cosmology- science of the origin
and development of the universe
● aesthetics- the nature and
appreciation of art
● realism- way of thinking and
acting based on facts and what is
possible, rather than on hopes
for things that are unlikely to
happen
● metaphysics- examines the
fundamental nature of reality,
including the relationship
between mind and matter,
between substance and attribute,
and between potentiality and
actuality.
● ethics- concerned with what is
morally good and bad and
morally right and wrong
● induction- refers to reasoning or
argumentation that aims to draw
uncertain general conclusions
based on specific observations
● logic- study of the laws of
thought, correct reasoning, valid
inference, or logical truth
● deduction- an argument in
which the conclusion is said to
follow necessarily from the
premise.
● theology- and form of theology
in which philosophical methods
are used in developing or
analyzing theological concepts
● political philosophy- studies
what kinds of political
institutions we should have.
Ethos- Way of living
Ethics- science of the morality of
human acts or scientific study of moral
judgments.
● deals with principles of ethical
behavior
● normative science because it
concerns matters of values
rather than facts.
Normative science tells us
how things should be or
what we should do, based
on values, beliefs, or
ideals, rather than just
describing how things are
● Practical decision making
involves figuring out what really
matters and how to judge if
actions are right or wrong.
● system of moral principles and
also described as Moral
Philosophy
Virtue Ethics - primarily concerned
with the moral character of human being
Morality- Standards of right and wrong
that an individual originally pick up
from the community
SOCRATES- father of Western Ethics.
"There is only one good,
knowledge, and one evil,
ignorance”
people will naturally do what is
good provided that they know
what is right, and that evil or
bad actions are purely the
results of ignorance
a student is struggling with their
studies and keeps getting low
grades. According to Socrates'
idea that "there is only one good,
knowledge, and one evil,
ignorance," the student's poor
performance might be attributed
to ignorance rather than
intentional wrongdoing.
ARISTOTLE- only when a person acts
in accordance with their nature and
thereby realizes their full potential that
they will do good and therefore be
content in life.
"Nature does nothing in vain”
self-realization is the surest path
to happiness, which is the
ultimate goal, all other things
being mere means to an end
Eudaimonia
For example, let's say someone
has a talent for playing music. If
they ignore their talent and
pursue a career in something
unrelated, they might not feel
fully satisfied with their life. But
if they embrace their musical
abilities, practice, and pursue a
career in music, they're more
likely to feel happy and fulfilled
because they're living in line with
their nature and realizing their
potential. According to Aristotle,
this self-realization leads to true
happiness, with everything else
in life just being steps towards
achieving that happiness.
4 BRANCHES OF ETHICS:
● Normative/Prescriptive Ethics-
“what is morally right/wrong”
It tells us what we should
do or how we should act
based on moral principles,
values, or beliefs. It's like
having a set of rules or
guidelines for making
decisions about what's
right or wrong, good or
bad
● Descriptive Ethics- Comparative
Ethics; studies people's beliefs
abt morality
its like a reporter
describing what people
actually do in terms of
morality. It's not about
saying what's right or
wrong; it's about
observing and reporting
on the moral behaviors,
beliefs, and customs of
different groups or
societies. It's like looking
at how people behave
without making
judgments about whether
it's good or bad.
● Meta Ethics- what is goodness,
universal, and relative
Metaethics is like asking
"What does it even mean
for something to be 'good'
or 'bad'?" It's not about
specific moral beliefs or
actions; it's about
understanding the nature
of morality itself. It
explores questions like
where moral values come
from, whether they're
objective or subjective,
and how we understand
moral language. A specific
example of metaethics is
debating whether morality
is based on objective
standards that exist
independently of human
opinions or if it's more
about personal or cultural
beliefs.
● Applied Ethics
branch of ethics 1: NORMATIVE
3 main categories:
❖ Consequentialism/
Teleoloogical
❖ Deontology
❖ Virtue
Consequentialism/ Teleoloogical-
actions judged by their merit (good/
worthy)
action is determined by its outcomes or
consequences.
Utilitarianism- action is right if
it leads to the most happiness for the
greatest number of people
❖ principle: (maximization of
pleasure and the minimization of
pain)
Hedoism- Pleasure is the most
important
a person who prioritizes
indulging in parties, excessive
drinking, and recreational drug
use without thinking about their
health, relationships, or
responsibilities
Epicureanism- Moderate approach.
maximize happiness, but which defines
happiness more as a state of
tranquility than pleasure. (pleasure
balanced)
➔ Example: Choosing meaningful
time with loved ones over
material pursuits and work
stress, fostering contentment
through simple pleasures
Egoism- action is right if it maximizes
good for the self. Belief that
individuals should prioritize their own
self-interests above all else.
❖ Individual Egoism: one
should prioritize their own
interests and well-being
above all others. (not
necessarily harming
others)
➔ Example: An individual egoist
might choose to keep a large
bonus for themselves instead of
sharing it with their coworkers,
believing that their own financial
gain is more important than the
collective benefit of the team.
❖ Personal Egoism-
emphasizes self-interest
but also acknowledges the
importance of caring for
those close to oneself,
such as family and
friends.
➔ example: prioritize their career
advancement to secure a better
future for themselves and their
loved ones. While they focus on
their own success, they also
ensure their family's needs are
met and spend quality time with
friends to maintain relationships
that bring them happiness and
support.
❖ Universal Egoism- holds
that everyone should act
in ways that are in their
own interest; what
benefits one person
should benefit everyone.
