Assignment of Behavioral Neuroscience

Submitted by:

Bishakha Acharya

Morning Shift
Unit I Introduction to Biological Psychology

1. What do you understand by biopsychology?

Biopsychology is a branch of science that explores how the brain and nervous system
influence human behavior. Biopsychology is the study of how emotions, thoughts and behavior
are affected by the brain, the nervous system and neurotransmitters in human and non-human
animals. Biopsychology, which is also referred to as psychobiology and biological psychology,
studies the functions of normal, injured and poorly developed brains. Biopsychology’s subfields
include neuropsychology, cognitive neuroscience and behavioral neuroscience.

Biopsychology has very specific beliefs. First, that psychology is a lab-based science.
Second, that behavior can systematically be explained through biological concepts, such as genes
and hormones. Third, most behavior has an evolutionary purpose because human genes have
developed over millions of years through adapting behaviors to environmental stimuli. The roots
of biopsychology began when Charles Darwin formulated his theory of natural selection during
his global travels. His perceptive observations of animals resulted in his famous book on natural
selection, which started an evolutionary revolution in the world of science. In modern times, Jane
Goodall has pioneered our understanding of biopsychology through her lifetime studies of
African primates.

The biopsychology approach believes that human behaviors are all consequences of
genetics and physiology, according to the American Psychology Association. It is actually the
only psychology subfield that studies thoughts and behaviors from a physical point of view. A
biological perspective contributes to psychology through using comparative methods. This
means that different animal species are studied and compared, so psychologists better understand
human behavior. It also increases our understanding of human physiology, such as how the
brain, hormones and nervous systems work. By studying how structural changes affect
functioning, we can learn to influence behaviors. Third, learning about how and what animals
inherit from their parents, bio-psychologists reveal the nature of inheritance and genetics.

2. Differentiate and write the similarities between Biological Psychology and neuroscience.
 Biopsychology is a branch of science that explores how the brain and nervous system
influence human behavior. Biopsychology is the study of how emotions, thoughts and behavior
are affected by the brain, the nervous system and neurotransmitters in human and non-human
animals.

Whereas, neuroscience is the study of the cellular, functional, behavioral, evolutionary,

computational, molecular, cellular, and medical aspects of the nervous system. Neuroscience
affects many, if not all, human functions, but it also contributes to a better understanding of a
wide range of common conditions. A greater understanding of neurological factors can help in
developing medications and other strategies to treat and prevent these and many other health
issues.

Neuropsychology is narrower and more specialized than biopsychology. The former

stresses the role of neurons in behavior (both the microanatomy and macro-anatomy of the
nervous system). It also includes the physiology of neurotransmitters — messaging from one
neuron to another.

Biopsychology, on the other hand, is quite a bit broader in scope. It includes, among
other things, endocrinology. Hormones typically influence behavior in a couple of ways
developmentally. Early on, they help to program the “hard-wiring” of certain parts of the nervous
system. Later on, they help to potentiate certain behaviors, especially at and following puberty.

Biopsychology also pays considerable attention to specialized neuronal receptors in the

sense modalities. These receptors are often called transducers, as they function to change other
forms of energy into useful neuronal impulses, enabling sensation and, at higher levels,
perception. Some examples of transduction: photic energy (light) to neural energy, as in vision;
mechanical to neural, as in touch and hearing; chemical to neural, as in taste and smell.

However, biopsychology is an integral and ever-growing part of Neuroscience.

3. Explain the Origins of biological psychology.

The history of biological psychology is a major part of the history of modern

scientific psychology. The study of biological psychology can be dated back to Avicenna (980-
1037 C.E.), a physician who in The Canon of Medicine, recognized physiological psychology in
the treatment of illnesses involving emotions, and developed a system for associating changes in
the pulse rate with inner feelings, which is seen as an anticipation of the word association test
(Syed, 2002). Avicenna also gave psychological explanations for certain somatic illnesses, and
he always linked the physical and psychological illnesses together. He explained that "humidity"
inside the head can contribute to mood disorders, and he recognized that this occurs when the
amount of "breath" changes: Happiness increases the breath, which leads to increased moisture
inside the brain, but if this moisture goes beyond its limits, the brain would lose control over its
rationality and lead to mental disorders (Haque, 2004).

Biological psychology as a scientific discipline later emerged from a variety of scientific

and philosophical traditions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In philosophy, the first
issues is how to approach what is known as the "mind-body problem," namely the explanation of
the relationship, if any, that obtains between minds, or mental processes, and bodily states or
processes. Dualism is a family of views about the relationship between mind and physical matter.
It begins with the claim that mental phenomena are, in some respects, non-physical (Plato:
Phaedo).

The view, that psychological processes have biological (or physiological) correlates, is
the basic assumption of the whole field of biological psychology. One of the earliest textbooks in
the new field, The Principles of Psychology by William James (1890), argues that the scientific
study of psychology should be grounded in an understanding of biology: Bodily experiences,
therefore, and more particularly brain-experiences, must take a place amongst those conditions of
the mental life of which Psychology need take account. The spiritualist and the associationist
must both be "cerebralists," to the extent at least of admitting that certain peculiarities in the way
of working of their own favorite principles are explicable only by the fact that the brain laws are
a co-determinant of their result. The first conclusion, then, is that a certain amount of brain-
physiology must be presupposed or included in Psychology (James, 1950).

The emergence of both psychology and biological psychology as legitimate sciences can
be traced from the emergence of physiology from anatomy, particularly neuroanatomy.
Physiologists conducted experiments on living organisms, a practice that was distrusted by the
dominant anatomists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (Shepard, 1991). The influential
work of Claude Bernard, Charles Bell, and William Harvey helped to convince the scientific
community that reliable data could be obtained from living subjects.

Unit II Structure and Functions of the Nervous System (15 hours)

1. Explain the Cells of the Nervous System: Structure of neuron

Neurons are the central building blocks of the nervous system, and there are 100 billion of them
at birth. Neurons, like all cells, are made up of several different parts, each of which performs a
specific function. A semipermeable membrane covers the outer surface of a neuron. This
membrane allows smaller molecules and molecules with no electrical charge to pass through
while blocking larger or highly charged molecules.

Neurons receive signals or information, integrate the incoming signals and then communicate
those signals to target cells. All the neurons have three essential parts that are:

• Cell body
• An axon
• Dendrites

Cell body

Neurons have a cell body, just like other cells (called the soma). The neuron's nucleus is found in
the soma. Neurons require a large number of proteins, and the majority of neuronal proteins are
synthesized in the soma as well.

From the cell body, various processes (appendages or protrusions) protrude. These include many
short, branching processes known as dendrites, as well as a separate process known as the axon,
which is typically longer than the dendrites.

An Axon

Axon is a single fiber strand that extends from the cell body, specifically from the axon hillock.
The action potential is generated in the axon hillock and transmitted through the axon. Schwann
cells form a sheath of myelin around the axon fibers. It significantly accelerates the transmission
of action potentials.

