ME5300 METROLOGY AND

COMPUTER AIDED INSPECTION

Why Metrology ?

(A) improved product and process development procedures

(B) improvement of manufacturing process chains and related process

control

(C) refined tolerancing by the use of functionality related parameters.

High productivity, flexibility, efficiency, product reliability and low scrap rates
are important and generally conflicting requirements in modern
manufacturing, which is characterized by an increasing need for shorter time
to market
Savio et al [2016]
Metrology Function in Manufacturing

Savio et al [2016]
Learning Objectives of Metrology portion
To understand the role of metrology in manufacturing and
its value addition

To learn about measurement concepts and sources of

error in measurement

To learn methods of measurement and evaluation for

dimensions, form and finish of manufactured components

To learn and appreciate the usefulness of Manufacturing

metrology
To learn about the recent developments in the area of
Metrology
References

Hume, K.J., Engineering Metrology, Macdonald, 1960.

Parsons, S.A.J. – Metrology and Gauging, Macdonald and Evans, 1964.

Thomas, G.G., Engineering Metrology, Butterworth, 1974.

Anthony, D.M. Engineering Metrology, Pergamon Press, First Edition, 1986.

Shotbolt, C.S. and Galyer. J. Metrology for Engineers, Cassell Publ., Fifth Edition,
1990.
• Hume, K.J., Engineering Metrology, Macdonald, 1960.

• Shotbolt, C.S. and Galyer. J. Metrology for Engineers, Cassell Publ.,

Fifth Edition, 1990
Measuring Instruments
Length measuring Instruments: ex:
Steel rule; Caliper; Micrometer; and
comparators.

Angle measuring Instruments: e.g.

Angle gauges; Divided scales; Sine
bar with slip gauges; Autocollimator;
and Tool Maker Microscope.

Instruments for dimension and form:

Coordinate Measuring Machine
(CMM), roundness tester and other
form measuring instruments.

Instruments for surface finish: surface

roughness measuring instruments,
2D and 3D profilers
What is Metrology?

Metrology is the science of measurement

The Science Behind Quality Control on

a Manufacturing Shop Floor

Metrology is the science of measurement,

embracing both experimental and theoretical
determinations at any level of uncertainty in
any field of science and technology.
”International Bureau of Weights and
measurements (BIPM)”
Importance of Metrology ?
Verifying and validating the design specifications

National and international trade increasingly require demonstrated conformity to

written standards and specifications with mutual recognition of measurements
and tests, i.e. worldwide traceability of measurement results to the SI

It is the technology behind the quality assurance processes in

manufacturing

Assessing the capability of machine tool and controlling the

manufacturing process

Economic success of most manufacturing industries is critically dependent on how

well products are made, a requirement in which measurement plays a key role.
Areas of Application of Metrology

Manufacturing Industry

Dimensional inspection

Quality control

1/16/2022 1
Role of Metrology in Manufacturing
 Specifications of a part/Assembly Drawing

Dimensions (Size)
Form
Orientation
Location

Surface finish
Geometrical features on work pieces
Geometrical features on work pieces
Geometrical features on work pieces
 Surface Roughness Parameters

Deutsches Institut für Normung (German Institute for Standardization)

Measurement

Measurement is the process of determining or finding the

size, quantity or degree or characteristics of a manufactured
component .

Measuring instruments are measuring devices that

transform the measured quantity into an quantifiable
information, either analog or digital.
Important Terms in Measurement
Resolution:
It is the minimum value that can be
measured when the instrument is gradually
increased from non-zero value.

Repeatability:
The degree of closeness with which a given
value may be repeatedly measured under same
conditions.

Precision:
The degree of closeness with which a given
value may be repeatedly measured under
different conditions.

Uncertainty:
The range within which the actual value
attributed to a measured quantity lies
 Errors
✔ The difference between the true value and the mean value
of the set of readings on the same component is termed as
an error.

✔ Error can also be defined as the difference between the

indicated value and the true value of the quantity measured.