Asceticism- opposite of Egoism in that
it describes a life characterized by
abstinence from material
possessions and worldly comforts to
achieve a spiritual goal.
➔ Example: A monk living in
a monastery who practices
asceticism by fasting
regularly and abstaining
from worldly pleasures
such as entertainment or
luxury items.
Altruism- individual take actions that
have the best consequences for
everyone except for himself,according
to Auguste Comte's dictum
➔ Example: Donating blood
to save someone's life,
knowing you won't receive
any direct benefit from it.
Rule Consequentialism- theory
(sometimes seen as an attempt to
reconcile Consequentialism and
Deontology), that moral behavior
involves following certain rules, but
that those rules should be chosen
based on the consequences that the
selection of those rules have.
❖ moral rules should be followed
because they lead to the best
consequences overall. It's a mix
of following rules like deontology
but with a focus on the outcomes
like consequentialism.
❖ Example: Following traffic laws
(a moral rule) because it leads to
safer roads and fewer accidents,
 which ultimately benefits society
as a whole.
Negative Consequentialism-
prioritizes minimizing suffering or
negative outcomes rather than
maximizing overall well-being or
happiness.
❖ focuses on reducing
suffering or negative
consequences rather than
maximizing happiness.
❖ Example: you always obey
your father, even if it goes
against your will, to avoid
being punished or scolded
further.
Deontology- It is a duty-based
morality. It requires people to follow
the rules and do their duty.
❖ Deontology is the idea that
actions are morally right or
wrong based on rules or
principles, regardless of their
consequences.
❖ Example: Following a rule not to
lie, even if telling a lie could
prevent someone from getting
hurt.
Divine Command Theory- God has
decreed that it is right and that an act
is obligatory if and only if (and because)
it is commanded by God.
❖ Example: 10 Commandments
Natural Rights Theory- natural rights
(in the sense of universal rights that are
inherent in the nature of Ethics, and
not contingent on human actions or
beliefs).
❖ Natural rights theory asserts
that individuals have inherent
rights that are not granted by
the government or society, but
are instead fundamental to
human nature.
❖ Example: The right to life,
liberty, and property as outlined
in the Declaration of
Independence, where individuals
possess these rights simply by
virtue of being human.
Immanuel Kant’s Categorical
Imperative- “Act only according to the
maxim (motivation) by which you can
also will that it would become a
universal law”. Acknowledges that
actions and outcomes are
independent things.
❖ Example: If you believe
lying is wrong, you
wouldn't want everyone to
lie, so you shouldn't lie to
yourself, even if it could
avoid trouble.
❖ It says you should only
do something if you're
okay with everyone else
doing the same thing in
the same situation.
❖ For example, if you're
thinking about lying to
someone, Kant would say
you should ask yourself,
"Would it be okay if
everyone lied all the time?"
If the answer is no, then
lying would be wrong
according to Kant's rule.
Pluralistic Deontology- is a
description of the deontological ethics
propounded by W.D. Ross (1877 -
1971). He argues that there are seven
prima facie duties that need to be taken
into consideration when deciding which
duty should be acted upon:
1. Beneficence- (to help other
people to increase their
pleasure, improve their
character or conditions,
etc.)
2. Non- maleficence- avoid
harming other people
3. Justice
4. Self-improvement
5. Reparation
6. Gratitude
7. Promise-keeping
Contractarian Ethics- Based on the
idea of contracts or mutual agreement
 ❖ Example: Companies and clients
agree to terms and conditions to
ensure fair transactions and
mutual benefits.
Virtue Ethics- emphasizes an
individual’s character as the key
element for ethical thinking, rather
than rules about the acts themselves
(Deontology) or their consequences
(Consequentialism).
❖ habits and behaviors that will
allow a person to achieve
"eudaimonia”
Eudaimonism- originated by Aristotle
that define action as that which leads
to “well-being”. Subject always
exercises practical wisdom
Agent-Based Theories- virtue based on
our common-sense intuitions about
which character traits are admirable
(e.g. benevolence, kindness,
compassion, etc), which we can identify
by looking at the people we admire, our
moral exemplars.
❖ Agent-based ethics focuses on
the moral character and
intentions of individuals rather
than just the consequences of
their actions.
❖ Imagine a teacher who goes
above and beyond to help
students in need, showing
genuine care and concern for
their well-being. They take the
time to listen to their students,
offer guidance and support, and
foster a positive and inclusive
learning environment.
❖ In this example, agent-based
ethics would value the teacher's
character traits of benevolence,
kindness, and compassion.
Instead of solely evaluating the
outcomes of the teacher's actions
(such as students' academic
performance), agent-based ethics
looks at the teacher's moral
character and intentions in
demonstrating these virtues. The
focus is on recognizing and
admiring these admirable
character traits, which serve as
moral exemplars for others to
emulate.
Ethics of Care- motivated by the idea
that men think in masculine terms
such as justice and autonomy, whereas
women think in feminine terms such as
caring.
Moral Relativism- states that no one
person’s morals are better or worse
than any other. Relativists argue that a
person’s moral code is shaped by the
society in which he is raised, and that
no society is inherently better or
worse than any other.
❖ Example: In some cultures,
arranged marriages are common
and socially accepted, while in
others, love marriages are the
norm. From a moral relativist
perspective, neither practice is
inherently right or wrong;
instead, the morality of the
practice depends on the cultural
context in which it occurs.