The axon transports nerve impulses away from the cell body. A neuron usually has one axon that
connects it to other neurons, muscle cells, or gland cells. Some axons can be quite long, reaching
all the way from the spinal cord to a toe.

Dendrites

Dendrites are appendages that receive communications from other cells. They have a tree-like
structure, with projections that are stimulated by other neurons and conduct electrochemical
charge to the cell body. Dendrites receive signals from other neurons, process them, and transmit
the information to the neuron's soma.

2. How does the Communication occur within a neuron (Neurotransmission,

Neurotransmitters)?

Neurons communicate with each other via electrical events called ‘action potentials’and
chemical neurotransmitters. At the junction between two neurons (synapse), an action potential
causes neuron A to release a chemical neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitter can either help
(excite) or hinder (inhibit) neuron B from firing its own action potential.

In an intact brain, the balance of hundreds of excitatory and inhibitory inputs to a neuron
determines whether an action potential will result. Neurons are essentially electrical devices.
There are many channels sitting in the cell membrane (the boundary between a cell’s inside and
outside) that allow positive or negative ions to flow into and out of the cell. Normally, the inside
of the cell is more negative than the outside; neuroscientists say that the inside is around -70 mV
with respect to the outside, or that the cell’s resting membrane potential is -70 mV.

This membrane potential isn’t static. It’s constantly going up and down, depending mostly on the
inputs coming from the axons of other neurons. Some inputs make the neuron’s membrane
potential become more positive (or less negative, e.g., from -70 mV to -65 mV), and others do
the opposite.
These are respectively termed excitatory and inhibitory inputs, as they promote or inhibit the
generation of action potentials (the reason some inputs are excitatory

and others inhibitory is that different types of neurons release different neurotransmitters; the
neurotransmitter used by a neuron determines its effect).

Action potentials are the fundamental units of communication between neurons and occur when
the sum total of all of the excitatory and inhibitory inputs makes the neuron’s membrane
potential reach around -50 mV (see diagram), a value called the action potential threshold.

Neuroscientists often refer to action potentials as ‘spikes’, or say a neuron has ‘fired a spike’ or
‘spiked’. The term is a reference to the shape of an action potential as recorded using sensitive
electrical equipment.

3. Explain the process of Communication between Neurons.

Neurons communicate to each other across synapses. When an action potential reaches the
presynaptic terminal, it causes neurotransmitter to be released from the neuron into the synaptic
cleft, a 20–40nm gap between the presynaptic axon terminal and the postsynaptic dendrite (often
a spine).

After travelling across the synaptic cleft, the transmitter will attach to neurotransmitter receptors
on the postsynaptic side, and depending on the neurotransmitter released (which is dependent on
the type of neuron releasing it), particular positive (e.g., Na+, K+, Ca+) or negative ions (e.g. Cl-
) will travel through channels that span the membrane.

Synapses can be thought of as converting an electrical signal (the action potential) into a
chemical signal in the form of neurotransmitter release, and then, upon binding of the transmitter
to the postsynaptic receptor, switching the signal back again into an electrical form, as charged
ions flow into or out of the postsynaptic neuron.

4. Explain the Organization of the Nervous System i. The Central Nervous System (CNS):
The spinal cord, the brain: forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, the cerebral cortex and its
 function (frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobe) ii. The Peripheral nervous
System: Spinal nerves and cranial nerves, the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

The nervous system combines and monitors the myriad processes taking place simultaneously
throughout the whole human body; as a result, every activity a person completes, no matter how
insignificant, is a direct outcome of the nervous system's components.

The main organ of the nervous system is the brain. It is like the central control station for the
body with lots of signals coming in and out; even without direct input the brain is constantly
monitoring. Nervous system is the center for all mental activities like thinking, learning and
memory. The organs that form the nervous system are brain, spinal cord, nerves and ganglia.

The nerves in our body are divided according to their location. It is organized into two parts:

• Central Nervous System (CNS): the brain and spinal cord

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): nerves outside of CNS

Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord are central nervous system organs. Because the brain and spinal cord
are so vital, they are encased in bone and are located in the dorsal body cavity. The spinal cord is
in the vertebral canal of the vertebral column, and the brain is in the cranial vault. Although the
brain and spinal cord are thought to be separate organs, they are joined at the foramen magnum.

Meninges surround the brain and spinal cord in three layers. The dura mater is a tough white
fibrous connective tissue layer that forms the outer layer. The meninges' middle layer is
arachnoid, which looks like a cobweb and is a thin layer with numerous threadlike strands that
connect it to the innermost layer. The subarachnoid space, which lies beneath the arachnoid, is
filled with cerebrospinal fluid and contains blood vessels. The pia mater is the meninges'
innermost layer. This thin, delicate membrane is tightly bound to the surface of the brain and
spinal cord.

The cerebrum, diencephalons, brain stem, and cerebellum are the four parts of the brain.
Cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain which is divided into two hemispheres. The two
hemispheres are connected by corpus callosum that is the bridge of communication between the
two hemispheres.

Each hemisphere has five lobes- the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe and the
temporal lobe. The fifth lobe lies in the lateral sulcus.

The second part of the brain, diencephalon, consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus and
epithalamus. The third part of the brain, brain stem, is located between diencephalon and spinal
cord.

The cerebellum, the second largest portion of the brain, is located beneath the cerebrum's
occipital lobes. It is divided into two halves, with a dense layer of grey matter encircling an
inner region of white matter. The central nervous system's (CNS) white matter regions contrast
with the gray matter regions. The white matter refers to the parts of the brain and spinal cord
that communicate between the various gray matter regions as well as between the gray matter
and the rest of the body. In essence, gray matter is where processing occurs, while white matter
is where communication occurs.

The spinal cord acts as a conduit for impulses traveling to and from the brain. Sensory impulses
are carried to the brain by ascending tracts in the spinal cord. Motor impulses move downhill on
descending tracts. It functions as a reflex center. The reflex arc is the nervous system's functional
unit. Reflexes are responses to stimuli that do not require conscious thought, and as a result, they
occur faster than reactions that do. With the withdrawal reflex, for example, the reflex action
withdraws the affected part before you are aware of the pain. Many reflexes are controlled in the
spinal cord and do not travel to higher brain centers.

Peripheral Nervous System

There are three classifications for PNS nerves. PNS nerves are first categorized according to how
they are related to the CNS. Cranial nerves originate in the brain and end there, whereas spinal
nerves originate in the spinal cord and terminate there.

Second, the direction of nerve propagation is used to classify PNS nerves. Sensory (afferent)
neurons provide impulses to the CNS from the skin and other sensory organs, as well as from
other parts of the body. Efferent (motor) neurons send impulses from the CNS to effectors
(muscles or glands).

Third, motor neurons are further divided into groups based on the effectors they target. The
somatic nervous system (SNS) controls skeletal muscle contractions. Organs, glands, and
numerous involuntary muscles, such as cardiac and smooth muscles, are all controlled by the
autonomic nervous system (ANS).

