N O I S E

Noise is defined as any unwanted form of energy tending to interfere in the proper and easy reception and
reproduction of wanted signal.

NOISE CLASSIFICATIONS
I. External Noise
- noise created outside the receiver

A. Atmospheric Noise
- usually comes from natural sources of disturbance generally called static
- static is caused by lightning discharged in thunderstorm and other natural electric disturbances
coming in the atmosphere

B. Extraterrestrial Noise
1. Solar Noise – under normal “quiet” conditions; there is a constant noise radiation from the
sun, because it is a large body at a very high temperature. It, therefore, radiates over a very
broad frequency spectrum, which includes the frequencies we use for communications.
2. Cosmic Noise – some distant stars also have high temperature, they radiate noise in same
manner as our own sun. The noise received is called “thermal” noise is distributed uniformly
over the entire sky.
- galactic noise is very intense but it comes from sources which are only points in the sky.

C. Industrial Noise – under this heading, sources such as automobile and aircraft ignition, electric
motors and switching gear, leakage from high voltage lines and a multitude of other heavy electric
machines are all included.

II. Internal Noise

-noise created by any of the active and passive devices found in the receiver

A. Thermal Agitation Noise – the noise generated in a resistance or resistive component of any
impedance
- it is due to the rapid and random motion of the molecules, atoms and electrons of
which any such resistor is made up.
- called also Johnson noise or white noise

B. Shot Noise – this is caused by the random variations in the arrival of electrons at the output of the
electrode of an amplifying device.

C. Transit-time Noise – if the time taken by an electron to travel from the emitter to the collector of a
transistor becomes comparable to the period of the signal being amplified, the so-called transit-time
effect takes place and noise input admittance of the transistor increases.

D. Miscellaneous Noise
1. Flicker – at low frequencies, a poorly understood form of noise called flicker or modulation
noise. It is proportional to emitter current and junction temperature, but since completely
ignored above 500 Hz.
2. Resistance – thermal noise, sometimes resistance noise is also present in transmitter. It is
due to the base, emitter and collector internal noise resistances and in most circumstances.
The base resistance makes the largest contribution.
3. Noise in mixers – mixers are much noisier than amplifiers, using identical devices, except
at microwave frequencies where situation is rather complex.
Source: Electronic Communication Systems by Kennedy and Davis
 Noise Calculations

I. Thermal Agitation noise

𝑃𝑛 = 𝐾𝑇𝛿𝑓 = 𝐾𝑇𝐵 = 𝐾𝑇𝐵𝑊

Where:
𝑃𝑛 = Noise power in Watts
𝐾 = Boltzmann′ s constant
𝐾 = 1.38 × 10−23 𝐽/𝐾°
𝑇 = Temperature in Kelvin = 273 + ℃
𝛿𝑓 , 𝐵, 𝐵𝑊 = Bandwidth in Hertz

𝑉𝑛𝑇 = √4𝐾𝑇𝛿𝑓 𝑅 = √4𝐾𝑇𝐵𝑅 = √4𝐾𝑇𝐵𝑊𝑅

Where:
𝑅 = Resistance in ohms ()

Noise Voltage from several sources

𝑉𝑛 = √4𝐾𝑇𝛿𝑓 𝑅𝑇

For sources in series:

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯
For sources in parallel:

1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1. Calculate the noise power and voltage outputs for a 1-K resistor at 27C over a 100-KHz bandwidth.
Given: R = 1 K T = 27C ; T = 27 + 273 = 300 K f = 100 KHz
𝑃𝑛 = 𝐾𝑇𝛿𝑓 = (1.38 × 10−23 )(300)(100 × 103 )
𝑷𝒏 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 𝐖

𝑉𝑛 = √4𝐾𝑇𝛿𝑓 𝑅 = √4(1.38 × 10−23 )(300)(100 × 103 )(1000)

𝑽𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟗 𝛍𝐕
2. An amplifier operating over the frequency range 18 to 20 MHz has a 10-K input resistor. What is the
noise voltage at the input to the amplifier if the ambient temperature is 27C?
R = 10 K T = 27C ; T = 27 + 273 = 300 K f = 20-18 = 2 MHz
𝑉𝑛 = √4𝐾𝑇𝛿𝑓 𝑅 = √4(1.38 × 10−23 )(300)(2 × 106 )(10 × 103 )
𝑽𝒏 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟐𝟎 𝛍𝐕
3. Two resistors, 5 K and 20 K are at 27C. Calculate the thermal noise power and voltage for a 10-
KHz bandwidth: (a) for each resistor; (b) for their series combination; (c) for their parallel combination.
Given: R1 = 5 K R2 = 20 K T = 27C ; T = 27 + 273 = 300 K f = 10 KHz

𝑃𝑛 = 𝐾𝑇𝛿𝑓 = (1.38 × 10−23 )(300)(10 × 103 )