Branch of Ethics 2: META ETHICS
Meta ethics- analysis of ethical
concepts, language, and the nature of
moral reasoning itself and with
specific moral issues in various fields,
metaethics focuses on the foundational
questions underlying Ethics.
❖ investigates questions like
whether moral truths exist, what
makes actions right or wrong,
and how moral judgments are
justified.
❖ In metaethics, one might explore
the question of whether moral
truths exist independently of
human beliefs and perceptions.
For instance, discussing whether
an action is morally right
because a divine being
commands it (divine command
theory) or whether it is right
because it leads to the greatest
good for the greatest number of
 people (utilitarianism) are
metaethical inquiries.
❖ is like the "Philosophy of
Ethics." It's not about deciding
what's right or wrong, but
rather about understanding
what "right" and "wrong" even
mean.
❖ Metaethics explores questions
such as:
- Moral Realism vs. Anti-Realism:
Do objective moral truths exist,
or is morality purely subjective?
- Nature of Morality: What
determines whether something is
morally good or bad?
- Moral Language: How do we
communicate about morality,
and do our words carry the same
meaning for everyone?
- Moral Motivation: Why should
we prioritize morality and care
about being moral?
Moral Realism- there are objective
moral facts or truths that exist
independently of human beliefs or
attitudes. In other words, moral realism
posits that certain actions are
objectively right or wrong,
regardless of cultural or individual
opinions.
❖ Example: in moral realism, it is
believed that actions like murder
or kindness have inherent moral
value, regardless of whether
people perceive them as such.
❖ For instance, consider the act of
murder. In a moral realist
perspective, it is viewed as
objectively wrong because it
involves intentionally taking the
life of another person without
just cause. This moral judgment
is not dependent on individual
opinions or cultural beliefs;
instead, it is based on the
inherent wrongness of unlawfully
ending someone's life.
❖ Similarly, acts of kindness are
seen as objectively good in moral
realism. Helping others, showing
compassion, and promoting
well-being are considered
morally valuable actions,
regardless of cultural or
individual interpretations. The
inherent moral worth of kindness
is recognized irrespective of
subjective opinions or beliefs.
Moral Anti-Realism- suggests that
moral judgments are subjective or
relative, varying across individuals,
cultures, or historical periods. Do not
refer to any objective facts but merely
express personal preferences, social
conventions, or emotional attitudes.
❖ example: moral anti-realism, the
concept of "right" and "wrong" is
seen as a matter of personal
opinion or cultural consensus
rather than being grounded in
any objective reality. For
instance, someone who adheres
to moral anti-realism might
argue that there is no universal
truth about whether lying is
inherently wrong, as opinions on
this matter may vary across
different cultures and
individuals.
Branch of Ethics 3- DESCRIPTIVE
ETHICS
Descriptive Ethics- observe and
analyze real-world moral phenomena
without making judgments about
whether these behaviors are right or
wrong.
❖ study cultural norms, social
attitudes, ethical dilemmas,
moral decision-making
processes, and patterns of moral
behavior across different
contexts and societies.
❖ Involves the following activities:
Observe, Conduct interviews,
Analyze Social Norms, Patterns
of Moral Behavior
Branch of Ethics 4- Applied Ethics
Applied Ethics- discipline of
philosophy that attempts to apply
ethical theory to real-life situations.
Strictly, principle-based ethical
approaches often result in solutions to
specific problems that are not
universally acceptable or impossible to
implement.
Module 2
MORAL DILEMMAS
Moral Dilemmas- When these
standards and principles conflict with
each other in a decision-making
situation, an ethical dilemma may
occur.
● It takes place in a
decision-making context where
any of the available options
requires the agent to violate
or compromise on their ethical
standards.
● This situation occurs when
making a decision forces the
person to go against their ethical
beliefs or principles.
Ethical dilemmas can be characterized
by the following three elements:
● The agent must be faced with a
choice or the need to make a decision.
● The agent must have more than one
course of action available.
● The agent recognizes that all available
courses of action require them to
compromise on some personally held
ethical standard or value.
7 Types of Ethical Dilemma:
Epistemic Dilemmas- take place in a
decision-making context where moral
standards conflict and the agent
cannot readily determine which
ethical principle should take
precedence over the other.
● Epistemic dilemmas happen
when moral standards clash,
and the person can't easily figure
out which ethical principle is
more important.
● Parehas importante ‘yung
decision
● Example: a doctor must decide
whether to respect a patient's
confidentiality or to disclose
information that could prevent
harm to others. In this scenario,
the doctor faces a conflict
between the ethical principles of
patient privacy and the duty to
warn potential victims.
Self-imposed Dilemma- created by the
agent’s own errors in judgment. (ikaw
‘yung gumawa ng problema)
● Example: making competing
promises to multiple
organizations that cannot be
fulfilled simultaneously.
● Example: a student who
procrastinates on studying for an
exam until the last minute. They
then face the dilemma of either
cheating to pass the exam or
accepting the consequences of
their procrastination and
potentially failing the test.
● Example from the module:
David is running for the position
of town mayor. During the
campaign period, he promised
the indigenous peoples in his
community to protect their virgin
forest just to gain their votes, but
at the same time, he sought
financial support from a mining
corporation. Fortunately, David
won the elections, yet he is faced
with the dilemma of fulfilling his
promise to the indigenous
peoples and at the same time
allows the mining corporation to
destroy their forest.
World-imposed Dilemma-
circumstances outside the agent’s
control; we can’t control have created
an unavoidable moral conflict.
