64 JAPAN,S CULINARY BRANDS AND IDENTITIES

3o. Fukego,454-455.
y. Fukego,47o-47l
12. Hollow interiors of plants or fruits sometimes gave magical birth to
from the numinous world. Ryti.sawa Aya, "Mastering Visions
creatu-res or gifts
of the Borderlands: Claiming Sovereignty through Myth," paper presented in the
3
panel "Visualizing Stories of Heian fapan: Go-Shirakawa-in's Image Repository"
at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Asian Studies, San Diego, Califomia,
March zor3.
33. Fukego,47t.
Soba, Edo Style
14. F or a chart of the vegetables in the M arlyashil, see Toriimoto Y.llayo, ShAjin
ryari tu Nihonjira (Tokyo: Shunjusha, zoo6), z8-29. Gustav Heldt describes the Food, Aesthetics, and Cultural ldentity
connection between the Kokinshtt and the sovereign's symbolic consumption of his
subjects and their production: Tha Pursuit of Harmony: Poetry and Power in Early Heion
Japan (l+haca, NY East AsianPrograrn, Cornell University, zooS),42-t44.
Loie Brau
35, Shoku ho hito no woto nai. Kokon chomonjr, ed. Nishio Koichi and Kobayashi
Yasuharu floLyo: Shinchosha, ry86), z:3o3.
fapan is infatr.rated with noodles, as seen by the prevalence not only
16. Kokon chomonjfi, 1zz.
of such traditional domestic varieties as somen, udon, and soba, but
37. Kokon chornonjil, 3zz.
also Westem or "ethniC'noodles, from spaghetti to pad thai. In terms
18. Tetsu Kariya and Akira Hanasaki, Oishinbo: Japanese Cuisine (San
Francisco: Viz Media: zoog [zoo6ll, n4. of popularity and quantity consumed, ramen wins the title of fapan s
39. Lisa He1dke, Exotic Appetites: Ruyninations of a Food Adventurer "national noodle" hands down, coming in third place overall in one
(London: Routledge, zoo3). recent fapanese online survey as a favorite food.' But soba (buck-
4o, Oishinbo,259, wheat noodles), seen in figure 3.t, also makes the list. One woman
4r. Fukuoka Masanobu, The One-Straw Revolution: An Introduction to Naturol commented, "There are lots of kinds of noodles, but I think that
Farming (New York: New York Review Books Classics, zoog lt975l).
only Japan has soba." A man described soba as nihonteki, "typically
|apanese," and praised its texture, which he daimed is not found in
foreign noodle dishes."
Sometimes referred to as "Nihon (fapanese) soba" to distinguish
them from Chinese "soba," that is, ramen, buclavheat noodles are
eaten all over fapan. Commuters and travelers slurp them at stands
on train platforms. Numerous regions-Izumo on the fapan Sea and
Iwate in the north, for example-promote their style of preparing
soba as a local specialty (meibutsu). The mountainous Nagano re-
gion, formerly called Shinshrl, is associated with excellent soba, in
particular, its kii no shita soba (under'Ihe-mist buckwheat) grown at
high altitude; the daily wide range in temperature and superior water
produce a high-cluality crop.r The prefecture's promotional material
sometimes capitalizes on the fact that soba noodles are said to have
originated at a Nagano temple (see below). Shinshu soba is advertised
to tourists as a local specialty. Nagano's dried soba noodles are sold
throughout fapan.
(t6
IApAN's cULINARY BRANDS AND tDENI-lrlFls
with dipping sarrct:'
FrcuRFr tr.t 7,an; soba, i.e., cold soba noodles eaterl a
Vir Wikimedia Conttnorts.
while Kyoto is noted for nishin soba, soba noodles in soup topped with
simmered herring, the western Kansai region (encompassing I(yoto, osaka,
Nara, Hyogo, Mie, wakayama, and Shiga prefectures) is considered udon
country. The rivalry between these thick, white wheat noodles and s<iba noodles
dates to the Edo period (see below). Devotees of udon or soba still debate their
noodle preferences in Internet discussion groups.4 Given the increased mo-
bility of the fapanese populace and the homogenizing effects of mass media,
the clivide between the two noodle camps has blurred. Tokyo now boasts more
uclon specialty restaurants, for example. Although some Osakans, stlongly
identified as udon eaters, may substitute udon for soba in the New Year's
noodle-eating ritual (toshi koshi soba), most Iapanese close out the old year with
a bowl of soba noodles. Soba's prominence in this national practice confirms
its importance as a "Iapanese" food.s
Rather than cite the many sites of soba production and consumption as
evidence for soba's statLls as faparr's "nationai noodle," this chapter focuscs
on the soba tradition of the city of Edo (now Tokyo), inquiring into how bucl<-
wheat noodles in the Edo period (16o3-1867) and later contribute not only trr
a local, but also to a national, |apanese g,astronomic identity. It examitres t:r.'tl'
temporary cliscourse and strmrnarizes research otr solta's plact'in tlr<: ttrltttrt'
,f thc lllel<k6, t|c "c|ildrcp of Edo," thlLt is, rncrchrttis, cr;rlispt'oplt', rrlrd tlrt'ir
clt,stt'prl;rrrlswlrosintt'llrt't,igltlct'rrllt<t'rtttrrylt;tvclltlilttpri<lt'irlllrt'ir itlt'rrlily
.rsllrr.lrrrt,rr;rlivr.s,,l llrr,tily;rrrrl rrcirlorsol ilsrttl,,ttt,ttllrrll Alllr lt,trittllltorv
1,,,r 1,.,.,1. " r1,,,, l,,r,r,,r i irrr<irlr.r.:
SOtsA, EDO STYI-U 67
t}-rerole of such traditional performance genres as kabuki and rakugo slory'
telling in enhancing soba's status as a food that etnbodies the aesthetic of iki,
rur Edo "chic." It concludes with an examination of more recent discourse on
soba as a food that evokes the Edo past.