The autonomic nerve system is divided into two parts:

The sympathetic nervous system is engaged in the stimulation of actions that prepare the body
for action, such as boosting heart rate, increasing sugar release from the liver into the blood, and
other fight-or-flight responses (responses that serve to fight off or retreat from danger).

The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates the release of saliva or digestive enzymes into
the stomach and small intestine, among other things.

5. Explain the Development of Nervous System: i. Developmental Changes in White and

Gray Matter and ii. Neurogenesis.

During the fertilization process, an ovum receives and meets the first sperm, after which it
undergoes a number of genetic processes. Inside the (zygote; fertilized ovum), there are 23
definite nuclei from the maternal side, 23 nuclei from the maternal side, and 23 nuclei from the
paternal side. These two nuclei fuse and mix their genetic materials, resulting in a total of 46
chromosomes.

The single cell inside the zygote now divides in two and then multiple times, resulting in the
formation of many smaller cells. The cell gets smaller and smaller with each division.

These smaller cells then divide into two groups. Inner cell mass refers to the group of cells
attached together in the center. The inner/central cell mass develops into a baby, while the outer
cell mass develops into the placenta, which serves as the supporting coverage tissue. It descends
and implants on the uterine wall. This entire procedure takes about a week.

And, once implanted on the uterine pole, it develops three distinct derma layers. The ectoderm,
mesoderm, and endoderm are the three layers of the embryo.

Ectoderm: It will develop into human skin and the Central Nervous System.

Mesoderm: It will develop into human muscles, organs, and the things that circulate the human
heart.

Endoderm: It develops into human intestines and then goes through three different processes.
The first step is the formation of a neural fold. Second, the neural fold is converted into a disc
shape. Third, neural tubes are formed by the connection of neural folds. The folding then stops
and the Peripheral Nervous System forms (PNS). The embryo then moves on to the Central
Nervous System, which is still developing. It undergoes more transformation over time before
becoming fully developed. The CNS and PNS, on the other hand, take three months to develop.

i) Developmental changes in Grey matter and White matter

Gray matter-rich brain regions control muscular and sensory activity, among other things. Gray
matter, so named because of its pinkish-gray color, is the location of neural cell bodies, axon
terminals, dendrites, and all nerve synapses. This type of brain tissue is found in abundance in
the cerebellum, cerebrum, and brain stem. It is also responsible for the butterfly-shaped portion
of the central spinal cord.

Grey matter is important in allowing humans to function normally because it allows us to control
our movements, remember things, and regulate our emotions, among other things.

As a result, grey matter is required for the majority of aspects of human life. Grey matter
develops from ectoderm during early development. Grey matter continues to form throughout
development until the age of about 8 years.

Following this, grey matter in the brain begins to decline, but the density of the matter increases.
This increase in density enables greater processing and mental development in humans.
The majority of the deep parts of the brain are made up of white matter. Unlike gray matter,
which stops developing when we are 11 or 12 years old, white matter continues to develop well
into our twenties (and perhaps, in more subtle ways, into our 50s).

It is made up of bundles of axons, also known as tracts, which are long, slender projections of
nerve cells. White matter is whiter than gray matter, as the name implies, and its famed
whiteness is due to a waxy coating called myelin, which is found on each of the axons.

ii. Neurogenesis

The process by which new neurons are formed in the brain is known as neurogenesis.
Neurogenesis is critical during embryonic development, but it also occurs in certain brain regions
after birth and throughout our lives.

The mature brain has many specialized areas of function, as well as neurons with varying
structure and connections. The hippocampus, a brain region important for memory and spatial
navigation, for example, contains at least 27 different types of neurons.

The human brain is made up of billions of cells that include neurons, glia, and an unknown
number of subtypes. The vast majority of these cells are generated during the very early stages of
development, in embryonic stages.

The separation of the neural plate from the ectoderm (the outermost germ layer during early
embryonic development) by folding to form a neural groove is the first step in early
neurogenesis.

The neural tube, which is the precursor to the central nervous system (CNS), and the neural crest,
a temporary group of cells, then fuse. The neural crest will then produce neural crest stem cells,
which will differentiate into a variety of cell types, assisting in the development of tissues and
organs.

Neurogenesis was thought to occur only during embryonic development in humans. The brain's
cells and circuits were thought to be fixed, with the only changes occurring when cells were lost
and brain volume was reduced.
This limitation on neurons is now understood to be false, and adult neurogenesis can occur.
Adult neurogenesis was said to have been discovered in the 1960s.

Unit III Basis of Sensation, Learning, and Cognition

1. Write about the visual system.

The visual system creates a mental representation of our surroundings. This contributes to our
ability to successfully navigate physical space and interact with important people and objects in
our surroundings.

The eye is the primary sensory organ in vision. Light waves pass through the cornea and enter
the eye through the pupil. The cornea is the clear covering that covers the eye. It acts as a barrier
between the inner eye and the outside world, as well as assisting in the focusing of light waves
that enter the eye.

The pupil is the small opening in the eye through which light passes, and its size can vary
depending on light levels and emotional arousal. When light levels are low, the pupil dilates (or
expands) to allow more light into the eye. When light levels are high, the pupil constricts, or
shrinks, to reduce the amount of light entering the eye. Muscles connected to the iris, the colored
portion of the eye, control the size of the pupil.

Figure 1
Light crosses the lens after passing through the pupil, a curved, transparent structure that serves
to provide additional focus. The lens is attached to muscles that can change shape to help focus
light reflected from nearby or distant objects. In a normal-sighted person, the lens will focus
images perfectly on the fovea, a small indentation in the back of the eye that is part of the retina,
the light-sensitive lining of the eye.

Specialized photoreceptor cells are densely packed in the fovea. These photoreceptor cells,
known as cones, detect light. Cones are specialized types of photoreceptors that function best in
bright light. Cones have a high sensitivity to fine detail and a high spatial resolution. They also
have a direct impact on our ability to perceive color.

While cones are concentrated in the fovea, where images tend to be focused, rods, another type
of photoreceptor, are distributed throughout the retina. Rods are specialized photoreceptors that
work well in low-light conditions. While they lack the spatial resolution and color function of
cones, they play a role in our vision in dimly lit environments as well as our perception of
movement on the periphery of our visual field.

When transitioning from a brightly lit to a dimly lit environment, we have all experienced the
different sensitivities of rods and cones. Consider going to see a blockbuster film on a beautiful
summer day. As you walk from the brightly lit lobby into the dimly lit theater, you notice that
you can't see much of anything. After a few moments, your eyes adjust to the darkness and you
can see the inside of the theater. Your vision was dominated primarily by cone activity in the
bright environment. As you move into the dark, rod activity takes over, but there is a lag in
transitioning between the phases.

Rods and cones are linked to retinal ganglion cells (via several interneurons). The optic nerve is
formed when axons from retinal ganglion cells converge and exit through the back of the eye.
The optic nerve is responsible for transporting visual information from the retina to the brain.
The visual field also has a point called the "blind spot".