● Example: where a parent must
choose between staying with
 their family in a war-torn
country and risking their safety,
or fleeing to a safer country but
leaving behind loved ones who
are unable to travel.
● a person living in a
poverty-stricken area where
there is widespread hunger and
lack of access to basic
necessities. Due to the dire
circumstances, this person finds
themselves in a situation where
they must steal food in order to
feed their starving family.
● Example from the module:
Imagine a young professional
who is passionate about their
career but also desires to spend
more time with their family.
However, the demands of their
job require long hours and
frequent travel, making it
difficult to balance work and
family life. The individual feels
torn between their dedication to
their career and their desire to
nurture their relationships with
loved ones.
Obligation Dilemma- an agent has
multiple options and more than one of
them is obligatory.
● Example: A doctor has two
patients, both in critical
condition and needing immediate
treatment. The doctor can only
attend to one patient at a time.
Saving either patient's life is
obligatory, but the doctor can't
save both simultaneously.
Prohibition Dilemma occurs when all
available options are prohibited.
● Example: A person is asked to
testify in court about a crime
they witnessed. However,
speaking out would mean
breaking a promise of
confidentiality made to the
perpetrator. Both
options—keeping the promise
and speaking out—are
considered morally prohibited.
Single-agent Dilemma- agent “ought,
all things considered, to do A, ought,
all things considered, to do B, and she
cannot do both A and B”. In other
words, the moral agent is compelled to
act on two or more equally the same
moral options but she cannot choose
both.
● A single-agent dilemma happens
when a person should do two
morally right things, but they
can't do both at the same time.
● Example: A firefighter arrives at
a burning building where two
people are trapped on different
floors. They can only rescue one
person at a time, but both are in
urgent need of help. The
firefighter is morally obligated to
save both, but they cannot do so
simultaneously.
● Example from the module:
Consider a person who is trying
to decide whether to pursue a
lucrative job opportunity that
requires relocating to another
city or to stay in their current
location to be closer to their
aging parents who need support
and care.In this scenario, the
individual experiences a
single-agent dilemma. On one
hand, they desire professional
success and financial stability,
which the job opportunity offers.
On the other hand, they value
family relationships and feel a
strong sense of responsibility
towards their parents' well-being.
Pursuing the job would mean
sacrificing time with their
parents and potentially feeling
guilty about not being there for
them, while staying would mean
passing up a promising career
opportunity.
Multi-person Dilemma- In this, each
person has a different moral obligation,
but it's impossible for all of them to
fulfill their obligations simultaneously.
This happens in situations involving
several individuals, such as a family
or organization, where they must
make a collective and consensual
decision on a moral issue.
● Example: In a family, one parent
might believe it's morally right to
prioritize saving money for
education, while the other parent
believes it's morally right to use
the money for immediate family
needs. Both parents can act
according to their beliefs, but
they can't both prioritize saving
and spending simultaneously.
● Example from the module:
Imagine a group of neighbors
who share a communal garden.
Each neighbor has the option to
either contribute time and effort
to maintain the garden or to
free-ride and enjoy the benefits
without contributing. If all
neighbors contribute equally to
maintenance, the garden
flourishes, benefiting everyone.
However, if too many neighbors
decide to free-ride, the garden
may become neglected and
eventually unusable. In this
scenario, the neighbors face a
multi-person dilemma.
Individually, each neighbor may
be tempted to free-ride, as
contributing requires effort and
time. However, if everyone
chooses to free-ride, the
collective good (the
well-maintained garden) suffers,
negatively impacting everyone,
including those who initially
chose to contribute.
How Do You Identify an Ethical
Dilemma?
Experts agree that identifying an ethical
dilemma starts with recognizing your
gut reaction to a problematic situation.
If a decision seems to challenge your
moral compass, it’s time to take a step
back and investigate further.
Levels of Dilemma:
Personal Level- when one, on the
subjective level, is confronted with
choices that are equally good and bad.
The agent choice does not affect any
organization but only between
individuals. (ikaw lang or piling tao
ang maapektuhan)
● At the personal level, you face
choices where the options seem
equally good and bad to you.
These decisions only involve
individuals and don't affect any
organization or group. It's about
making choices that feel right or
wrong to you as an individual,
without considering wider
impacts.
● Example: Deciding whether to
spend your vacation time visiting
family or traveling solo purely
based on your personal
preferences and feelings, without
considering any organizational or
societal implications.
Organizational Dilemma- exists within
an organization or a particular sector. It
refers to a problem of reconciling
inconsistencies between individual
needs and aspirations on the one hand,
and the collective purpose of the
organization on the other.
● An organizational dilemma
happens in a company or group.
It's about balancing individual
wants and goals with what the
organization needs to achieve as
a whole.
● Example: In a company,
employees might want higher
salaries for themselves, but the
company needs to keep costs
down to remain competitive. This
creates a dilemma between
individual financial aspirations
 and the company's goal of
financial sustainability.
Systematic/ Structural Dilemma
refers to the ongoing search for a
satisfactory system. Managers rarely
face well-defined problems with
clear-cut solutions, instead, they
confront enduring dilemmas like
tradeoffs without easy answers.
● A systematic or structural
dilemma is when managers
continually try to find a good
system to solve problems.
Instead of having clear solutions,
they deal with ongoing
challenges like making trade-offs
that don't have simple answers.
● Example: A company's
management must decide
whether to prioritize short-term
profits by cutting costs, or invest
in long-term growth by spending
more on research and
development. This ongoing
dilemma requires them to
balance immediate gains with
future success, without a
clear-cut solution.