E = V m − Vt

where E is the error, Vm the measured value, and Vt the true

value.
 Accuracy
Accuracy of an instrument can also be expressed as % error.

If an instrument measures Vm instead of Vt, then,

% error = x 100

Or

% error = x 100
Measurement Errors

Measurement Error

Systematic Error Random Error

Consistent, Calibration errors

repeatable Loading errors
errors Unrepeatable,
Spatial Errors inconsistent errors,
Human Errors
 Systematic Errors
• A systematic error is a type of error that deviates by a fixed amount from the true
value of measurement.
• These types of errors are controllable in both their magnitude and their direction.
• These types of errors can be assessed and minimized if efforts are made to
analyze them. The following are the reasons for their occurrence.
• Calibration errors
• Ambient conditions
• Deformation of work piece and
• Avoidable errors
Elastic deformation – Spherical contact pair
Elastic deformation – Spherical & Plane contact pair
Elastic deformation – Spherical & Internal Plane
contact pair
Elastic deformation – Internal Spherical contact pair
Error due to ambient conditions
Direct Measurement
Error = lα (t-ts)
L-Nominal Length
α- Coefficient of thermal expansion
(t-ts ) – Deviation from standard Temperature

Comparative Measurement
If we consider two gauges

Error = l(α1- α2) (t-ts)

L-Nominal Length
α- Coefficient of thermal expansion
(t-ts ) – Deviation from standard Temperature
Error due to Temperature
The nominal dimension of the work is given to be 59.95 mm.
To check this dimension a differential measurement on a
comparator was carried out using a slip gauge (60mm)
(αb=11.5x10-6). The temperature of the slip gauge was found to
be 21.0°C and that of the work 19.2°C. The measured difference
in the length was observed to be +19µm that is the length of the
greater than that of slip gauge. If the work is made of brass (αb
=18.5x10-6 ). Calculate the actual length of the work at 20°C.
A comparator is used for differential measurements under the following conditions.
Maximum temperature difference of the work is ±1.5°C or △tw =±1.5°C. Maximum
difference between temperature of work and temperature of measuring standard is ±5 x
10-6 or αw – αs = ±5 x 10-6
 Random Errors
Random Errors

• Random errors provide a measure of random deviations when

measurements of a physical quantity are carried out repeatedly.

• When a series of repeated measurements are made on a component

under similar conditions, the values or results of measurements vary.

• They are of variable magnitude and may be either positive or negative.

 Random Errors (Contd…)

The figure clearly depicts the relationship between systematic and random errors
with respect to the measured value.
Random Errors
Random Errors

The standard error of the estimate m is s/sqrt(n), where n is

the number of measurements.
The Gaussian normal distribution. m = mean of measurements. s =
standard deviation of measurements. 68% of the measurements lie in the
interval m - s < x < m + s; 95% lie within m - 2s < x < m + 2s; and 99.7% lie
within m - 3s < x < m + 3s.
Propagation of Error
Uncertainty in the estimated variable if the uncertainties in the measured
parameters are known
Propagation of Error
Other Sources of Errors
Zero Error: The instrument does not
read zero when the input is zero. Zero
error is a type of bias error that offsets
all measurements taken by the
instrument, but can usually be
corrected by some kind of zero offset
adjustment.

Linearity Error: The output deviates

from the calibrated linear relationship
between the input and the output.
Linearity error is a type of bias error,
but unlike zero error, the degree of
error varies with the magnitude of the
reading.

Sensitivity Error: The slope of the

output vs. input curve is not calibrated
exactly in the first place. Since this
affects all readings by the instrument,
this is a type of systematic or bias
error.
Least square curve fitting
Least square curve fitting
Example Problem
Other Sources of Errors
• Resolution Error: The output precision is limited to discrete steps (e.g., if
one reads to the nearest millimeter on a ruler, the resolution error is
around +/- 1 mm). Resolution error is a type of random or precision error.

• Hysteresis Error: The output is different, depending on whether the input

is increasing or decreasing at the time of measurement. This is a separate
error from instrument repeatability error.