In "The Invcntion of Edo," historian Carol Gluck argues that since the
Meiji period (r868-r9rz), the fapanese have come to view the Edo period as
"tradition," "the way we flapanese) once were."(' Among the uses to which
"Edo as tradition" has been put is the "commodification of nostaigia," which
has engendered a heritage industry.r The construct of"Edo as Japanese tradi-
tion" has precipitated a number of "Edo booms," some initiated by government
policies or mass media.s For example, the four hundredth annivetsary of the
r(>o3 opening of the shogun's government in Edo was comlrlemorated in Tokyo
with a number of events thror-rghout 2ool, including a festival ceiebrating four
lrundred years of Edo food culture.r Much of the mass-media discourse on the
t:do period originates in Tokyo and centers on thc city's past. While the trans-
fbnnation of Tol<yo into a "world city" has obliterated rnost physical traces of
tlie old city, its past has been reincarnated today as "heritage."'o
Soba figures in some of this heritage production and has itself enioyed a
boom for the last twenty years or so. Televisiol-t coverage, magazine articles,
soba fan lvebsites, manga, and a plethora of recently published popular books
r,n soba, from how to makc and eat it to soba chefs' memoirs and restaurant
guides, attest to a lively interest in the noodle." Soba academies, as well as organ-
izations offering soba-making experiences as a form of tourisrn, have sprung
Lrpthroughout fapan." Japanese food booms tend to respond to a hunger for
son-rething new but the soba boom also embodies nostaigia for an imagined
prst. In a foodscape dominated by convenience foods, soba enthusiasts ap-
prcciate the frcshness and taste to be had in the handmade, artisanal product
rrff-ered at an old Edo-style sobaya (soba restaurant). By partaking of the iconic
lood of the Edokko, they accrue culinary capital as they display their knowledge
of Edo style.
lrrom Buckwheat to Buckwheat Noodles
lk'firle it camc to refer to noodles, soba meant "buckwheat," a crop related to
rlrtrlxtrlt, wltosc sced was hulled and eatett as porridge or ground intrt flour for'
tlrrrrrplings in )rpan. T'lrc carlicst written evidcncc of bucklvheat used as a food
irr f :r1.r:rrr tlrrlt's lo tltt' Nlrrlr pt'riotl (7ro 7r)41." 'T'1rt't:asily ctrltivattlcl Iruckwhcat
:1,'rv,'tl ;rs ;r <otrlitrlicttty lirr,,l, llrovitlittg sttslt'tt:ttttt'itt yt'ltrs t,f 1ll,,,t- t-itt',,t
68 jApAN's cuIINAttY LJRANDS AND Il)liN'i'l l-lFls

The first written referen ce to soba in noodle forrrt dates Io t57 4 and is found
in the records of the Josholi temple in Kiso, in what is now Nagano pref-ecture.+
A plaque in Osal<a marks the spot where the sobaya Sunaba was first opened
i

in r58j, at the s;rrrd pit (sunabal where Ttryotomi Hicleyoshi was building Osaka
Castlc.,r In spite of their later associatiori with Edo arrd thc Edo period, buck-
wheat nooclles and noodle shops seem to have originated elsewhere and carlier.
The term sobqkid (soba dough cut into noodles) began to appear in Edo
accorlnts in the seventeenth A work horn$64 mentions "kendon
century.,6
udon sobal<iri" as bcing eatetr by the lower classes.'' "l(eudon" noodle shops
serving both the tliick wheat r-rdon noodlcs ancl soba, whjch first appeared in
tl.re pleasure quarters, were named after lr)w-pticed prostitutes (ken'don jorAl.
These restaurants were cheap places to grab a quick bite, as opposed to places
to drink and socialize. A proclamation issued by the Tokugawa govertrrnent ir.l
r686 prohibiting yatai (food stal1s, illustrated in figure 3.2) that sold udon and
soba after darl< strggests that soba was alnollg street vcndors'offcrirlgs. Selling
cooked foocl fi"orn carts or sta11s in thc cvcriing was forbiddcn because of flear: of
fire. In spite of frcquent bans, these food stalls, and soba, proliferated.'s

Soba and the Edokko (Children ofEdo)

tn acklition to technical ir"nprovements in the rniiling of bucl<wheat ilour and

experimelttation with various methods of increasing tl,e viscosity of the dough
w,ith such fillets as eeg lvhite, moutrtain yam, and wheat flour, it was the
Edokko, soba scholar Iwasaki Shin'ya argrles, who boosted soba's popularity.")
Thc associatiol of Edokko with soba continr-rcs to dc.rminate soba discor-irsc rrfl
today. Onc cr.lrnrnentatol on a You'Tirbe travelogr.re called soba the Edokkos'
}F
Bl
"soul food" (using English)." Another soba fan writes, "Edokl<o to ieba, soba,'' _&

ts
"For Edokko, it's soba.""