MODULE 3:
VIRTUE ETHICS AND NATURAL LAW
ETHICS
VIRTUE ETHICS:
Aristotle in his Nicomachean Ethics
ARISTOTLE (384-322 BCE)
● Born in the town of Stagira in
Macedonia
● Father: physician to the royal
court of Philip of Macedonia
● Enrolled in Plato’s Academy
● Founded the school in Athens
called the Lyceum
“Every art and every kind of inquiry,
and likewise every act and purpose,
seems to aim at some good: and so, it
has been well said that the good is that
at which everything aims.”
The good is the end of the thing
● Example: Getting high grades in
your final exam is good because
it is the end of studying your
lessons
● Winning a championship is good
because it represents the
culmination of a season's worth
of training and effort in sports.
Every end is a means to other ends so
that every good is desired for the sake
of some other greater good.
● Example: By getting high grades
you pass the exam, by passing
the exam you pass the course,
by passing the course you
graduate, by graduating you get
a job, by having a job you earn
money,and so on.
Good is the aim of all action
Highest good— INTRINSICALLY GOOD
Good in itself— INTRINSIC GOOD
(KNOWLEDGE)
Good because it leads to something
else— EXTRINSIC GOOD
GOOD AND FUNCTION
What is good for X depends on the
function of X
● Example of the module: The
function of a knife is to cut. —A
good knife cuts well.
● The function of a tree is to grow
and flourish— A good tree grows
and flourishes.
● Example: What is good for a
smartphone depends on the
function of the smartphone. For
someone who primarily uses
their smartphone for
photography, a high-quality
camera would be considered
good. However, for someone who
uses their smartphone mainly for
gaming, a powerful processor
and graphics capabilities would
 be more important. Therefore,
what is considered good for a
smartphone varies depending on
its intended function.
SOUL ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE
“All living things have souls”
Soul- difference between life and death.
Souls may vary according to the
creature they belong to. Plants possess
souls categorized as "vegetative",
governing automatic functions like
growth and photosynthesis.
Appetitive Part of Soul- feels
sensations (such as pleasure and pain)
and appetites (desires for food, sex,
etc.)
THE HIGHEST GOOD FOR HUMAN
BEING
Happiness- highest good for man
● Humans have vegetative and
appetitive parts of the soul, but
they also have a rational part,
which other animals lack.
Rational Part- the intellect, which is
capable of understanding concepts and
making decisions.
● Man is a rational animal
● Highest good for man includes
excellent functioning of the
rational faculties.
● The approach focuses on
developing both rational and
irrational aspects of the soul to
attain eudaimonia or
flourishing. There must be
balance in life
PLEASURE AND HAPPINESS
Acc to Aristotle— pleasure is not the
aim of every human action, because
not every pleasure is good.
(Remember, the highest good is
intrinsically good).
Pleasure is not the highest good— it
is not the same as happiness.
● A life of happiness = a life of
excellent functioning = A life a
virtue = a life in which the
rational faculties are in control.
VIRTUES AND VICES ARE ACQUIRED
BY HABIT
virtues (positive character traits) and
vices (negative character traits)
Intellectual virtue- Teachings
Moral Virtue- habits. concerned with
passions and actions, excess, defect,
and the intermediate.
● The two are acquired differently;
intellectual virtue can be
acquired by reading
(knowledge) a book; moral
virtue can be acquired only
through practice.
● ARGUMENTS:
❖ Nothing can develop a
habit that goes against its
inherent nature.
❖ Virtues can be cultivated
through habitual actions.
❖ Vices can also be
cultivated through
habitual actions.
❖ From these premises, it
concludes that humans
are neither inherently
virtuous nor inherently
vicious by nature. Instead,
their moral character is
shaped by the habits they
form over time. Therefore,
individuals have the
capacity to develop either
virtuous or vicious traits
based on their actions and
habits, rather than being
predisposed to one or the
other by nature.
❖ From these points, it
concludes that humans
aren't born inherently
 good or bad. Instead, their
moral character is shaped
by the habits they develop
over time. So, people have
the ability to become
either virtuous or vicious
based on their actions and
habits, rather than being
naturally inclined towards
one or the other.
HOW VIRTUES AND VICES ARE
FORMED
Depend on how we respond (in actions
and passions) we will form a habit and
become either virtuous or vicious
● We become virtuous by acting
virtuously.
● We become vicious by acting
viciously.
Virtue- disposition to choose the
mean/middle, in both actions and
passions.
Virtue is a state of character which
causes one
● to choose the intermediate (“the
mean”)
● between two extremes (“vices”).
Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics
Reference to the right objects, towards
the right people, with the right motive,
and in the right way, is what is both
intermediate and best, and this is
characteristic of virtue.
EUDAIMONISM- the proper goal of
human life is eudaimonia (which can be
variously translated as "happiness",
"well-being“ or the "good life")
Arete- “Virtues”
Phronesis- “practical wisdom”
AQUINAS AND NATURAL LAW
ETHICS
● Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
● Dominican monk, the Angelic
Doctor
● His famous works, Summa
Theologica and
● Summa Contra Gentiles
NATURAL LAW ETHICS OR
CHRISTIAN ETHICS
His thoughts derived from the Fathers
of the church, ANCIENT GREEK
● line of thinking which asserted
the SUPREMACY OF FAITH
OVER REASON
● Ethics by Aquinas is an
interpretation of Aristotle’s
theory of morality as flowing
from human rational nature.