The optic nerve from each eye joins at the optic chiasm, which is located just below the brain.
The optic chiasm is an X-shaped structure located just below the cerebral cortex at the front of
the brain, as illustrated in Figure 2. Information from the right visual field (which comes from
both eyes) is sent to the left side of the brain at the optic chiasm, and information from the left
visual field is sent to the right side of the brain.

Once inside the brain, visual information is sent

to the occipital lobe at the back of the brain for
processing via a number of structures. Visual
information may be processed in parallel
pathways known as the "what pathway" (the
ventral pathway) and the "where/how pathway"
(the dorsal pathway). The "what pathway" is
concerned with object recognition and
Figure 2 identification, whereas the "where/how
pathway" is concerned with spatial location and how one might interact with a specific visual
stimulus. When you see a ball rolling down the street, the "what pathway" identifies the object,
and the "where/how pathway" identifies its location or movement in space.

2. How does the Mechanisms of Perception: Hearing, Touch, Smell, Taste, and Attention
occur?

Mechanism of Perception: Hearing (Auditory Perception)

Not only can we hear falling trees, but also birds singing in the branches and wind blowing
through the leaves, thanks to the human auditory system. Many blind people learn to click their
heels as they walk and use the echoes to locate obstacles. Our auditory systems are well suited to
detect and interpret a wide range of information.

Hearing is the process by which the ear converts external sound vibrations into nerve impulses
that are transmitted to the brain and interpreted as sounds. By detecting and analyzing different
physical characteristics of the waves, the ear can distinguish different subjective aspects of a
sound, such as its loudness and pitch. Pitch is the perception of the frequency of sound waves—
that is, the number of wavelengths passing through a fixed point in a unit of time. Frequency is
typically measured in hertz (cycles per second). The human ear is most sensitive to and easily
detects frequencies of 1,000 to 4,000 hertz, but the entire audible range of sounds extends from
about 20 to 20,000 hertz for normal young ears.

The energy of a sound undergoes three transformations before it can be transmitted to the central
nervous system. First, air vibrations are converted to vibrations of the tympanic membrane and
middle ear's ossicles. These are then converted into vibrations in the fluid within the cochlea.
Finally, the fluid vibrations cause traveling waves to form along the basilar membrane,
stimulating the hair cells of the organ of Corti. These cells convert sound vibrations to nerve
impulses in the cochlear nerve fibers, which transmit them to the brainstem, from which they are
relayed to the primary auditory area of the cerebral cortex, the ultimate hearing center of the
brain, after extensive processing. The listener becomes aware of the sound when the nerve
impulses reach this area.

Another way for sound to reach the inner ear is through conduction through the skull bones.
The note of a vibrating tuning fork is clearly audible when the handle is placed on a bony
prominence such as the forehead or mastoid process behind the ear. Similarly, the ticking of a
watch held between the teeth is audible. The sound becomes louder when the external canals are
closed with the fingers, indicating that it is not entering the ear via the normal channel. Instead, it
generates vibrations in the skull that are transmitted to the inner ear, either directly or indirectly,
via the bone.

Mechanism of touch

Our skin serves as a barrier between our internal organs and the outside world. It is not only the
largest sensory organ in the body, but it is also the largest organ. The "sense of touch" of our skin
provides our brains with a wealth of information about the natural environment, such as
temperature, humidity, and air pressure. Most importantly, this sense of touch allows us to
perceive physical pain, which is essential for avoiding injury, disease, and danger.

The skin is made up of several layers. The epidermis is the visible layer of skin at the very top of
the skin. The prefix "epi-" means "upon" or "over" in Latin. So, the epidermis is the layer that
sits on top of the dermis (the dermis is the second layer of skin). The epidermis, which is made
of dead skin cells, is waterproof and serves as a protective wrap for the underlying skin layers
and the rest of the body. It contains melanin, which protects the skin from the sun's harmful rays
while also giving it color. When exposed to sunlight, melanin accumulates to increase its
protective properties, causing the skin to darken.

The dermis is the skin's second layer. Hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous (oil) glands, blood
vessels, nerve endings, and a variety of touch receptors are all found in the dermis. Its primary
function is to sustain and support the epidermis by diffusing nutrients to it and replacing skin
cells shed from the epidermis' upper layer.

The subcutaneous tissue is the bottom layer, which is made up of fat and connective tissue. The
layer of fat serves as an insulator and aids in the regulation of body temperature. It also serves as
a cushion to protect the underlying tissue from damage when you collide with something.

Sense of touch

The somatosensory system, a vast network of nerve endings and touch receptors in the skin,
governs our sense of touch. This system is in charge of all the sensations we experience,
including cold, hot, smooth, rough, pressure, tickle, itch, pain, vibrations, and more. There are
four types of receptors in the somatosensory system: mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, pain
receptors, and proprioceptors.

If a touch receptor responds quickly to a change in stimulus, it is said to be rapidly adapting. This
essentially means that it can detect when the skin is touching an object and when it is no longer
touching that object. Rapidly adapting receptors, on the other hand, are unable to detect the
continuation and duration of a stimulus touching the skin (how long the skin is touching an
object). These receptors are most sensitive to vibrations that occur on or within the skin. If a
touch receptor does not respond quickly to a change in stimulus, it is said to be slowly adapting.
These receptors are very good at detecting the continuous pressure of an object touching or
indenting the skin, but they are not very good at determining when the stimulus began or ended.

When our hand comes into contact with an object, the mechanoreceptors in our skin are
activated, triggering a chain of events by signaling to the nearest neuron that they have touched
something. This neuron then transmits the message to the next neuron, who passes it on to the
next neuron, and so on until the message reaches the brain. The brain can now process what our
hand touched and send messages back to our hand via this same pathway to let the hand know
whether the brain wants more information about the object it is touching or if the hand should
stop touching it.

Mechanism of Smell

Olfactory receptor cells are found on the top of the nose in a mucous membrane. These receptors'
small hair-like extensions serve as sites for odor molecules dissolved in mucus to interact with
chemical receptors located on these extensions. When an odor molecule binds to a specific
receptor, chemical changes within the cell cause signals to be sent to the olfactory bulb: a bulb-
like structure at the tip of the frontal lobe where the olfactory nerves begin. Information is sent
from the olfactory bulb to limbic system regions and the primary olfactory cortex, which is
located very close to the gustatory cortex. The sensitivity of different species' olfactory systems
varies greatly.

Mechanism of Taste

Taste (technically, the gustatory system) is the other primary chemical sense that responds to
molecules dissolved in liquid.

These molecules enter the body through taste buds, which are pear-shaped structures with
receptor-bearing cells surrounding a central pore. Some 10,000 taste buds have millions of
receptors. The majority are found in the familiar bumps called papillae that cover the surface of
the tongue, but some can also be found on the roof of the mouth and the back of the throat.

Each taste receptor responds to one of five flavors: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and, more recently,
"umami," or savory. When a molecule of the appropriate taste binds to a receptor, the electrical
charge in the receptor cell changes, causing the release of a neurotransmitter.