Nlshiyama Matsunosuke, a leading scholar of Edo cr,tltut e who has writtctl .4:t

crtensively on the Edol<ko, defincd thcm as farnilics who had lived in F,do sirlct' t,gll
Itr I

the city's early clays, acquiring wealth by runring fislr marl<ets or working rs '|i;'r
.'i
rice brol<ers or lumber dealers, for exartple.'' J'he later Edol<ko, who achievccl -:-l

critical mass in the early nineteenth century, wele a mole diverse and lcss r(,rrRr, j z 'lbriil(iyohiro, Edomeibutsttsobaga (pictrrreof Edo'sfarnor-rssobas),
lvealthy group than ihe earlier Edo-identi{red natives.'r A good nurnber of tllc'trr , r1ql rllorrllr ('crtrrry, ilhrstrating portable -qoba venclor equipnrent in background.
origitrally came fi'<tnr thc neighiror'ing countrysiclc to worl< irt coltstrtl(liott.;t Vi;r Wiliir rtr.cli:r ( irrrrrorrs
:rrrrlr rtt't'dt'cl trlLclt'itt lr ciiy lltlltotts ftrr its tlt'vltstlllirrg lir-t's.'l'llt'st'ttlctt lylr
irlrlly rt'lit,rl orr [irorl lrr-ls or sollr slrrps lo lictr' llrt'ttt:tclvcs ovct willt ;t stt:tt li
rtrrlil lltt,r'trrl ol lltlit wrrllitl,rt. Al,,tl1i willr Ilttlpttt,t.';ttr;lri,.rtr,l lirill,'tl ,'r'1,
..1., 1.,., ,,1 lr,l,,', l,,rr Llrr "l,,:l {,',',1,: " r( )rrr r rr vr lrrnlrlt.r ol lr,lo lilr'
7O JAPAN'S CULINARY BRANDS AND IDENTITIES
Morisad.a Manka (Morisada's sketches: A history of the mannets of the Edo
period) (1837), noted that there were soba restaurants on nearly every block
of Edo.'s
While Edokko promoted soba, soba also played a role in constructing
Edokko identity and helped to dispel Edo's inferiority complex toward the more
advanced culinary culture of Kamigata (Osaka and Kyoto).'6 Kamigata soy
sauce and sake, deemed superior, were exported to Edo.'7 Feisty Edokko took
soba noodles, made from buckwheat, a foodstuffthat had been a staple of the
poor, and made them stylish in order to declare their independence from the
high culture of Osaka and Kyoto.'8
A ry76 satiric pictr-rre book (kibyashi), [Jdon sobq bqkemono Oeyarna (Udon
and Soba, monster of Mount Oe), demonstrates how soba symbolized Edo
in opposition to the udon of Kamigata. In this parody, based on the story
of Minamoto Raik6's triumph over the demon Shuten Ddji on Mount Oe,
Minamoto no Sobako (soba flour), aided by his four great warriors (a11 soba
condiments parodying the original characters' names), Usui no Daikon (radish),
Urabe no Katsuobushi (bonito flakes), Sakata no T6garashi (chili pepper), and
Watanabe no Chinpi (dried tangerine peel) slay the demon, Udon Ddji.'o The
work suggests that whether or not soba beat out udon as a favorite noodle on
the street, by q76 it had come to symbolize Edokko pride.
Iki:The Edokko Style
Santo KyOden (176r-1816), a popular writer of comic fiction and Edo native,
iisted five characteristics of an Edokko.l'The last concerned temperament: the
Edokko expressed hari (strength of character) and iki, which Nishiyama
explains was "an aesthetic of the metropolis, where men and women entered
into relations subtly tensed with hari, bitai (charm) and akanuke (a cool, unas-
suming character)."r'This aesthetic spread from the pleasure quarters, where it
had tlpified the coquetry inherent in the ideal relationship between a geisha or
prostitute and her client. A discerning client who patronized and appreciated
geisha as an embodiment of iki might be referred to as a tsfi, a connoisseur,
Iki became a symbol for the character of merchants and the lifestyle of a whole
social c1ass.:' In her discussion of iki as a form of "coolness," Elena Giannoulie
writes that the lower classes practiced iki to set themselves apart from their
rulers, the samurai; iki thus "functioned as a selfprotective mechanism in the
face of humiliation and expropriations by the authorities."tl
The code of iki not only shaped manners and fashion, but alsrt how and
what one ate. Kasai Toshiva concentualizes soba and tkl ur belnu in a svtrerqistic
soBA, EDO STYLE 71
lrlalionship.r+ He elaborates, for example, on the qualities of Edo ni-hachi soba
(ttoodles madewith Bo percent sobaflour and zo percentwheatflour) that render
ll lki.15 Edokko preferred their soba noodles thin. The thinness demonstrates the
rklll of the soba craftsman and enables the eater to swallow with fewer chews.
Itttlccd the connoisseur barely chews Edo soba, enjoyingthe nodogoshi, the sen-
rulion of the noodles sliding down the throat. The sound that one makes as one
rll( ks in air and slurps them down, "tsurutsuru," enhances enjoyrnent of their
Hrorna and cools them offwhen they are eaten hot. Kasai maintains that soba is
rvt,rr iki in terms of color. In the Edo period, tans and grays were fashionably iki
r olors; the color of Edo soba ranges from creamy white to a grayish tan.;6
IGsals assessment of soba's intrinsic iki qualities may owe something to
plrilosopher Kuki Shflzd, who raised the aesthetic of iki to the level of a na-
flrrrtal fapanese philosophy in his r93o work, lki nokazo (The Structure of lki).
ltt l footnote, I(uki summarizes what constitutes iki in the realm of cuisine
utrd gives a few examples. "In short," Kuki writes, "iki taste is light and well
trtodulated; it stimulates several bodily senses at once-smell and touch as well
ur the palate."v Kuki seems to be descdbing what Kyoto chefs might refer to
as hin, "restrained elegance" (see the de St. Maurice chapter in this volume).
Soba's light taste and the fact that eating it engages all the senses suggest that
ll would likely meet I(ukis requirements for an iki food.
