1080
Reagent Water
Reviewed by Standard Methods Committee, 2011. Editorial revisions, 2021.
1080 A. Introduction
One of the most important aspects of analysis is preparing
the reagent water used for blanks and reagents. Reagent water
is water with no detectable concentration of the compound or
element to be analyzed (i.e., it is below the analytical method’s
detection level). Reagent water should also be free of substances
that interfere with analytical methods. However, its overall qual-
ity (concentrations of organic, inorganic, and biological constitu-
ents) depends on the water’s intended uses.
Use any method to prepare reagent water that meets the appli-
cable quality requirements. Various combinations of reverse
1080 B. Methods for Preparing Reagent-Grade Water
1. Distillation
Distillation is the process of heating a liquid until it boils, cap-
turing and cooling the resultant hot vapors, and collecting the
condensed vapors. Laboratory-grade distilled water should be
generated in a still made of all-borosilicate glass, fused quartz,
tin, or titanium. To remove ammonia, distill from an acid solu-
tion. Remove CO2 by boiling the water for 15 min and cooling
rapidly to room temperature; exclude atmospheric CO2 by using
a tube containing soda lime or a commercially available CO2-
removing agent (e.g., Ascarite II).
Impurities may leach into water from its container during boil-
ing. Also, freshly replaced filters, cartridges, and resins initially
can release impurities. Pretreat feedwater and maintain a still
periodically to minimize scale formation. A demineralization pre-
treatment using reverse osmosis or ion exchange may be required
if the feedwater contains significant concentrations of calcium,
magnesium, and bicarbonate ions.
2. Reverse Osmosis
During reverse osmosis, water is forced under pressure through
a semipermeable membrane, thereby removing some dissolved
constituents and suspended impurities. The resultant reagent
water quality depends on both feedwater quality and the type and
condition of membranes used.
Reverse osmosis membranes are available in both spiral-wound
and hollow-fiber configurations. The choice depends on the feed-
water’s characteristics and fouling potential. Obtain rejection data
for feedwater contaminants (levels of salt and impurities that will
pass through the membranes compared to feedwater levels) at the
https://doi.org/10.2105/SMWW.2882.010
osmosis, distillation, deionization, or ultrafiltration and ultravi-
olet irradiation can produce reagent water. Keep in mind, how-
ever, that improperly operated or maintained water purification
systems may add rather than remove contaminants.
This section provides general guidelines for preparing reagent
water. Table 1080:1 lists commonly available water purifica-
tion processes and the major classes of contaminants that they
remove. For details on preparing water for microbiological tests,
see Section 9020 B.4d.
operating pressure that will be used to prepare reagent water. Set
the water-production rate to make the most economical use of feed-
water without compromising permeate (reagent water) quality.
Pretreatment steps (e.g., filtration) may be needed to minimize
membrane fouling (due to colloids or particulates) and degra-
dation (due to chlorine, iron, and other oxidizing compounds).
Also, the membrane modules need to be backwashed periodically
to clean the surface of the membranes. If using a commercially
available reverse osmosis system, follow the manufacturer’s
instructions for quality control (QC) and maintenance.
3. Ion Exchange
In an ion exchange process, water passes through a reactor con-
taining negatively charged (anionic), positively charged (cationic)
resins, or both. Targeted ions in the water are substituted with spe-
cific ions on the resins (ones acceptable in treated water systems),
thereby purifying the water. To prepare deionized water, direct
feedwater through a mixed-bed ion exchanger, which contains
both strong anion and strong cation resins. Proper bed sizing is
critical to resin performance. Be sure the bed’s length-to-diameter
ratio is in accordance with the maximum process flow rate to
ensure that optimal face velocities are not exceeded and that
residence time is sufficient.
If the system does not generate reagent water continuously,
recirculate the water through the ion exchanger. If resin regen-
eration is economically attractive, use separate anion and cat-
ion resin beds, and position the anion exchanger downstream of
the cation exchanger to remove leachates from the cation resin.
If the feedwater contains significant quantities of organic mat-
ter, remove the organics first to minimize the potential for resin
1
 1080 REAGENT WATER - C. Reagent Water Quality

Table 1080:1. Water Purification Processes

Major Classes of Contaminants
Dissolved Dissolved Dissolved Pyrogens/
Process Ionized Salts Ionized Gases Organics Particulates Bacteria Endotoxins
Distillation G-Ea P G E E E
Deionization E E P P P P
Reverse osmosis Gb P G E E E
Carbon adsorption P Pc G-Ed P P P
Filtration P P P E E P
Ultrafiltration P P Ge E E E
Ultraviolet oxidation P P G-Ef P Gg P
E = excellent (capable of complete or near total removal), G = good (capable of removing large percentages), P = poor (little or no
removal).
a
The resistivity of water purified via distillation is an order of magnitude less than that in water produced via deionization, mainly
due to the presence of CO2 and sometimes H2S, NH3, and other ionized gases (if present in feedwater).
b
The resistivity of dissolved ionized solids in product water depends on original feedwater resistivity.
c
Activated carbon removes chlorine via adsorption.
d
When used with other purification processes, special grades of activated carbon and other synthetic adsorbents are excellent at re-
moving organic contaminants. Their use, however, is targeted toward specific compounds and applications.
e
Ultrafilters reduce specific feedwater organic contaminants based on the membrane’s rated molecular weight cut-off.
f
185-nm UV oxidation (batch process) removes trace organic contaminants effectively when used as post-treatment. Feedwater
makeup plays a critical role in their performance.
g
Although 254-nm UV sterilizers do not physically remove bacteria, they may have bactericidal or bacteriostatic capabilities limit-
ed by intensity, contact time, and flow rate.
With permission from National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Studies. The complete current standard may be obtained from
National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards.