• Instrument Repeatability Error: The instrument gives a different output,

when the input returns to the same value. The reasons for the differences
and the procedure to get to that value are usually random, so instrument
repeatability error is a type of random error.
Other Sources of Errors
◼ Drift Error: The output changes
(drifts) from its correct value, even
though the input remains constant.
Drift error can often be seen in the
zero reading, which may fluctuate
randomly due to electrical noise and
other random causes, or it can drift
higher or lower (zero drift) due to
nonrandom causes, such as a slow
increase in air temperature in the
room. Thus, drift error can be either
random or systematic.

◼ Parallax: This error can occur

whenever there is some distance
between the measuring scale and the
indicator used to obtain a
measurement. If the observer's eye is
not squarely aligned with the pointer
and scale, the reading may be too
high or low (some analog meters
have mirrors to help with this
alignment).
Other Sources of Errors
• Environmental factors: Be aware of errors introduced by your immediate
working environment. You may need to take account for or protect your
experiment from vibrations, drafts, changes in temperature, electronic
noise or other effects from nearby apparatus.

• Reading Error: describes such factors as parallax, interpolation, or

optical resolution.

• Loading Error: results from the change of the measurement instrument

when it is being used.

• Effect of support.

• Dirt.
Abbe’s Principle – Concept
ABBE Principle states that “the maximum accuracy may be obtained when
the standard scale and work piece being measured aligned along the line
of measurement
Contact points of the micrometer far from the axis of graduations
measurement error will become significant

For very small values of Ɵ

Alignment Errors, Cosine Error:
Alignment Errors, Cosine Error:

Angle A Correction Factor

10° .985
20° .940
30° .866
40° .766
50° .643
60° .500
Alignment Errors, Cosine Error:
The dial indicator shows a reading of 0.5 mm when
inclined at 15° to the perpendicular.
a) Calculate the reading on the dial indicator, if it is set
perpendicular to the component surface
b) What is the numerical value of the cosine error for
the inclined dial indicator? [1]
Does Screw Guage and Vernier Calipers
follow Abbe’s principle???
Abbe’s Principle – Concept

• Abbe principle is followed in the case of

micro-meter screw gauge.
• But in case of vernier caliper this is not followed.
• Therefore, there is possibility of error in vernier
caliper (even when slightly more force is applied
during measurement, it will be magnified)
• In vernier caliper, the specimen (whose dimension
is to be measured) is placed between two jaws
and the axis of this is quite far away from the axis
of scale.
Does Screw Guage and Vernier Calipers
follow Abbe’s principle???

Off-set
Calibration & its Error
◼ Calibration of a measuring instrument
It is the process of determining the values of
the quantity being measured corresponding
to a pre-established arbitrary scale.

◼ Advantages of calibration:
▪ Optimizes resources.
▪ Assures consistency.
▪ Ensures measurements (and perhaps products) are
compatible with those made elsewhere.
▪ Eliminate or reduce bias in the user's measurement
system relative to the reference base.
Uncertainty quantification
To estimate the uncertainty in the calculated results on the basis of the
uncertainties in the primary experiments
The result R is given as a function of the independent variables x1, x2, x3 , ……. xn .

R = R(x1, x2, x3 , ……. xn )

Let W be the uncertainty in the result and w1, w2, w3, w4,…………… wn be the
uncertainties in the independent variables.
Then the uncertainty in the result
Practice Problems
 Answers
• 88,700 ± 8900 mm3

36.47 ± 0.24 mm
•
Matlab Implementation
Statistical Error Analysis
Statistical Error Analysis
GAGE Blocks

Source : Mitutoya

They are a necessity in any testing environment that requires

linear dimensional accuracy and/or calibration of measuring tools,
such as micrometers and calipers.

They are precision ground and lapped measuring standards.

They are used as references for the setting of measuring
equipment such as micrometers, sine bars, dial indicators (when
used in an inspection role).