This messenger chemical causes an electrical impulse to be generated in a nearby neuron, which
then transmits the signal to the brain.

Taste signals travel from the mouth to the brainstem's medulla oblongata, then to the thalamus,
and finally to the cortex, where the sensation becomes a perception. As a result, you become
more aware of what you taste and are able to respond appropriately, swallowing food and
spitting out potentially harmful substances. Taste can directly influence digestive processes
thanks to connections from the lower brain.

3. Write about the sensorimotor system.

Sensorimotor systems, such as the vertebrate spinal cord or the larval nerve cord of Drosophila,
perform essential functions for all behavior.

Functions

Sensorimotor circuits process multiple somatosensory stimuli at the same time and generate
numerous muscle contraction patterns to produce innate behaviors that are adapted to
environmental conditions. Sensorimotor circuits are thought to be assembled sequentially over
time, beginning with those that generate fast escape movements and progressing to those that
generate refined control of slow movement.

The sensorimotor system includes all of the sensory, motor, and central integration and
processing components that are involved in maintaining joint homeostasis during bodily
movements (functional joint stability).

A sensorimotor circuit, in general, contains at least four different neuronal "functional types."
From input to output, the following functional types exist:

1. Sensory neurons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and are responsible
for detecting different stimuli;

2. Sensory processing neurons, which are part of the CNS and are responsible for integrating and
relaying sensory stimuli to other central neurons;
3. Central pattern generating (CPG) neurons, which are part of the CNS. The term "CPG" can be
used in a variety of contexts. We use the term to refer to neurons that can fire rhythmically in the
absence of sensory input, which may include, but is not limited to, neurons that generate
rhythmic, patterned motor neuron activity;

4. Motor neurons are part of the CNS that control muscle cells.

4. Explain the biological basis of learning and memory.

Learning at any age is neurobiological: it is a process that occurs as a result of changes in the
microscopic structure and functioning of the brain. Learning's inputs, processes, and outputs are
all brain functions. Brain imaging techniques that are methodologically based on the biological
nature of perception, memory, and learning can be used to visualize, locate, and measure
learning.

Memory is the recall of previously learned information. It would be more accurate to say that
memory is the process of learning, retaining, and remembering what has previously been learned.

Memory is influenced by many different brain areas. The cerebellum is crucial in the timing of
learned, skilled motor movement execution. The basal ganglia, which are located deep within the
hemisphere, are involved in motor programs. Many different areas of the brain contribute to
attention, including cortical and reticular formation areas, all of which contribute to alertness,
attention, and awareness.

The hippocampus, located in the medial temporal lobe, is involved in learning and memory. The
hippocampus is in charge of short-term and long-term memory consolidation. The hippocampus,
in particular, is in charge of the formation of new memories associated with experiences and
events, also known as autobiographical or episodic memories. Declarative memories, which can
be more explicitly verbalized than episodic memories, are formed but not stored in the
hippocampus. These memories, as well as past events, are thought to be stored in the frontal and
temporal lobes of the brain.

5.What are the Effects of brain damage (neuro-cognitive impairments) and process of
neuropsychological assessment.
Brain damage can lead to various physical as well as psychological impairments. Neurocognitive
disorders are the result of any form of brain damage such as brain injury (trauma) or cells
damage.

Neurocognitive disorders are a group of conditions that frequently cause mental function
impairment. These conditions were previously referred to as organic brain syndrome, but
neurocognitive disorders are now the more commonly used term. Neurocognitive disorders are
most common in older adults, but they can also affect younger people. Memory problems,
behavioral changes, difficulty understanding language, and difficulty performing daily activities
are all signs of reduced mental function.

These symptoms could be caused by a neurodegenerative condition like Alzheimer's or

dementia. Neurodegenerative diseases deteriorate the brain and nerves over time, resulting in a
progressive loss of neurological function. Brain trauma or substance abuse can also cause
neurocognitive disorders. Based on the reported symptoms and the results of diagnostic tests,
healthcare providers can usually determine the underlying cause of neurocognitive disorders. The
cause and severity of neurocognitive disorders can assist healthcare providers in determining the
most effective course of treatment.

The long-term prognosis for people suffering from neurocognitive disorders is determined by the
underlying cause. When a neurodegenerative disease causes a neurocognitive disorder, the
condition frequently deteriorates over time. In other cases, people can expect a full recovery if
their mental function is temporarily impaired.

Need assessment

A neuropsychological assessment is a test that determines how well a person's brain functions.
Reading, language usage, attention, learning, processing speed, reasoning, remembering,
problem-solving, mood and personality are among the abilities tested.

Test results are sometimes used to help determine the source of issues with one's thinking and
comprehension. Test results, for example, could be used to determine whether their cognitive
(mental) changes are the result of normal aging, a neurological illness, depression, anxiety, or
other factors.
If one has had a known neurological event or injury, such as a stroke or traumatic brain injury,
such assessment can be carried out to determine which cognitive functions have changed and
how much they have changed.

The following techniques can be used for the need assessment of brain damage:

History taking

History taking entails gathering a patient's and their family's medical history, the presence or
absence of developmental milestones, a psychosocial history, and the character, severity, and
progression of any history of complaint. It also assesses their co-morbidities and other health.

Interview

Structured interviews are used by psychologists to determine what type of neurological problem
the client may be experiencing. Some interview processes include a brief portable mental status
questionnaire, the Neuropsychological Impairment Scale, the patient's assessment of his or her
own functioning, and a structured interview.

Standardized tests

The results of standardized tests taken by the patient/client are a strong predictor of future or
current neuropsychological issues. Standardized tests allow psychologists to compare a patient's
results with those of other patients because they contain the same components and are
administered in the same manner.

Unit IV Biological Basis of Motivation and Emotion (10 hours)

1. How does regulation of thirst, hunger and temperature occur?

Regulation of thirst

The urge to drink fluids is a natural instinct that is controlled by a negative feedback loop that
exists between the brain and other organs in the body.

Water is the most abundant molecule in the human body, accounting for roughly 70% of our
body weight. It is responsible for a variety of vital internal functions, including maintaining body
temperature, transporting vitamins, minerals, hormones, and other substances, and lubricating
joints, eyes, and intestines.

The hypothalamus is the brain's primary "thirst center," a deep structure that also regulates body
temperature, sleep, and appetite. The hypothalamus contains special sensors that constantly
monitor the sodium and other substance concentrations in the blood. The hypothalamus also
receives input from blood vessel sensors that measure blood volume and pressure. When blood
volume or pressure falls too low—from bleeding, or from excessive fluid loss in sweat or
diarrhea, or when blood sodium concentration rises too high from eating salty snacks, or as a
result of certain diseases—the hypothalamus sends a strong message to drink something right
away.

Regulation of hunger

There are several physiological mechanisms that contribute to hunger. Our stomachs contract
when they are empty. Typically, this is followed by hunger pangs. Chemical messages are sent to
the brain, where they serve as a signal to begin feeding behavior. When our blood glucose levels
fall, the pancreas and liver send out a series of chemical signals that cause us to feel hungry.