fouling. Organics can be removed via prefiltration, distillation,
reverse osmosis, or adsorption. If using commercially prepared
resin columns, follow supplier’s recommendations for monitoring
QC of reagent water from specific equipment.
4. Adsorption
In adsorption, water is fed into a reactor filled with an adsorbent
material (typically, granular activated carbon, although some res-
ins and other manufactured adsorbents are used in specific appli-
cations). Chlorine and other organic impurities are drawn from
the water to the surface of the adsorbent. How well the process
works depends on the organic contaminants involved, the activated
carbon’s physical characteristics, and the operating conditions. In
general, organics-adsorption efficiency is inversely proportional
to the solubility of the organics in water and the adsorption pro-
cess may be inadequate for removing low-molecular-weight, polar
compounds. Performance differences among activated carbons are
attributable to the raw materials and activation procedures. Even
with an optimal activated carbon, proper performance will not be
attained unless the column is sized to provide required face veloc-
ity and residence time at the maximum process flow rate. If using
commercial sorbent systems, follow the supplier’s recommended
flow and QC steps.
Using activated carbon may adversely affect the reagent water’s
resistivity. This effect may be controlled via reverse osmosis,
mixed resins, or special adsorbents. To minimize organic contam-
ination, use mixtures of polishing resins with special carbons and
additional treatment steps (e.g., reverse osmosis, natural carbons,
ultraviolet oxidation, or ultrafiltration).

1080 C. Reagent Water Quality

1. Quality Guidelines distillation, deionization, or reverse osmosis of feedwa-

Guidelines for reagent water vary with the intended use.1 Table
1080:2 lists some characteristics of various qualities of reagent
water. In general,
• low-quality reagent water has a minimum resistivity of 0.1
megohm-cm at 25 °C. It may be used to wash glassware,
rinse glassware (as a preliminary step), and as a source to
produce higher-grade waters;
• medium-quality reagent water typically is produced via
distillation or deionization, with a resistivity >1 megohm-cm
at 25 °C; and
• high-quality reagent water has a minimum resistivity
of 10 megohms-cm at 25 °C. It typically is prepared via
ter followed by mixed-bed deionization and membrane
filtration (0.2-mm pore). It also could be prepared via
reverse osmosis followed by carbon adsorption and
deionization.
More detailed reagent water specifications are available.1-3
Mixed-bed deionizers typically add small amounts of organic
matter to water, especially if the beds are fresh, so determine
reagent water quality immediately after preparation. Its resistivity
(measured in-line) should be >10 megohm-cm at 25 °C. How-
ever, resistivity measurements do not detect organics or nonion-
ized contaminants, nor accurately assess ionic contaminants at
the microgram-per-liter level.

https://doi.org/10.2105/SMWW.2882.010 2
 1080 REAGENT WATER - C. Reagent Water Quality

Table 1080:2. Reagent Water Specifications the water from contamination (e.g., PTFE and glass for organics
Quality Parameter High Medium Low analysis or plastics for metals).
Resistivity, megohm-cm at 25 °C >10 >1 > 0.1
References
Conductivity, mmho/cm at 25 °C < 0.1 <1 <10
SiO2 (mg/L) < 0.05 < 0.1 <1
1. ASTM D-1193-06(2018). Standard specification for reagent water.
Annual Book of ASTM Standards; Vol 11.01. West Conshohocken
(PA): ASTM International; 2006.
The pH of high- or medium-quality water cannot be measured
2. ISO 3696:1987 (confirmed 2018). Water for analytical laboratory
accurately without contaminating the water, so measure other use: specification and test methods. Geneva, Switzerland: Interna-
constituents required for individual tests. tional Organization for Standardization; 1987.
High-quality water cannot be stored without degrading signifi- 3. CLSI GP40 (confirmed June 16, 2018). Preparation and testing of
cantly. Medium-quality water may be stored, but keep storage reagent water in the clinical laboratory: approved guidelines. 4th ed.
time to a minimum and make sure the quality remains consis- Annapolis Junction (MD): Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute;
tent with the intended use. Only store it in materials that protect 2006.

Published Online: August 27, 2018

Revised: May 11, 2021
https://doi.org/10.2105/SMWW.2882.010 3