𝑷𝒏 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟕 𝐖

(a) For each resistor

𝑉𝑛1 = √4𝐾𝑇𝛿𝑓 𝑅1 = √4(1.38 × 10−23 )(300)(10 × 103 )(5000)

𝑽𝒏𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏 𝛍𝐕

𝑉𝑛2 = √4𝐾𝑇𝛿𝑓 𝑅2 = √4(1.38 × 10−23 )(300)(10 × 103 )(20 × 103 )

𝑽𝒏𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟐 𝛍𝐕

(b) For series combination

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 5 + 20 = 𝟐𝟓 𝐊

𝑉𝑛𝑇 = √4𝐾𝑇𝛿𝑓 𝑅𝑇 = √4(1.38 × 10−23 )(300)(10 × 103 )(25 × 103 )

𝑽𝒏𝑻 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟑 𝝁𝑽

(c) For series combination

1 1
𝑅𝑇 = 1 1 =1 1 = 𝟒 𝐊
+ +
𝑅1 𝑅2 5 20

𝑉𝑛𝑇 = √4𝐾𝑇𝛿𝑓 𝑅𝑇 = √4(1.38 × 10−23 )(300)(10 × 103 )(4000)

𝑽𝒏𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟒 𝝁𝑽

II. Shot Noise

𝑖𝑛 = √2𝑞𝑖𝑝 𝛿𝑓 or 𝑖𝑛 = √2𝑒𝑖𝑑 𝛿𝑓
Where q or e = magnitude charge of electron = 1.6 x 10-19
𝑖𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑑 = current passing through the device in Ampere
𝛿𝑓 , 𝐵, 𝐵𝑊 = Bandwidth in Hertz

4. (a) Determine the noise current for a diode with a forward bias of 1 mA over a 100-KHz bandwidth.
(b) Determine the diode’s equivalent noise voltage.
Given: 𝑖𝑑 = 1 mA 𝛿𝑓 = 100 KHz
(a)
𝑖𝑛 = √2𝑒𝑖𝑑 𝛿𝑓 = √2(1.6 × 10−19 )(1 × 10−3 )(100 × 103 )
𝒊𝒏 = 𝟖. 𝟔𝟔 𝐧𝐀

(b)
26 mV 26 mV
𝑟𝑑 = = = 26 
𝑖𝑑 (mA) 1 mA
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑖𝑛 × 𝑟𝑑 = (8.66 × 10−9 )(26) 𝑽𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝛍𝐕
III. Signal-to-noise ratio

𝑆 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑠 𝑉
= = = ( 𝑠 )2 ---- unitless (in ratio)
𝑁 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑛 𝑉𝑛
𝑆 𝑃𝑠 𝑉𝑠
= 10 log = 20 log ------ in dB form
𝑁 𝑃𝑛 𝑉𝑛

IV. Noise Factor / Noise Ratio

𝑆⁄𝑁 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑠𝑖 /𝑃𝑛𝑖 𝑉𝑠𝑖 /𝑉𝑛𝑖 2 𝑆𝑖 /𝑁𝑖 𝑆𝑖 /𝑁𝑖 2

𝐹= = =( ) = =( )  unitless
𝑆⁄𝑁 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑠𝑜 /𝑃𝑛𝑜 𝑉𝑠𝑜 /𝑉𝑛𝑜 𝑆𝑜 /𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜 /𝑁𝑜

V. Noise Figure
𝑃𝑠𝑖 /𝑃𝑛𝑖 𝑆𝑖 /𝑁𝑖
𝑁𝐹 = 10 log 𝐹 = 10 log = 10 log  decibel
𝑃𝑠𝑜 /𝑃𝑛𝑜 𝑆𝑜 /𝑁𝑜
𝑉𝑠𝑖 /𝑉𝑛𝑖 𝑆𝑖 /𝑁𝑖
𝑁𝐹 = 20 log = 20 log  decibel
𝑉𝑠𝑜 /𝑉𝑛𝑜 𝑆𝑜 /𝑁𝑜

5. Calculate the S/N ratio for a receiver output of a 4 V signal and a 0.48 V noise both as a ratio and in
decibel form. The receiver has a S/N ratio of 110 at its input. Calculate the receiver’s noise figure.