The hypothalamus (located in the lower, central part of the brain) is crucial to eating behavior. It
is in charge of hormone synthesizing and secretion. Because the lateral hypothalamus (LH) is
primarily concerned with hunger, damage to the LH can completely eliminate the desire to eat—
to the point where animals starve to death unless kept alive by force feeding.

Through neuronal and hormonal signals, the gut–brain axis regulates appetite and satiety. The
entry of nutrients into the small intestine stimulates the release of peptides, which act as negative
feedback signals, causing meal size to be reduced and feeding to be stopped. Hormones secreted
by peripheral organs influence energy balance over time by controlling feeding and energy
expenditure. Neurons involved in feeding homeostasis regulation are primarily found in the
hypothalamus and brainstem.

Regulation of temperature (thermoregulation)

Thermoregulation is the process by which our body maintains its internal core temperature. All
thermoregulation mechanisms work to restore our body's homeostasis. This is an equilibrium
state. A healthy internal body temperature falls within a narrow window. The average person has
a baseline temperature between 98°F (37°C) and 100°F (37.8°C).

The hypothalamus is a part of our brain that regulates our body's temperature. It sends signals to
our muscles, organs, glands, and nervous system when our internal temperature becomes too low
or too high. They react in a variety of ways to help us return to normal body temperature.

Sensors in our central nervous system (CNS) send messages to our hypothalamus when our
internal temperature changes. As a result, it sends signals to various organs and systems
throughout our body. They react through a variety of mechanisms. When our bodies need to cool
down, the following mechanisms are activated:

Sweating: Sweating is produced by sweat glands and evaporates to cool our skin. This aids in
lowering our internal temperature.

Vasodilation: It is the widening of the blood vessels beneath our skin. This increases blood flow
to our skin, which is cooler, and away from our warm internal organs. This allows our bodies to
emit heat through heat radiation.

When our bodies need to warm up, the following mechanisms are activated:

Vasoconstriction: It is the narrowing of the blood vessels beneath our skin. This reduces blood
flow to our skin, causing heat to be retained near the warm inner body.

Thermogenesis: Heat is produced by our muscles, organs, and brain in a variety of ways.
Shivering, for example, causes muscles to produce heat.

Hormonal thermogenesis: It occurs when our thyroid gland produces hormones that stimulate
our metabolism. This increases the amount of energy and heat produced by our bodies.

2. Explain the process of sleep, dreaming and circadian rhythms

Sleep is required for normal psychological and physiological function. According to rat studies, a
week of no sleep results in immune function loss, and two weeks of no sleep results in death.

Sleep is associated with psychological, emotional, and mental recovery, as well as learning and
memory.

Sleep is influenced by a number of brain structures.

The hypothalamus is a peanut-sized structure deep within the brain that contains groups of
nerve cells that act as control centers for sleep and arousal. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
is a cluster of thousands of cells within the hypothalamus that receives information about light
exposure directly from the eyes and controls your behavioral rhythm. Because they are unable to
match their circadian rhythms with the light-dark cycle, some people with SCN damage sleep
erratically throughout the day. Most blind people retain some sense of light and can control their
sleep/wake cycle.

To control the transitions between wake and sleep, the brain stem, located at the base of the
brain, communicates with the hypothalamus. (The pons, medulla, and midbrain are all parts of
the brain stem.) Sleep-promoting cells in the hypothalamus and brain stem produce GABA, a
brain chemical that reduces the activity of arousal centers in the hypothalamus and brain stem.
The brain stem (particularly the pons and medulla) also plays an important role in REM sleep; it
sends signals to relax muscles necessary for body posture and limb movement, preventing us
from acting out our dreams.

The thalamus serves as a relay for sensory information to the cerebral cortex (the covering of
the brain that interprets and processes information from short- to long-term memory). The
thalamus becomes quiet during most stages of sleep, allowing you to tune out the outside world.
However, during REM sleep, the thalamus is active, sending images, sounds, and other
sensations to the cortex, which fills our dreams.

The pineal gland, located between the two hemispheres of the brain, receives signals from the
SCN and increases production of the hormone melatonin, which aids in sleep after the lights go
out. People who have lost their sight and are unable to coordinate their natural wake-sleep cycle
with natural light can stabilize their sleep patterns by taking small doses of melatonin at the same
time each day. Melatonin peaks and valleys over time, according to scientists, are important for
matching the body's circadian rhythm to the external cycle of light and darkness.

Dreaming

Dreaming happens during REM sleep, which has been described as a "active brain in a paralyzed
body." We enter REM sleep about 3-5 times per night, or every 90 minutes. The first such
episode usually lasts only a few minutes, but REM time increases gradually throughout the night.
The final stage of REM sleep can last up to a half-hour.

As your eyes dart back and forth quickly behind closed lids, our minds race, thinking and
dreaming. Our body temperature rises, our blood pressure rises, and our heart rate and breathing
rate increase to daytime levels. The sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for the
fight-or-flight response, is twice as active as when you are awake. Despite all of this activity, our
bodies barely move, with the exception of occasional twitches; muscles not required for
breathing or eye movement are quiet. Scientists believe that, similar to how deep sleep restores
your body, REM or dreaming sleep restores your mind, possibly by helping to clear out
irrelevant information.

Dreaming and sleep are inextricably linked. Dreams primarily occur during the rapid-eye
movement (REM) stage of sleep, when brain activity is high and similar to that of being awake.
Humans spend about two hours per night dreaming, with each dream lasting 5 to 20 minutes.

Dreams, according to the physiological viewpoint, are simply our subjective experience of what
is essentially random neural activity in the brain. Such activity occurs while we sleep simply
because a small amount of stimulation is required for the brain and nervous system to function
normally. Dreams are simply our cognitive systems' attempts to make sense of this random
neural activity. According to research, the activity that we try to make sense of is not random;
rather, it occurs primarily in the two systems of the brain that are most active when we are
awake–the visual and motor systems. As this viewpoint implies, dreams are usually silent but
filled with visual images.

Despite the fact that many dreams contain images of movement, few people report having
smells, tactile (touch) sensations, or tastes in their dreams. Most people dream about something
that is neither black nor white, but somewhere in the middle. Dream visual images are usually as
bright and clear as waking visual images, but they are drab in color.

Circadian Rhythms

It is one of the two internal biological mechanisms of sleep.

Circadian rhythms regulate a wide range of functions, including daily fluctuations in

wakefulness, body temperature, metabolism, and hormone release. They regulate your sleep
cycle, making you sleepy at night and causing you to wake up without an alarm. Most circadian
rhythms are controlled by your body's biological clock, which is based on a roughly 24-hour day.
Circadian rhythms synchronize with environmental cues (light, temperature) about the time of
day, but they persist even in the absence of cues.