Soba Style on Stage
I n addition to the pleasure quarters, Edokko and their Tokyoite descendants have
[xrked to kabuki for entertainment and to its actors as models of iki. Insofar as
ttrany plays depicted everyday life in Edo, soba often makes an appearance. In
lltc iconic Edo kabuki play, Sukeroku: The Flower of Edo $7t), Sukeroku dumps
l tray of cold soba on the head of one of his enemies. One of the most famous
Hcones featuring soba in the kabuki repertoire is "The Soba Shop Scene" in 'A
Narrow Road in Iriya on a Snowy Evening" (Yuki no yilbe liya no azemichi).t8
Naojir6, a samurai turned bandit who is on the lam, stops into a sobaya on a
Nnowy night for a bowl ofhot noodles, In one ofthe few scenes in kabuki that
li'ature real food, Naojir6 slurps up the soba in true Edokko fashion.;s On the
other hand, the spies on Naojir6's tail consume their soba silently, thereby re-
v<'ating their non-Edo origins.
One might also read in this soba shop scene an overtone of resignation
(ukirame), that is part of the iki aesthetic. Naojird is on his way to see his
lover, whom he knows that he will like)y never meet again after that night.
'['he soba that Naniird eatE l:eFnre this lrst visit svmbolizes thoir son;rtntion.

72, IAPAN'S CULINARY BRANDS AND IDENTITIES
tendency to break easily, due to its lack of gluten (which adds viscosity),
Soba',s
renders it an apt symbol for parting'+' It similarly conveys resignation to fate
and farewell s Kanadehon Chnshingwra (The treasury of forLy-seven loyal
in
retainers) celebrated as perhaps the most iconic and beloved fapanese tale of
samurai loyalty. Under the rubric of "uchiiri soba" (Soba of the raid), legends
have circulated about how the loyal retainers shared a light meal of soba on the
second floor of a sobaya before carrying out their vendetta.a'
Edo dwellers who had neither the time nor money to enjoy kabuki flocked
to their neighborhood storytelling house (yose) to take in a variety of acts, in-
cluding rakugo storpeliing. while no real food appears on stage in rakugo,
some pieces involve miming the eating of noodles, sweets, and other foods'
The custom of making sounds as one eats noodles, hilariously parodied in the
spaghettieating etiquette scene in Itami Jflzo's frLm Tampopo (1985), provides
rakugo storytellers (hanashika\ with great opportunities to connect with their
audience. These days their slurping performances typically bring applause.
Perhaps these rakugo performances foster an imagined Japanese community
around soba, as this manner of demonstrating gustatory pleasure is a part of
f apanese gastronomic identitY.
In one of the most well-known rakugo stories, "Toki soba" (Time noodles),
a foolish protagonist overhears a man cheat a soba street vendor by distracting
him with flattery and asking him the time as he counts out sixteen coins to
pay for his bowl of noodles. To confuse the cook, the con man holds forth
at length on the ideal bowl of soba. He notes that the chopsticks should be
disposable, illustrating the |apanese emphasis on purity and avoidance of
others,
,dirt,"+, and comments that the bowl in which the noodles are served
must be attractive, because one eats with one's eyes first. He adds that soba
should be served quickly, and that the noodles should be thin and not mushy.
If "Toki soba" spells out the rules that define an excellent bowl of soba, in
his rakugoesclue novel, I Am a Car (Wagahai wa neko de aru,1905), Natsume
Soseki lampoons the rules for proper consumption of soba through his "aes-
thete" character, Meitei Sensei.4; Meitei explains that, having grabbed a few
long strands on one's chopsticks, one should dip no more than a third of the
noodles into the sauce, swallow them in one gulp without chewing, savor the
feeling in the throat, and eat the entire serving in no more than three and a half
or four bites.++ Meitei Sensels instructions overstate it, but the stereotypical
Edokko does not like to dawdle, and does indeed eat cold soba quickly and dips
iightly. Rakugo storyteller Kingentei Basho made fun of this Edokko habit in a
prologue to a performance of the rakugo Sobasei: "One of the last words heard
on the deathbed of an Edokko: |ust once before I died, I woulcl have liked to
ha.r- onl.o .ltenrherl in cattre-"45
soBA, EDO STYLE 73
Iteviving Soba Cool in Contemporarylapan
For some decades of the twentieth century, soba was not as popular as it is
today. Murase Thdataro, author of Sobq Connoisseur (Soba tstt), expressed
apprehension about soba's future in r93o. He wrote that with the introduc-
tion of machines to make soba, people no longer acknowledged the skill
of the soba artisan. Soba makers had become careless about their training. '
Much of this soba tasted awful, he lamented.+6 Uehara Ror6's t97z Soba
Encyclopedia (Soba jiten) expressed similar concern about the waning pop-
ularity of soba.+z
Since the Edo boom, however, downtown Edokko culture has been
reinvented as "cultural heritage" at the yose where rakugo is performed, on
television, and in other digital and electronic media. This reinvention of "Edo"
has given rise to such phenomena as the Edo Sobalier Society, founded in
zoo), anonprofit organizalionthat sponsors a certified course for the purpose
of "learning about Edo soba and becoming stylish (iki) soba connoisseurs."48
l-ike other fapanese foodies, soba aficionados tend to seek distinction by fo-
cusing their energy on the pursuit ofconnoisseurship ofone food associated
with one region, in this case, the Edo tradition of soba. The Edo Sobalier
Society invites Edo soba aficionados to immerse themselves in soba culture
from numerous perspectives and develop the techniques to prepare it them-
selves, with the aim of becoming certified as a sobqie (sobalier, a sommelier
of soba).
The course curriculum is divided into four parts: learning by ear (lectures),
with the hands (lessons in making soba noodles), the tongue (eating at a variety
ofsobaya), and brain (presenting a research teport on soba). The "learning by
tongue" segment of the curriculum fosters students' appreciation for the skills
ofthe soba artisan. In their tasting notes, they are instructed to pay attention to
such things as the origin of the soba flour used, whether or not the noodles are
hand cut, and the noodles' aroma, sheen, and springiness. This concern with
the fine points of soba making and with terroir replicates the discourse of many
foodies in Europe and the United States, as well as )apan. Students who com-
plete the advanced course earn the credential, "Edo sobarie (sobalier)-Le chic,"
an impressive title that borrows its prestige from French with its reference to
"sommelier" and "chic," and bestows culinary capital.