Gage blocks are manufactured to precise gage-maker tolerance

grades for calibrating, checking, and setting fixed and
comparative gages.
GAGE Blocks
Compound Errors
If measurement of a certain quantity is a function of individual
measurements a, b, c etc.

If accuracy of the individual measurements is δa, δb, δc etc.

Then the accuracy of determination is given by

 Assignment:
While measuring Large bores using flat ended (width W) boring bars
(Length L), the diameter of the bore is estimated using the formula

If L= 400 mm and δL = ± 0.025 mm , W= 50mm and δW = ± 0.025 mm

Which of the dimensions (L or W) has to be determined with higher

accuracy to reduce the overall error ?
Calculate the compound error of the length 47.717
mm, build-up of 5 slip gauges. The maximum error in
each of the block is (± 0.1+ ) µm.[2]
The slip gauges used are 1.007-1.41-1.30- 4.0- 40.0
mm.
 Examples
Cosine Error

The Y-axis is the adjacent side of a right-angled triangle.

The length of the hypotenuse is 0.050 mm. Therefore:

Y = 0.050 × cos 1° = 0.049 99 mm,
cosine error = 0.050 mm - 0.049 99 mm = 0.000 01 mm.

(Image © Renishaw plc 2000)

Measuring Method
Measuring Method
Dimensional Metrology
The total dimensional metrology process can be divided into four
major interacting elements:
Product definition,
Measurement process planning,
Measurement process execution, and analysis and reporting of
quality data

Such information must include things like part geometry, features,

tolerances, measurement resource (CMM and sensor) specifications,
and relevant part characteristics such as surface finish, reflectance,
and material properties
Dimensional Metrology
Dimensional Metrology
The measurement process definition activity produces the process plan to
measure the part so that the functionality of the part is ensured
during/after manufacturing process.
To extract or accept as input (from the product definition model,
dimensional measurement equipment specifications, etc.) all information
necessary to generate a complete measurement process plan (called the
macro process plan)2)

To generate a device-independent process plan containing the necessary

information to execute the art measurement process.
To generate the measurement process plan, information such as part material, machine
accuracy, and measuring constraints need to be considered to support the following
decision making:
•what measurements to make and in what order
•which features need to be measured
•what are the measurands (measurement method)
•what are the measurement purposes
•how to handle outliers and filter measurement results among available measurement
resources, which (measurement device and sensor) pairs, if any, will successfully
accomplish the measurement
Dimensional Metrology
From a very high-level perspective, the measurement process execution has the
following important functions

1) To accept input from the measurement process plan and use the input to
provide unambiguous instructions to a particular measurement system

2) To use the measurement system to inspect the part

3) To collect the measurement results and output them to the analysis and
reporting activity.

Following the measurement process execution activity is the analysis and reporting
activity. The most important functions of this activity are to receive input from
measurement process execution and product definition activities, to analyse the
part measurement data interms of production definition requirements, to perform a
statistical analysis of the measurement results and present them in the form of a
statistical process control report, and to archive whatever measurement values and
derived statistics are necessary for things like legal protection.

Source : Zhao et al [2011]

Interfaces in a dimensional metrology system
Dimensional Metrology
Dimensional Metrology
Multisensor fusion for Metrology
Dimensional Metrology

Multisensor fusion for Metrology

Dimensional Metrology
Typical resolution and measuring range plots for optical
sensors, tactile probing systems in coordinate measuring
systems, computed tomography and scanning probe
microscopes.
Important Terms in Measurement

Gaging:
It is not measurement, but a form of inspection and sorting.

Tolerance:
The two extremes within which an actual part dimension
must lie.
Disposition of tolerance for plain plug gauges
Disposition of tolerance for plain gap and ring
gauges
Taylor’s Theory Gauging

Tolerance zone on a rectangular hole

Taylor’s Theory Gauging

Rectangular hole oversize in one direction. A full-form ‘ NOT

GO’ gauge will not reject such a hole
GAGE Blocks

Source : Mitutoya

They are a necessity in any testing environment that requires

linear dimensional accuracy and/or calibration of measuring tools,
such as micrometers and calipers.