● harmonious integration of
faith and reason, recognizing
that both are essential for
attaining knowledge and
understanding truth, especially
in matters of theology and
spirituality.
3 KINDS OF LAW ACCORDING TO ST.
THOMAS AQUINAS
1. Eternal Law- made by God
through his omnipotence for all
things and promulgated by
dispositions ordained to them.
2. Natural Law- moral law made by
God through his goodness for
man as rational creatures and
made known by human nature.
presents our rational
knowledge of the good by which
 the intellect directs our wills to
control our appetites and
passion.
3. Positive Law- civil law made
by men in the society through
political legislation for
themselves
Aquinas believes that we should always
follow our conscience, even when it is
wrong or causes great harm. Since we
have no way of knowing whether
our consciences are wrong, they are the
best guide we have as to what is the
moral thing to do.To go against one’s
conscience is to go against the values of
truth and reason.
4 FOUR MAIN VIRTUES ACC TO
AQUINAS
Prudentia- act of bringing moral
reasoning into all decisions, and
putting it before irrational desires and
ego-promotion. The reason, rather
than passion, is at the heart of moral
decisions.
Justice – a disposition to give others
what they are entitled to, or have a
right to.
Courage (fortitude) – a disposition to
restrain fears so as to act rightly.
Temperantia – the moderation of
desires, especially sexual desire, in line
with their “proper role”.
Difference between natural law and
divine law
● Natural law presents our rational
knowledge of the good by which the
intellect directs our wills to control our
appetites and passion.
● Divine law comes directly from God
through revelation and is a gift of God’s
grace. Through this, we are directed to
our supernatural end and obtain the
theological virtues of faith, hope, and
love.
MODULE 4
KANT AND THE RIGHT THEORIES
Immanuel Kant published 1st book in
1747 and wrote extensively, from 1754
to 1760, on a wide variety of subjects
belonging to the natural sciences.
● After 1760, he wrote increasingly
on subjects we now think of as
belonging to philosophy in the
narrower sense of the term.
● Appointed to the chair of logic
and metaphysics in 1770
● Critique of Pure Reason, which
appeared in 1781.
● Prolegomena (1783)
● Foundations of the Metaphysics
of Morals (1785)
● Metaphysical Foundations of
Natural Science (1786)
● Critique of Practical Reason
(1788)
● Critique of Judgment (1790)
● Religion within the Limits of Pure
Reason Alone (1793)
● Metaphysics of Morals (1797)
Kant regarded as the Basic Questions
of Philosophy
● What can I know? (What’s the truth?)
➔ Kant replies that we can know
the natural, observable world,
but we cannot, however, have
answers to many of the deepest
questions of metaphysics.
● What should I do? (What’s good?)
➔ we should act rationally, in
accordance with a universal
moral law.
➔ He proposed the categorical
imperative as the universal law
● What may I hope? (What’s the point?)
➔ we may hope that our souls are
immortal and that there really is
a God who designed the world in
accordance with principles of
justice.
 ➔ He believed in free will, God,
and the immortality of the soul.
Although we cannot have
knowledge of these things,
reflection on the moral law leads
to a justified belief in them,
which amounts to a kind rational
faith
Critical Philosophy
According to him Reason can't
definitively say whether the soul lives
forever, if we truly have free will, or if
God exists or not.
Kant begins by identifying what he sees
as the purely rational principles of
morality, prudence, and skill, and then
argues that what reason could never
prove regarding the soul, the will, and
God can be quite legitimately
postulated by a purely practical
reason.
Explanation: Kant starts by finding
basic rules for morality, being wise, and
being skilled. Then, he says even
though reason can't prove things about
the soul, free will, or God, it's okay to
believe in them based on practical
reasons.
Kant holds that there are moral
grounds for believing in the freedom
of the will, the existence of God, and
the immortality of the soul. As he put
it in his preface to the second edition of
the first Critique of Reason.
Explanation: Kant says it's morally
right to believe in free will, God, and life
after death. He mentioned this in the
beginning of the second edition of his
first book about Reason.
Practical reasoning, according to Kant,
involves making decisions about how to
act in the world based on moral
principles. While reason alone might
not be able to prove the existence of
these things, Kant suggests that
believing in them can still be justified
from a practical standpoint
Priori: "from the earlier" or "from the
former." In philosophy, particularly in
epistemology (the study of knowledge),
it refers to knowledge that is
independent of experience. A priori
knowledge is knowledge that can be
known to be true or false without
needing to appeal to sensory experience
Posteriori: "from the latter" or "from
what comes after." In philosophy,
particularly in epistemology, it refers to
knowledge that is based on experience
or empirical evidence.
So the first thing we must try to master
is the pair of distinctions between
knowledge as a priori and knowledge as
a posteriori, and Synthetic and analytic
propositions (or judgments)
Explanation:
● A priori - This is knowledge we
have without needing to
experience it directly. It's like
knowing that 2 + 2 = 4 or that all
triangles have three sides, just
by thinking about it.
● A posteriori - This is knowledge
we gain through our experiences
or observations. For example,
knowing that it's raining outside
because we see and feel the rain.
Then, there are two types of
statements:
● Analytic - These statements are
true by definition. For example,
"All bachelors are unmarried
men." You don't need to go out
and check bachelors to know
this; it's true just by
understanding the words.
● Synthetic - These statements
are true based on how the world
is. For example, "It's raining
outside." You have to go outside
and see if it's raining to know if
this statement is true

Categorical Imperative
● According to him it is the
fundamental principle
● Imperative is just a command
● tells you how to act regardless
of what end or goal you might
desire (consequentialism).