Individual organisms maintain circadian rhythms, and their length varies slightly between
individuals. As a result, they must be reset, either continuously or repeatedly, in order to be in
sync with nature's cycle. External factors must play a role in maintaining synchronization (a.k.a.
entrainment) to a 24-hour cycle; light exposure to the eyes is the most powerful of these factors.

3. How does sexual behavior (hormonal and neural influences) occur?

Hormones have the ability to act as neurotransmitters, influencing neural signaling and activity
throughout the brain.

Sex steroid receptors can be found on cells throughout the body. These receptors are responsible
for receiving hormone messengers released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands such as the
pituitary gland and the thyroid gland, which aid in mediating cell metabolism and homeostasis.

The brain also has a diverse distribution of hormone receptors for estrogen and testosterone,
allowing these sex steroids to affect a wide range of brain circuits, influencing how, where, and
when brain cells communicate.

Most scientists believe that hormones function as a type of signaling mediator, assisting other
neurotransmitters and neuropeptides in their functions.
Sexual behavior is an innate social behavior that is hormonally regulated and found in all
species. Despite the fact that both sexes seek out and engage in sexual behavior, the specific
actions involved in mating are sexually dimorphic. As a result, the neural circuits that mediate
sexual motivation and behavior in men and women are overlapping but distinct. Furthermore,
both sexes' sexual behavior is heavily reliant on circulating gonadal hormones.

4. Explain drug addiction and brain’s reward circuit.

When we first experience pleasure, our brain releases a neurotransmitter called dopamine.
Dopamine is primarily produced in the midbrain's VTA (Ventral Tegmental Area) and travels to
the limbic system and frontal cortex. When dopamine is released by the VTA in the reward
circuit, it travels to various parts of the brain, including the amygdala (the emotional area of the
brain), the nucleus accumbens (the area of the brain that controls the body's motor functions), the
prefrontal cortex (associated with attention and planning), and the hippocampus (memory
center). They're all dopamine receptors.

Engaging in a pleasurable activity causes action potentials to be generated in dopamine-

producing neurons in the VTA. This results in the release of dopamine into the synaptic space.
Dopamine then binds to and stimulates the receiving neuron's dopamine-receptors. Dopamine
stimulation is thought to produce a pleasurable feeling, a rewarding effect, or euphoria. A special
protein, dopamine-transporter, then removes dopamine molecules from the synapse and
transports them back to the transmitting neuron.

This encourages the body to pursue more of the activity. It is a normal reaction to pleasurable
stimuli such as food, sex, social interactions, and certain drugs (particularly stimulants). The
circuit is activated to varying degrees by various stimuli. In the case of drugs, some drugs are
thus easier to become addicted to than others. They activate the reward circuit to a greater
degree.

Addiction is a completely biologically based condition. While a person's choices are undoubtedly
important, drug addiction also has physiological components.

In a healthy individual, the reward system reinforces important survival behaviors (eating, sexual
activity, social interaction). Abuse drugs hijack the reward system, transforming a person's
natural needs into drug needs. Most drugs of abuse raise dopamine levels in the reward pathway.
Some drugs, such as alcohol, heroin, and nicotine, indirectly stimulate dopamine-producing
neurons in the VTA, causing them to fire more action potentials. Different drugs act in different
ways, but the common result is that dopamine accumulates in the synapse at a much higher rate
than normal.

This causes overstimulation of the receiving neurons, which is responsible for drug users'
prolonged and intense euphoria. The continuous activation or overactivation of this reward
circuit causes another neurotransmitter called serotonin (partially responsible for feelings of
satiation) to decrease as dopamine increases. This is why drugs can be dangerous. The reward
system becomes desensitized after repeated exposure to dopamine surges caused by drugs. As a
result, the system is no longer responsive to everyday stimuli; the drug is the only thing that is
rewarding. That is how drugs alter a person's life priorities. Even the drug loses its ability to
reward after a while, and higher doses are required to achieve the same pleasurable effect. With
increasing drug use, a person feels less and less satiated or content. This eventually leads to a
drug overdose.

A person who uses drugs recreationally is usually looking for a quick "rush" produced by a fast-
acting drug. Many people who use drugs recreationally prefer heroin to morphine not because
heroin has a different effect, but because its effects in the brain are felt sooner.

5. Write about biopsychology of emotion, stress and health.

Emotion is a multifaceted, subjective experience that is accompanied by biological and

behavioral changes. Emotion entails feelings, thoughts, nervous system activation, physiological
changes, and behavioral changes such as facial expressions. Different theories exist regarding
how and why people experience emotion. Evolutionary theories, the James-Lange Theory, the
Cannon-Bard Theory, Schacter and Singer's Two-Factor Theory, and Cognitive Appraisal are
among them.

Emotional experience is accompanied by activation of two major nervous system areas: the brain
and the autonomic nervous system. The Limbic System, a part of the brain, is heavily involved in
emotion. The limbic system consists of the hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, and
hippocampus. The hypothalamus is involved in the activation of the sympathetic nervous system,
which is a component of any emotional reaction. The thalamus functions as a sensory relay
center, with neurons projecting to both the amygdala and higher cortical regions for processing.
The amygdala is responsible for processing emotional information and relaying it to cortical
structures. The hippocampus integrates emotional and cognitive experiences.

The amygdala has gotten a lot of attention from researchers who want to understand the
biological basis for emotions, particularly fear and anxiety. The amygdala is divided into
subnuclei, the most prominent of which are the basolateral complex and the central nucleus. The
basolateral complex is densely connected to many different sensory areas of the brain. It is
essential for classical conditioning as well as attaching emotional value to learning and memory
processes. The central nucleus regulates the activity of the autonomic nervous and endocrine
systems through connections with the hypothalamus and various brainstem areas.

The hippocampus, as previously stated, is also involved in emotional processing. Hippocampal

structure and function, like the amygdala, have been linked to a variety of mood and anxiety
disorders. Individuals suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have significant
reductions in the volume of several parts of the hippocampus, which could be due to lower levels
of neurogenesis and dendritic branching (the generation of new neurons and the generation of
new dendrites in existing neurons, respectively).

Stress is a physiological change that occurs in the body. It happens as a result of various
stressors. Meeting new people and being physically threatened are two examples of stress
factors. Changes in the levels of stress-related hormones in the body can be used to assess stress.
In response to a specific stressor, these hormones regulate human behavior. Stress is a biological
reaction to events in your life. When you perceive a stressful situation, the hypothalamus region
of your brain initiates the stress response. It begins by sending a signal to the pituitary gland. The
pituitary gland then communicates with the adrenal glands. Adrenal glands are located on top of
the kidneys. The stress hormone cortisol is then released by these glands.

During the stress response, our breathing and heart rate speed up, as does your blood pressure.
Your liver will break down molecules and release more sugar (glucose) into the blood with the
help of cortisol. An increase in blood sugar levels provides the body with more energy. This is
critical for determining whether to fight or flee. The increased energy allows you to flee or deal
with a stressful situation. It also aids the body's return to normalcy afterward.