They are precision ground and lapped measuring standards.

They are used as references for the setting of measuring
equipment such as micrometers, sine bars, dial indicators (when
used in an inspection role).

Gage blocks are manufactured to precise gage-maker tolerance

grades for calibrating, checking, and setting fixed and
comparative gages.
Gauge Blocks

Slip gauges are extremely accurate and precise steel blocks. Slip
gauges are stored in a box set, and the slips can be built, using two
or more, to form a wide range of sizes to check dimensional
accuracy or accuracy of measuring instruments.

Gauge block grades

Reference (AAA) -high tolerance (± 0.00005 mm or 0.000002 in)
Calibration (AA) - (tolerance +0.00010 mm to -0.00005 mm)
Inspection (A) - (tolerance +0.00015 mm to -0.00005 mm)
workshop (B) - low tolerance (tolerance +0.00025 mm to -0.00015mm
Gauge Blocks
• Slip gauges are wrung together to give a stack of the
required dimension.

In order to achieve the maximum accuracy

- Use the minimum number of blocks.
- Wipe the measuring faces clean using soft clean chamois leather.
- Wring the individual blocks together.
 Wringing of Slip gauges

1/16/2022 56
Manufacture of Gauges
Rough machining
heat treatment
Grinding and Lapping
- using CBN Abrasives
- Spread on a flat CI plate, non directional lapping
- Inter changing of gauges to avoid taper
Sizes of Slip Gauges

87
Slip Gauges Standard sets
 Guage Blocks/Slip Gauge
112 pieces AS per IS:2984-1966,slip gauges are
available in three different grades i.e. grate O, grate I,
and grate II.

Grade I-slip gauges are used in inspection

department
Grade II-slip gauges are used in workshop
Grade 0-slip gauges are used in laboratories &
standard rooms
Carbide, steel, ceramic slip gauges with different sizes are also available
36 nos set
83 nos set
87 nos set
Gauge block Arrangement
If the dimension required is 58.975 mm, how will you select/arrange the
slip gauges???.

Step 1: Always start with the last decimal place e.g., here it is 0.005 mm
and for this 1.005 mm slip gauge is selected.
Now dimension left is 50.975-1.005 = 57.970 mm.

Step 2:Take second decimal place ; and for it select 1.47 mm slip gauge.
Therefore, the remainder is 57.970 - 1.47 = 56.500 mm.

Step 3:Next for 56.500 mm, we choose 6.500 mm piece and finally
50.000 mm piece.

Final combination is:

50.000 + 6.500 + 1.47 + 1.005 = 58.975 mm
[Note: One could have selected 1.07 mm piece also, but that way we would have been left with 56.900
and for it we need another 1.4 mm piece. The aim should be to choose minimum number of slip gauges
for a given dimension.]
Gauge block Arrangement

If the dimension to be arranged is 58.975 mm.

Always start with the last decimal place e.g., here it is 0.005 mm and for
this 1.005 mm slip gauge is selected.
Now dimension left is 50.975-1.005 = 57.970 mm.

Take second decimal place ; and for it select 1.47 mm slip gauge.
Therefore, the remainder is 57.970 - 1.47 = 56.500 mm.

Next for 56.500 mm, we choose 6.500 mm piece and finally 50.000 mm

The combination of slip guages is:

50.000 + 6.500 + 1.47 + 1.005 = 58.975 mm

[Note: One could have selected 1.07 mm piece also, but that way we will be left with 56.900 and for it we
need another 1.4 mm piece. The aim should be to choose minimum number of slip gauges for a given
dimension.]
Hierarchy of length measurement standards

A metre defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time
interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
The modern primary standard for length is the iodine stabilized helium neon laser.
The frequency of this laser (f) is related to the wavelength of light (λ) through the
relation: c=fλ
where c = 299 792 458 m/s is the value assigned to the velocity of light by the
definition of the metre. Length units are realized by incorporating the laser in an
interferometer. The frequency of the laser can be realized to an overall uncertainty of
1 part in 109