● One should always respect the
humanity of others, and that one
should only act in accordance
with rules that could hold for
everyone.
● Act only in accordance of
Maxim=Intention through
which you can at the same time
will that it become a universal
law.
● the moral law is a truth of
reason, and hence that all
rational creatures are bound by
the same moral law.
3 Insights form the basis for Kant’s
Ethics of Duty
● action has moral worth if it is
done for the sake of duty. (DUTY)
● We should always treat
humanity, whether in ourselves
or other people, as an end in
itself and never merely as means
to an end. (RESPECT)
● An action is morally correct if its
maxim can be willed as a
universal law.
(UNIVERSALIZABILITY)
Ethics of Duty “An action has moral
worth if it is done for the sake of Duty”
Acting for the sake of duty:
Act without self-interest
Act without concern for
consequences
Act without inclination
(downplays the role of
compassion)
Goodwill and Duty
● He believed that only GOODWILL
is morally valuable
● Goodwill knows what its duty is
(that is, goodwill knows what
reason commands it to do.)
● And the goodwill DOES the
dutiful act because the goodwill
is dutiful.
Goodwill and Results
● The will is good through its
willingness alone. Even if the
goodwill cannot carry out its
intentions, it is good in itself.
● According to Kant, we should not
judge goodwill by its
"fruitfulness". “fruitfulness” =
the consequences of its will.
● The goodwill is to be judged by
its motive alone.
Respect for Persons
● Always treat persons (including
yourself) and ends in
themselves, never merely as a
means to your own ends.
● persons should be treated as
beings that have intrinsic
value.
● They have value independent of
their usefulness for this or that
purpose. Still preserving their
 autonomy and not violating their
will.
Universalizability & the “Categorical
Imperative
An action is morally correct if its
maxim can be willed as a universal
law. (UNIVERSALIZABILITY).
Maxim - a generalized motivation or
intention for acting in a certain way
under a certain set of circumstances. A
maxim is universalizable if we can will
that everyone act accordance with
the maxim.
Types of Rights Theories
Realist views, rights holders have
rights as one of their intrinsic
features. We have to recognize and
respect those rights or struggle for
them to be respected.
Constructivist views, the best theory
regarding how to behave towards
beings who are morally considerable is
to grant them rights and to respect
those rights or to struggle for them to
be respected.
Rights theories are ordinarily
deontological theories, that is they
maintain that there are norms we
should always obey irrespective of
circumstance.
Module 5
Ethics, Religion, and the Meaning of
Life
“one great End in life” - trying to
make a coherent whole out of
all these different (and sometimes
competing) dimensions.
Life skills “the abilities for adaptive
and positive behavior that enable
individuals to deal effectively with the
demands and challenges of everyday
life”
Adaptive- flexible in approach and is
able to adjust in different
circumstances.
These are the life skills:
● Self-awareness and
self-management
● Empathy and sympathy
● Problem-solving and
Decision-making
● Interpersonal relationship
● Accepting criticism
● Stress management
● Thinking and creativity’
● Communication and
collaboration
Positive behavior- forward-looking and
can find a ray of hope and
opportunities to find solutions even in
difficult situations.
Modern Definition of resiliency:
“Advancing despite adversity”= Vision &
proactive
Values of Life
● Honesty and loyalty
● Respect for work
● Punctuality, regularity and
discipline
● Courtesy and politeness with
others
● Judicious use of resources
● Taking initiatives
● Efficiency in completing tasks
Values at Workplace
● Honesty and loyalty for the
organization
● Respect for the work assigned
● Punctuality, regularity and
discipline
● Judicious use of resources
● Courtesy and politeness with
coworkers
● Efficiency in completing tasks
● Willingness to take up new tasks
God and Good: Plato’s Euthyphro
"Euthyphro dilemma" that emerges
from this dialogue raises questions
about the nature of morality, the
relationship between the divine and
moral standards, and whether actions
are inherently moral or become moral
because they are approved by the gods
Piety- quality of being religious or
reverent or devoted through act of
worship. refer to a deep respect or
reverence for something considered
sacred, whether it's religious beliefs,
traditions, or values.
Pious- Someone who is devotedly
religious or reverent describe behavior
that reflects a sincere sense of
reverence or devotion, even outside of
religious contexts, such as showing
great respect for moral principles or
ethical values.
Plato’s Dialogue - Socrates engages in
a discussion with Euthyphro, a
religious expert, to determine the
nature of piety.
Piety/Pious - quality of being devoutly
religious or showing reverence for the
divine. Specifically, it involves acting in
accordance with religious duties,
rituals, and moral obligations.
Plato’s Question:
What is it to be pious?
He is not looking for a list of things that
are pious
He is not looking for a property that
(even all) pious things have.
Euthyphro’s (best?) answer:
To be pious is to be loved by all the
gods and consists of doing what is
pleasing to them.
Plato’s Argument against
Euthyphro’s answer:
Perhaps all and only those
things/actions that are loved by the
gods are pious. But why is that?
Two Main Arguments:
● Are actions pious because the gods
love them?
● Or do the gods love actions because
they are pious?
1st argument -
If actions are pious because the gods
love them, then piety is arbitrary,
dependent solely on the whims of the
gods. In this case, actions could be
considered pious simply because the
gods decree them to be so, regardless of
their moral implications.