The Edo Sobalier Society also articulates international aims, for example,
to further the development of fapanese food culture and, through soba, to
make healthy ]apanese food and food culture known throughout the world'+s
UNESCO has given this goal a boost by recognizing fapanese cuisine as
.intnnoilr'lp crrlhrrnl hr.riieoo" /seo thr. Rostor chanter in thig volumc). This
74 JAPAN'S CULINARY BRANDS AND IDENTITIES
development was the lead of Alexandra Woodruffs NPR story on Sonoko Sakai,
who runs soba-making classes in California. Woodruff mentioned the recent
UNESCO decision and noted that many consider soba "the humble jewel of
Japanese cuisine."5" The "humble
jewel" that is Edo soba embodies three sa-
lient themes as culinary heritage: (r) the way of the artisan; (z) the significance
that the Japanese ascribe to knowledge of form (kata); and $) iki and Japanese
identity.
Artisanality, the notion ofwork ethic and pride in one's craft, suffirses both
soba discourse and that ofJapan as a whole, as seen in the branding of Kyoto
taste (see the de St. Maurice chapter), Becoming a soba chef requires strict
training (shugyd), a period of hardship and sacrifice that is positively valued in
"Kantd Edo sobakiri no michi"
fapanese culture. A sentimental ballad entitled
(The way of the Kantd Edo soba cutter) celebrates these hardships: "Gazing at
my damaged hands, I think, how fast these ten years have flown, the artisan
training that I endured without shedding a tear. The pride of Edo, imbued with
bushido [the way of the samurai]-that spirit shines and takes on a beautiful
luster."5, In this song, ecluating the soba craftsman with the samurai enhances
such artisan traits as stoicism, pelseverance, and wholehearted commitment,
that is, giving one's al1 (issh1kenmei).
Edo soba discourse not only emphasizes the importance of knowing the
proper forms for producing artisanal soba, but also stresses mastery of the
forms of soba eating. Sosekis Meitei Sensei takes this preoccupation too far,
but some believe that to be able to call oneself a real connoisseuf, one must
know how to eat soba "correctly," however that may be defined, and understand
how to comport oneself at a sobaya. Books such as Sobaya no shikitai (The cus-
toms of the soba shop) explain what one needs to know.5'
If sentimental songs romanticize the way of the artisan, such culinary
manga as Sobsrnon: Nippon soba, a.nrya. (The gate of soba: Japanese soba pil-
grimage,2oog-present) emphasize the vast stock of knowledge that genera-
tions of soba chefs have acquired and applied in their mastery of the arts of
kneading, rolling, and cutting buckwheat flour dough.Y Sobatnow features an
itinerant protagonist who trained at an o1d Tokyo soba restaurant. He compares
to the wandering masterless samurai in fi1ms, the outsider who arrives on the
scene to set things right. This soba master imparts insider knowledge, corrects
people's misconceptions about soba that have arisen as a result of the informa-
tion glut produced by media, and equips would-be soba connoisseurs (tsfi) with
the knowledge to augment their culinary capital.
In one episocle, the manga informs readers abclut what makes a soba
tsrt. The path to becoming a connoisseul, as also emphasizcd by the Sobalier
sobaya, One ehooXer lht'l>cSt of these
soBA, EDO STYLE 75
restaurants and frequents it for some time. After losing interest in that place,
one chooses another establishment and becomes a regular there for a while.
In this manner, one can develop a good sense of personal preference and an
understanding of the styles of soba offered by different restaurants. Only after
developing one's palate for soba can one become a connoisseur; otherwise one
is eating with one's head, not one's tongue. Eating with one's head is character-
istic of the half,baked hqnkatsu (e.g., Meitei Sensei), someone who talks about
what's good without really understanding it.s+
Uehara Roro's definition of tsu embraces the ideals of cleanliness and con-
cern for others' comfort that often figure in representations of Japanese cul-
tural identity. He defines the soba tsu as someone who does not leave a messy
pile of noodles on the plate, dirty one's chopsticks, or slosh the noodles around
in the cup of dipping sauce. It is important not to be an eyesore or otherwise
disturb other diners.ti
Though following the rules implies conformity, some fapanese rules of
soba eating could almost be construed as rebelliousin a global context. what
is considered poor manners in much of the West, such as making noise as one
eats noodies, is regarded in Edo soba culture as a demonstration of enjoyment.
The Edo Sobalier website essay "Edo sobalier no kokoro" (The spirit of the Edo
sobalier) identifies soba itseif as a kind of outsider in the fapanese food world
in that it is not included among the "five grains" (wheat, rice, beans, and two
kinds of millet, awq. andkibi). "That may be why the independent Edoklco loved
soba," the author concludes.s6
"The Spirit of the Edo Sobalier" posits the "uniquely |apanese" aesthetics
of ga (elegancel, mono no q.ware (the pathos of things), yil.gen (mystery and
depth), and the ethics of isshakenmei (giving one's all) and dari (truth, reason)
as products of fapan's aristocratic and samurai culture. The author adds that
the townspeople of Edo developed their own ethos of chivalry and that the aes-
thetic of iki and tsu and juxtaposes this proud Edo townsman culture against
the samurai/aristocratic cultural hegemony. Edo townsman culture, with its
copious attention to worldly pleasures, including food, in fiction, drama, and
woodblock prints, contrasts the world of the Heian period aristocrat, whose
literary productions omitted any mention of food (see the Watanabe chapter in
the volume).