Write short notes with biological basis of the following disorders:

a) Anxiety disorders

Anxiety is something that everyone experiences from time to time. Although anxiety and fear are
closely related, there are significant differences between the two states. Anxiety is characterized
by apprehension, avoidance, and caution in the face of a potential threat, danger, or other
negative event, whereas fear is characterized by an instantaneous reaction to an imminent threat.
While most people dislike anxiety, it is necessary for our health, safety, and well-being. Anxiety
motivates us to take actions that help us avoid potential future problems, such as studying for
exams, keeping a healthy weight, and arriving on time at work. Anxiety also motivates us to
avoid doing things that could lead to trouble in the future, such as accruing debts and engaging in
illegal activities.

Anxiety is caused by a number of neural structures, but the amygdala is the one that gives it its
strong emotional hue. The prefrontal cortex is in charge of interpreting the nature of the threat
and orchestrating a behavioral response. Other brain areas respond to the threat as well, and the
signals they produce activate the stress response, activating all body systems for fight or flight.

Anyone can suffer from incapacitating anxiety. However, some people appear to be predisposed
to anxiety: Their defense systems are primed to misinterpret neutral situations as threatening or
to overreact to threatening situations, possibly due to genes or temperament, possibly due to
early experience, possibly due to over- or under-activity of some area of the brain.

When the amygdala flags incoming information as a threat—or jumps to that conclusion even
when there is no threat—it emits an alarm, alerting many other areas of the brain to prepare for
defensive action.

The signal is relayed neurally and hormonally by the hypothalamus, triggering the stress
response. The heart rate rises. The heart rate increases. Breathing becomes more rapid. Areas of
the brainstem become active, putting you on high alert and vigilance. The hippocampus attempts
to contextualize the nature of the threat by drawing on past experience. The prefrontal cortex,
which receives all of the information required to create a coherent interpretation of events and
orchestrate an appropriate behavioral response, has the ability to dampen or amplify the sense of
threat and degree of distress.

b) Depressive disorders

Individuals suffering from depression experience truly profound unhappiness most of the time.
The person suffering from depression reports that they have lost interest in all of life's usual
pleasures (e.g., eating, sex, sports, hobbies). When they are not dieting, they frequently
experience significant weight loss or gain.

Fatigue, insomnia, feelings of worthlessness, a recurring inability to think or concentrate, and

recurring thoughts of death or suicide are all symptoms of depression. The DSM–IV defines a
major depressive episode as a person experiencing five or more of these symptoms at the same
time over a two-week period.

Clinically, the most important neurobiological discoveries related to depression have most likely
been neurotransmitter-related ('neurochemical') abnormalities, with monoamines (serotonin,
noradrenaline, and dopamine) receiving the most attention. Early observations of tricyclic
antidepressants' ability to

(a) relieve depressive symptoms and

(b) potentiate serotonin and noradrenaline activity sparked a flurry of neurochemical studies in
patients with depression.

Dopamine, a neurotransmitter, has also been linked to depression. Dopamine is important in

controlling our desire for rewards as well as our ability to experience pleasure. Low dopamine
levels may explain, in part, why people with depression don't get as much pleasure from
activities or people as they did before becoming depressed.

Another psychological mechanism that contributes to depression is having negative thoughts

about oneself. Individuals suffering from depression frequently have negative self-schemas, or
negative perceptions of their own characteristics, abilities, and behavior. As a result, they are
extremely sensitive to other people's criticism. Because such people are more likely to notice and
remember negative information, their feelings of worthlessness grow stronger; and when they are
exposed to various stressors (e.g., the end of a romantic relationship, a job failure), their thinking
can become distorted in significant and self-defeating ways.

c) Bipolar disorder

Bipolar disorder, formerly known as manic depression, is a mental illness characterized by

extreme mood swings that include emotional highs (mania or hypomania) and lows (depression).

When you are depressed, you may experience feelings of sadness or hopelessness, and you may
lose interest or pleasure in most activities. When your mood shifts to mania or hypomania (a
milder form of mania), you may feel euphoric, energized, or unusually irritable. Sleep, energy,
activity, judgment, behavior, and the ability to think clearly can all be affected by mood swings.

Although the exact cause of bipolar disorder is unknown, there are several biological factors that
may be involves, such as:

Chemical imbalances in the brain:

It is widely assumed that bipolar disorder is caused by chemical imbalances in the brain.
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that control the functions of the brain and include noradrenaline,
serotonin, and dopamine. There is some evidence that if the levels of one or more
neurotransmitters are out of balance, a person may develop symptoms of bipolar disorder. For
example, there is evidence that episodes of mania can occur when noradrenaline levels are too
high, and episodes of depression can occur when noradrenaline levels fall too low.

Genetics:

Bipolar disorder is also thought to be genetically linked, as it appears to run in families. Family
members of people who have bipolar disorder are at a higher risk of developing it themselves.
However, bipolar disorder is not caused by a single gene. Instead, it is thought that a number of
genetic and environmental factors act as triggers.

Triggers

Symptoms of bipolar disorder are frequently triggered by a stressful circumstance or situation.

Here are some examples of stressful triggers:

• physical, sexual, or emotional abuse

 • a relationship breakdown
• the death of a close relative or loved one

These kinds of life-altering events can lead to depression at any point in a person's life.

Bipolar disorder can also be brought on by:

• a physical ailment
• sleep disruptions
• Overwhelming problems in daily life, such as money, work, or relationships
d) Neurodevelopmental disorders

Neurodevelopmental disorders are conditions that affect the brain functions. Intellectual
disability, communication disorders, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism
spectrum disorder, and schizophrenia fall under the umbrella of NDD. Attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism, intellectual difficulties, cognitive dysfunction (also
known as mental derangement), conduct disorders, cerebral palsy, and sensory processing
impairments are some of the examples of neurodevelopmental diseases. Other NDDs are
language and speech, motor abilities, conduct, memory, cognition.

ADHD is defined by a persistent pattern of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsive behavior

that interferes with normal functioning. ADHD is caused by genetic and neurobiological factors,
which can last well into adulthood and is frequently associated with poor long-term outcomes.
Autism spectrum disorder is distinguished by deficits in social interaction and communication, as
well as repetitive movements or interests. As with ADHD, genetic factors appear to play a
significant role in the development of autism spectrum disorder; environmental pollutants such
as mercury have also been linked to the development of this disorder.

ADHD is associated with differences in the way certain neurotransmitters (chemicals in the brain
that help control behavior), particularly dopamine and norepinephrine, work, and this difference
causes changes in two different attentional networks of the brain — the default network, which is
associated with automatic attention, and the task positive network, which is associated with
directed or effortful attention.
Autism spectrum disorder is one of the most perplexing and misunderstood neurodevelopmental
disorders. Children with this disorder exhibit significant disturbances in three areas: (a) social
interaction deficits, (b) communication deficits, and (c) repetitive patterns of behavior or
interests. These disturbances manifest early in life and cause significant functional impairments.
A child with autism spectrum disorder may exhibit social interaction deficits such as not
initiating conversations with other children or turning their head away when spoken to.