Explanation: Okay, imagine if actions
were considered good or pious just
because the gods liked them. That
would mean what's right or wrong
could change depending on what the
gods felt like, right? So, something
could be called good or pious just
because the gods said so, even if it
didn't seem right to us. It's like saying
eating broccoli is good just because
your parents like it, even if you don't
think it's tasty or healthy. So, if actions
were pious only because the gods liked
them, then being pious wouldn't really
mean anything solid or consistent.
2nd argument -
If the gods love actions because they
are inherently pious, then there must
be an independent standard of piety
that exists outside of the gods. This
challenges the idea that piety is solely
based on divine command and implies
that there are objective moral principles
that even the gods must adhere to.
Explanation: If the gods love actions
because they are inherently pious, then
there must be a standard of piety that
exists outside of the gods. This suggests
that there are objective moral principles
even the gods must follow.
The arguments and questions regarding
piety remain unresolved by the end of
the dialogue. They did not provide
definitive answer to the question
instead they challenges the reader to
critically examine their assumption
about morality and religion
Moral Action and Religion
morality and religion signal two related
but distinct ideas.
Morality- the conduct of human affairs
and relations between persons
Religion- involves the relationship
between human beings and a
transcendent reality.
moral action- deliberate will
One of our unique abilities as human
beings is to direct our own lives. We
are free to choose our actions; we are
not simply determined by instinct. This
freedom enables us to be creative and
to choose from among many possible
good actions.
“You may freely eat every tree in the
garden.” — Gen 2:16 The Garden of
Eden
A religion involves a communal,
transmittable body of teachings and
prescribed practices about an ultimate,
sacred reality or state of being that calls
for reverence or awe, a body which
guides its practitioners into what it
describes as a saving, illuminating or
emancipatory relationship to this reality
through a personally transformative life
of prayer, ritualized meditation, and/or
moral practices like repentance and
personal regeneration.
-Taliaferro & Marty 2010: 196–197
Unfortunately, this freedom also
enables us to choose things that are
evil, that is, contrary to what is good for
us and to what God commands.
“But of the tree of the knowledge of
good and evil you shall not eat, for in
the day that you eat of it you shall die.”
Gen 2:16
God greatly desires us to choose only
what is good for us, because he has
created us out of love to be his adopted
children, free, holy and happy with him
forever.
God does not, however, force us to do
good. As long as we are alive here, we
remain free to choose between good and
evil. The effects of both kinds of choice
are evident in human society.
Religious Practices
“All religions, arts, and sciences are
branches of the same tree. All these
aspirations are directed towards
ennobling man's life, lifting it from the
sphere of mere physical existence, and
leading
● cultural systems
● belief systems and worldviews
● narratives, symbols
● traditions and
● sacred histories
Effects of Religious Practice on
Society
1. Education
Academic expectations, level of
education attained, school attendance,
and academic performance are all
positively affected by religious practice.
2. Economy
The religious people were more
generous.
3. Crime
Religious attendance is associated with
direct decreases in both minor and
major forms of crime and deviance
4. Health
The majority of research revealed that
religious commitment and practice can
lead to increased self-esteem and
well-being
5. Family Relationships
The practice of religion not only
stabilizes marriage but also improves
its quality.
Two Pillars for Secular Ethics
1. The recognition of our shared
humanity and our shared aspiration to
happiness and the avoidance of
suffering.
2. The understanding of
interdependence as a key feature of
human reality, including our biological
reality as social animals.
Module 6
Moral System
Moral system- interlocking sets of
values, virtues, norms, practices,
identities, institutions, technologies,
and evolved psychological mechanisms
that work together to suppress or
regulate self-interest and make
cooperative societies possible.
The moral system balances the cause
of human interests not only just
obedience to the law for their common
peace and safety in the society.
Setting Moral System - Basic
Assumptions
1. Rationally based and yet not be
devoid of emotion.
2. Logically consistent but not rigid
and inflexible
3. Universality or general application
to humanity
4. Should be teachable and
promulgated
5. Have the ability to resolve conflicts
among human beings
Basic Principles
1. Choosing the Principles
“One principle will not cover
everything that is needed in a
System”
2. The Value of Life Principle
“Human beings should revere life
and accept death.” concern the
preservation and protection of
human life.
3. The Principle of Goodness or
Rightness
➔ 1. Promote goodness over
badness and do good
(beneficence).
➔ Cause no harm or
badness (nonmaleficence).
➔ Prevent badness or harm
(nonmaleficence).
4. Principles of Justice or Fairness
treat others fairly and justly.
Justification: Each should have
an equal opportunity to acquire
the goods of society. Recognize
equality of human beings and yet
allow for individual difference.
5. Principle of Truth Telling or
Honesty
6. The Principle of Individual
Freedom
being individua ls with individual
differences, must have the
freedom to choose their own
ways.
Three Prominent Theories of
Punishment
1. deterrent theory- punishment is
justified by the fact that it deters
people from doing wrong
(whether the persons punished,
other people, or both).
Explanation: Deterrent theory
says punishment is okay
because it stops people from
doing bad things. It's like saying,
 "If you punish someone for doing
something wrong, they or others
won't do it again because they
don't want to get punished." So,
punishment serves as a warning
to prevent future bad behavior.
2. retributive theory- justification in
the fact of retribution and is
often characterized in terms of
“an eye for an eye”; you are
punished because you did
wrong, regardless of the
consequences of punishment.
3. Rehabilitation theory urges in
trying to improve the person’s
character and values by using
education, training, medication,
and therapy.