With its reference to broad cultural values and aesthetics, "The Spirit of
the Edo Sobalier" resembles Kuki Shrizo's 1930 monograph, Iki no kaza (The
Structure o/Ikl). I(uki, who studied in Europe for many years, aimed to abstract
iki and to express it using Western terminology in order to construct a fapanese
aesthetic that "would enable tlre fapanese to develop a national consciousness
of their own."57
76 ,APAN'S CULINARY BRANDS AND IDENTITIES
One behavior associated with iki----eating lightly-seems particularly
appropriate to recession-era fapan after decades of overconsumption, the
Westernization of the |apanese diet, and recent concerns with obesity. As illus.
trated by the expressions hqra. hachibun yne or harahachibu (belly 8o percent firll),
a concept of Confucian origin that has even gained traction in the Western health
media, the )apanese consider it prudent to stop eating short of complete satiation,
One might add that it is also iki to do so. One website notes that *re expression,
edobara (Edo belly) refers to a small appetite.5E The founder of one ofTolgo's old
sobaya used to say that Edokko believed that one should not inflate one's belly
on sushi or soba.5e And noted Edo tsii and manga artist Sugiura Hinako hu-
morously remarked about the small portions of soba served at restaurants, "An
Edokko wouldn't say, 'I'm hungry-let's go stuffourselves with soba."'6o
If one is concerned about looking attractively slim, an iki ideal, soba may
be prescribed: it has acquired a reputation as a diet food. A recent fapanese
Google search with the terms "soba" and "diet" yielded aboul 454,ooo hits,
One website notes that despite being a carbohydrate (a word that often evokeg
negative associations in fapanese diet discourse as well as Western), soba flouf
is lower on the glycemic index than is wheat.6' After decades of a "devouring
lapan" that has overconsumed, if not quantity, certainly a variety of foods from
all over the world, Edo soba's healthiness and its evocation of iki render it a
proud syrnbol to express fapanese cultural identity.
Epilogue
This study has focused on Edo soba's associations with the culture of Edo, Edo
chic (iki), and the proud, spirited Edokko, who stood up both to the hegemonic
cultural and political authority of their samurai superiors and to the older,
udon-eating lGmigata culinary culture. Edo's "fast" food, such as noodles, tem-
pura, and nigiri sushi, evolved into some of contemporary Japan's "favorite
foods." These fapanese dishes have found fans all over the world. Soba remaine
largely uncharted territory for fapanese foodies, but it is gaining more attention
abroad. The vast maf ority of Western recipes using soba, however, either mask
or ignore its earthy, buckwheat flavor with other ingredients, suggesting that its
flavor has yet to be universally accepted.6' The small portions and the rules for
eating soba, at least in many traditional sobaya, may make it a more challenging
(and less satisfying) meal for some non-fapanese.
However, it might be argued that connoisseurship of soba culture enclows
the non-Japanese with culinary capital as well. In June aot5, Dave Conklin,
an Ameriean food writer resident in took me hr u rmall sobaya in eagt
soBA, EDO STYLE 77
(linza. we were initially refused entry; the restaurant had recently instituted a
"tnembers only" policy. Though Dave had been there many times, he had not
bcen officially invited to join. After we explained that he was writing a book
on soba and that I too was a soba researcher, the chefrelented and offered us
s('ats at the counter. Perhaps more than his food writer credentials, however,
what really seemed to clinch Dave's membership was the elegant, "iki" manner
in which he ate his soba. Even the chef commented on how skillfully Dave
slurped the noodles. It was Dave's mastery of the form, as well as his extensive
knowledge, that secured him the fapanese culinary capital to earn a member-
ship to this exclusive sobaya. One doesn't have to be lapanese to love soba, or
(,ven to be a soba tsii.
NO'TES
r. Lifemedia, http://luchikomi.lifemedia.jp/entertainmentljpn5o_1.php. When
rrr iginally accessed (ldy ,1, zor3), soba came in at number 6o. The most popular food
was sushi, followed by curry rice.
z. Lifemedia.
3. "Kirishita soba wa donna sobal" Soba jiten. Nikkoku Seifun Corp., August
2,o04, accesse dJuly ry, zo16. http://www.nikkoku.co.jp/entertainment/sobajiten/o26.
php.
For example, "lGnt6 ga soba, Kansai ga udon . . . ?" Hatsugenkornachi. May r9,
4.
zor4, accessed Jt:Jy n, zo6. http: /komachi.yomiuri. co. jp l t l 2oL4 l o Stgl 6 5 9 o53.htm.
5. with the New Year's holiday, is said to
Toshikoshi soba, a custom associated
lrave originatedin the Edo period. Its origins are unclear, but the most common
rcason given for eating soba on the symbolically important last night of the year is
that soba noodles are stretched long and fine and thus express a desire for a long
I i le and a long stretch ofluck. Another reason cites the fact that soba noodles break
casily, symbolizing the cutting of ties
with any suffering, calamities, or debts from the
previous year. Iwasaki Shin'ya, "Toshikoshi soba," Nihon Menruigyd Dantai Rengokai,
accessed luly 7, zo6. http://www.nichimen.or.jp/zatsugaku/zuor.htrnl.
6.
Carol Glu&, "The Invention of Edo," in Mirror of Modemity. lnvented. Traditions
ofJapan, ed. Stephen Vlastos (Berkeley: University ofCalifornia press, 1998), z6z.
7. Gluck, "lnvention of Edo," 264.
8. Glu&, "lnvention of Edo," 273.
9. htrp:/Twwwasahi-net.or.jp/-UK5T-SHR/kawarabanr,.htrnl.
to. fordan Sand, "Monumentalizing the Everyday: The Edo-Tokyo Museum,,,
Criticol Asian Stud,ies y3 @oor):152.
rr, These include IGsai Toshiya , Soba to Edo bunka: Nihaahi soba no nozo
(lbkyo: YrLzankalor Shuppan, 1998); Fujimura I(azuo, Edo sobatsil e no rnichi
('lbkyo: Nippon l-r6sO shrrppan kyOkai, zoog); and Yoshida Etsuko and IGnda
Zatsugaku Daigaku, $d,o sobarie-Sobo o kiwomeru soba no somurie ofisharu handobukku
(lbkvo: Mal<ino Shunnan. zoozl.