Given: SO = 4 V NO = 0.48 V S/N(input) = 110

𝑆 𝑉 4V
= (𝑉𝑠 )2 = (0.48 V) = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟒𝟒 2
𝑁 𝑛
𝑆 4V 𝑆 𝑆
= 20 log 0.48 V = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟒𝟐 𝐝𝐁 or = 10 log 𝑁 = 10 log 69.44 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟒𝟐 𝐝𝐁
𝑁 𝑁 (𝑑𝐵) (𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜)

Noise Figure
𝑆 /𝑁 110
𝑁𝐹 = 10 log 𝑆 𝑖 /𝑁𝑖 = 10 log 69.44 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟖 𝐝𝐁
𝑜 𝑜

6. A transistor amplifier has a measured S/N power of 10 at its input and 5 at its output. (a) Calculate the
transistor’s NF. (b) Using the results of part (a), verify that:
𝑆 /𝑁
𝑁𝐹 = 10 log 𝑆 𝑖 /𝑁𝑖 can be written as 𝑁𝐹 = 10 log 𝑆𝑖 ⁄𝑁𝑖 − 10 log 𝑆𝑜 ⁄𝑁0
𝑜 𝑜
Given: Si/Ni= 10 So/No = 5

(a)
𝑆𝑖 /𝑁𝑖 10
𝑁𝐹 = 10 log = 10 log = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏 𝐝𝐁
𝑆𝑜 /𝑁𝑜 5

(b)
𝐴
log = log 𝐴 − log 𝐵
𝐵
𝑆 /𝑁
𝑁𝐹 = 10 log 𝑆 𝑖/𝑁𝑖 can be written as 𝑁𝐹 = 10 log 𝑆𝑖 ⁄𝑁𝑖 − 10 log 𝑆𝑜 ⁄𝑁0
𝑜 𝑜

𝑁𝐹 = 10 log 10 − 10 log 5 = 10 dB − 6.99 dB = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏 𝐝𝐁

7. Calculate the noise figure of a transistor amplifier that has an input signal of 10 V from a 75- signal
generator, a noise bandwidth of 12 KHz, a voltage gain of 25, and a total output noise of 5 V. T= 20C.

Given: Si = 10V R = 75  f = 12 KHz

A = 25 No = 5 V T = 20C = 293 K

𝑉𝑛 = √4𝐾𝑇𝛿𝑓 𝑅 = √4(1.38 × 10−23 )(293)(12 × 103 )(75

𝑽𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟔 𝛍𝐕

𝑆𝑂
𝐴= 𝑆𝑜 = 𝐴 × 𝑆𝐼 = 25 × 10 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝛍𝐕
𝑆𝐼
𝑆𝑖 /𝑁𝑖 10 μV/0.1206μV
𝑁𝐹 = 20 log = 10 log = 𝟒. 𝟑𝟗 𝐝𝐁
𝑆𝑜 /𝑁𝑜 250μV/5μV

VI. Equivalent Noise Temperature

𝑇𝑒𝑞 = 290 (𝐹 − 1)

8. Calculate the Equivalent Noise Temperature of an amplifier whose noise figure is 2dB.
𝑁𝐹 2
𝑁𝐹 = 10 log 𝐹 𝐹 = 10( 10 ) = 10(10) = 1.58
𝑇𝑒𝑞 = 290 (𝐹 − 1) = 290 (1.58 − 1) = 168.2 𝐾

VII. Noise figure od cascaded amplifiers

𝐹2 −1 𝐹3 −1
𝐹𝑇 = 𝐹1 + + + ⋯  Friis Formula
𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐴 2
F and A should be expressed in ratios not in dB

9. A three-stage amplifier has stages with the following specifications. Gain and noise figure are given as
ratios.

Stage Power Gain Noise figure

1 10 2
2 25 4
3 30 5

Calculate the power gain (in ratio and decibel form), noise factor, noise figure, and equivalent noise
temperature for the whole amplifier.

𝐴 𝑇 = 𝐴1 × 𝐴2 × 𝐴3 = 10 × 25 × 30 = 𝟕, 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝐴 𝑇 (𝑑𝐵) = 10 log 𝐴 𝑇(𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜) = 10 log 7,500 = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟕𝟓 𝐝𝐁
𝐹2 − 1 𝐹3 − 1 4−1 5−1
𝐹𝑇 = 𝐹1 + + =2+ + = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟏𝟔
𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐴2 10 10 × 25
𝑁𝐹𝑇 = 10 log 𝐹𝑇 = 10 log 2.316 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟒𝟕 𝐝𝐁
𝑇𝑒𝑞 = 290 (𝐹 − 1) = 290 (2.316 − 1) = 𝟑𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟒 𝑲
 Exercises:

1. Calculate the noise power and voltage of a 100 KΩ resistor at 27°C over a 100KHz bandwidth
2. Determine the noise current and equivalent noise voltage for a diode with a forward bias of 1
mA over a 1MHz bandwidth.
3. An amplifier with NF = 6 dB has Si/Ni of 25 dB, calculate the So/No in dB and as a ratio.
4. Calculate the noise voltage of a 1KΩ resistor at 17°C over a 1MHz frequency range. Repeat
for the series and parallel combination of three 1KΩ resistors.
5. Determine the gain (in dB and ratio), Noise figure, equivalent noise temperature of the entire
system of 3 cascaded amplifiers:

Stage Power Gain Noise Ratio

1 15 3
2 20 4
3 25 5