78 ,APAN'S CULINARY BRANDS AND IDENTITIES soBA, EDO STYLE 79

t2. Fot example, Asobiyr"r (Asoview), a leisure information website, has links to 33. Giannoulis, "lki," zzo.
soba-making workshops throughout |apan. htrp://www.asoviewcom/soba/. Edo Tokyo 14. Kasai, Soba, zo6-2o7.
Soba no kai (Association for Edo Tolgo Soba) indudes courses for professionals as 15. Two theories on the origin of the expresstonnihachi soba predominate.
well as amateu-r soba makers. htrp / /www. edotokyo soba.com/ erp.htrnl.
:
'l'he price of a plain portion of soba, cold or hot, at least at the end of the Edo period,
13. Suzuki IGn ichi, Faryu Edo no soba: Ka, kaku, yomu (To7<yo: Chuko Shinsho, was set atr6 (z x 8) mon. The second theory derives from the idea that soba noodles
zoro), iii. were usually made of zo percent wheat flor-u and 8o percent buckwheat, Iwasaki,
4. http: / /wwwro.ocn.ne.1'p/-sobalciri/r-z.htrnl. Iidokko,rc7.
r5. Mutsu Ken, "Edo sandai soba'sunaba' no hasshodri o hakken!," All About, 36. Kasai, Soba, zo9.
Izr.c., accessed August ro, zot6.http:l lallabout.co.jp/gm lgcly$rl .lwasaki Shin'ya 37. Nara Hiroshi, The Stru,cture of Detachment: The Aesthetic Vision of Kuki Shfr.zd
discusses the Osaka origin of Sunab a in Sobaya no keizu (Tokyo: Kobunsha chie no (l{onolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, zoo4),7t-72.
mori burrko, zotr), 7 6-78. 38. The author is Kawatake Mokuami. Samuel Leiter, trans., Naozamurai,inTLte
16. Uehara Rord dates Edo soba to the IGn ei period (1624-164$. Soba Art of Kabuki: Five Famous Plays, znd ed. (New York: Dover,
ry99 lrg791), 2,05-2,5).
jiten: Kaitei shinpan (To19o: Tokyodo Shuppan 2,oozl, )g.Okubo Hiroko cites ,flsho 39. "Kabukiza no soba no ohanashi" Kabukibito, Shochiku Co., Ltd., accessed
nikki 964) as the oldest record in Edo no fasuto fildo (Tokyo: Kodansha ry98) , 47. March r5, zo4. http: I lwww.kabuki-bito.jplspecial/secom/4o/.
r7. Nisshinsha Yukyoshi, Gendai.go yaku: Soba zensho den, ed. Niiiima Shigeru and 4o. Kasai, Soba, zr3.
Fufimnra Kazuo (Tokyo: Hato Shuppan, zoo6), 164-165. 4r. Suzuki, Fil.ryu Edo no soba, 5-29.
r8. Iwasalci Shin ya, Edokko v)a naze soba na no ka (Tolcyo: Kobunsha, zooT), zt. 42. See Emiko Ohnulci-Tierney, "Japanese Germs," in lllness and Culture in
r9. Iwasaki, Edokko, 42. Contemporary Japan: An Anthropological View (Cambridge: Cambridge University
zo. Hayashiya Unpei, narrator, |CN Channel, accessed lanrnry zz, zor4.http:ll Press,1984), zr-49,for oneinterpretationofconcepts of purityandpollutionin
www.youtube. com /watch lv: c7 4f 4 gtW JXU . Japanese culture.
zr. Sada Morihiro, "Edokko to ieba soba" (r), I"ly zo, ry98, accessed March ro, 43. "Waverhouse," in the It6 Aiko and Graeme Wilson translation, I Am a Cat
zon. http: I lhomepage3.nifty.com/rn-sada/TEAROOM/ OBAor.htrnl.
S (North Clarendon, VI: Tuttle, zooz ltgZzll.
zz. Nishiyama Matsunosuke, Edo Culture: Daily Life and Diversions in Urban 44. Natsume S6seki, Wagahai wa neko de aru (Tokyo: Shinc-hO Bunko, 196r
Japan, t6oo-t868, trans. Gerald Groemer (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, lrCoSl), zz9-z)r.
1997),42. 45. ". .. Shinu mae ni ichido, tsuyr o tappuri tsukete soba o tabetakalla." Big
23. While Nishiyama calls these later selfprofessed "Edokko" "mediocre," Globe Nandemmo SOd,an shirsa, Accessed August to, zot6. http://soudam.biglobe.
he asserts that Edokko cultwe was created through the interaction of the wealthy, r rc.jp I qa7 45 575 8.htrnl.
more established Edokko, the samurai living in Edo, and the provincial townsman 46. Murase Tadatar6, Soba tsfr (Tolcyo: Kosaido Shuppan, zort), 19.
"outsiders," some of whom assumed the identity of "Edokko" for themselves (Edo 47. Nakamura Ayako, "Kaitei shinpan in atatte," in Uehara Ror6, Soba jiten
Culture,43). ( Ibkyo: Tokyodo Shuppan, zoozl, n.p.
24. Okubo Hiroko, Ed.o nofa.sutofido (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1998), 8r. 48. Yoshida Etsuko, Edo sobaie (Tokyo: Makino Shuppan, zoo4), ro.
25. Nishiyama, Ed,o Culture,ry4. 49. "Edo sobalier no susume" (The promotion of Edo sobalier), accessed August
z 6. Iwasaki, Edokko, 4z; Kasai Toshiya, S ob a: Edo no shokubunka o, zo16. http:/ /www.edosobalier-kyokai. jp/ susume.htrnl.
(Tokyo: Iwanami, zoor), zo7. 5o. Alexandra Woodruff, "Soba: More Than Just Noodles, It's a Cultural
27. Iwasaki, Edokko, $-39. I'leritage . . . and an Art Form," Morning Edition, NPR, January 21,2,or4, accessed
28. Iwasaki, Edokko, 3819. August to, zo16. http:77wwwnpr.orglsections/thesalt/zor4 lorlzrlz6499896l
29. Suzuki Ken ichi summarizes the story in Filryfr Edo no soba: Kuu egaku yomu an-art-form.
why- soba-is-more-than-1'ust-food-its-
(ToLyo, Chno Koron Shinsha, zoro),tz7--t54. 5r. "ltanda wagate o mitsumete omoi, haya junen, namida dasezu shokunin
3o. Nishiyama, Edo Culture,4z. shugy6, bushido tsfljiru Edo kishitu, konjo kagayaki, tsuya to nari." Otani Shigeru
3r. Nishiyamarn Edo Culture,55. (composer) and Olarmura Hideo (lyrics), Suzuna (cover artist), "Kanto Edo kiri soba
32. Elena Giannoulis, "Iki: A |apanese Concept of Coolnessl," inThe Culturol no michi," http://www.youtube.com/watchlv=ralYwE-GzBI.
Career of Coolness: Discourse and Practices of ffict. Control in European Antiquity, the 52. Fujimura Kazuo, Sobaya no shikitari (Tokyo: Nihon hOsO shuppan lcyokai,
United States and Japon, ed. Ulla Hasselstein et al. (Lanham, M D: Lexington Books, aoor). The introduction on Amazon's website promises that this book will teach the
zorll, zr7. reader the iki rnanners of the sobaya lhat would make any man proud.
8o JAPAN,S CULINARY BRANDS AND IDENTITIES

53. Yamamoto Osamu, Sobarnon: Nippon soba angya (Tokyo: Shogaloican, zoog-).
54. Yamamoto Osamu, Sobamon, vol. 4, no. 3o (zoro), r6vt64.
55. Uehara, Sobajiten, 16r.
56. Edo Sobaliernokokoro, accessed August t4, zot6. http://www.edosobalier-
lqokai.jplkokoro.htrnl.
57. Giannoulis, "Il<," zzo.
58. "Tabetara oishikatta." Accessed January 4,2cl4 htrp://wiseowl.air-nifty.
com/foodculturelzooTlotlposLgr5a.htrnl. Of course, justbecause soba often comes
in small portions does not mean that one has to restrict oneself to one serving: it is
The Three Waves
common to see numerous trays stacked on top of one another, suggesting that the
diner ordered a few portions. The rakugo story Sobasei tells of a competitive eater who (and Ways) of Sake
took a bet that he could eat fifty portions ofsoba,
59. "Ima demo mane dekiru mise ga nai hodo senshinteki datta shodai Appreciation in the West
Horita Katsuzd san no ishin* (The consciousness of [Namiki Yabu Soba] founder
Horita Katsuz6, who was so advanced that, even today, there are no sobaya who can
imitate him), accessed August 14, zo;6.hltp:l lsobaweb.com/magazinelzoogSgl
Dick Stegewerns
zoo9o84r71z4t.hnnl.
6o. Sugiura Hinako, "Sugiura Hinako no Edojuku." Ikiei konsarutanto
Sake, the fapanese "rice wine" with a unique brewing method that
Guromakon, Builder story Inc. zoro, accessed August
4, zo16. http://wwwglomaconj.
com/ j oho / edo jukur.htne.
results in fermented drinkwith theworld's highest alcohol percentage,
6r. "Tansuikabutsu na no ni yasenrl! Soba daietto no miryokuteki na mittsu has recently become a mainstay in the West, found in cutting-edge
no tokuch6" ("You lose weight even though if s a carbohydratel! The three delighfrrl Michelin-star restaurants and on the shelves of local supermarkets.'
characteristics of the soba Daietto de Yasetai, accessed Ju[y q, zo16, htrp://diet-
&el'). It has finally reached a status no longer fully dependent on its tra-
de-yasetai.jp/food/soba. See also "Soba daietto de ris6 no karada to kenko o te in irey6" ditional |apanese image or on fapanese trade networks. And all
(Lefs achieve an ideal body and ideal health with a soba dtet), Koibita, accessed ltly V, markers seem to point to a growing market for sake overseas, which
zot6. hltp: I I za-sh.com/buclorh eat-ilet-7 3z7.html
is good news for fapanese brewers, for decades confronted with ever-
62. For example, most of the recipes in this April 2,, 2,ot4 Hufi.ng Posi article,
decreasing consumption in their own country.
"The Soba Recipes That Will Compete with Ramen for Your Love," use strong flavors
like peanut and garlic. Accessed ltsly zo, zo16. htrp://www.huffingtonpost.comlzot4l
Why did it take so long for sake to reach the status of a world-
o4 I oz I soba-recipes-r5o69z8z.htrnl. class drink that can be included amongst wine accompaniments to a
course menu at a top restaurantl And how could this happen while
sake in Japan itself is not a very popular drink, notwithstanding the
recent naming of sake as Japan's "national alcoholic drinlC'? This
chapter argues that the delay was, to a large extent, due to the self,
imposed limitations and confusion caused by three different waves
introducing sake to the Western world. Although all three waves used
the term "sake," they each brought completely different products
and different ways of drinking sake. Moreover, they were brought
to the West by different types of importers who catered to different
audiences.