CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Development is the center of all economic activities. During the last quarter of the 20th

century anno domini, development has emerged with a human dimension. Development is

meaningless if it is not translated into the real lives of the people. The relationship between

population and economic development has been a subject of debate and research for long. The

features of population dynamics and its linkage with socio-economic factors tremendously

contribute to effective planning and issues relevant to population and development. The history of

mankind shows that the accumulation of the first billion of the world's population took one million

years, and the second billion took one hundred years. In the present era, with the existing fertility

trends and population growth rates, it takes about twelve years in less developed countries (LDCs)

to raise the world population by one billion. The world population is approximately 7 billion and

is increasing very rapidly. This large population and growth rate put immense pressure on natural,

manual, physical, capital, and social resources globally. Overpopulation is a critical issue that has

far-reaching implications for socioeconomic development in various regions around the world. It

refers to a situation where the number of people exceeds the carrying capacity of the environment,

leading to strain on resources, infrastructure, and social services (Cohen, 1995).

In the context of Nigeria, a country with a rapidly growing population, overpopulation

poses significant challenges to sustainable development. According to the United Nations, Nigeria

is projected to become the third most populous country in the world by 2050, with an estimated

population of over 400 million people (United Nations, 2019). The country's population growth

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rate has remained high, averaging around 2.6% per year (National Population Commission, 2019).

This rapid population growth has put immense pressure on the country's resources, infrastructure,

and social services, affecting socioeconomic development at various levels. The consequences of

population growth on the economic development of less developed countries are not the same

because the conditions prevailing in these countries are quite different from those of developed

economies. Therefore, the body of literature on population growth in Nigeria has always

emphasized either the negative or the positive effects. Therefore, in every discussion, it is

conventional to start with a definition of terms used in such a discussion. However, population

growth can be seen by a demographer as a change in the size of the population. But when this

change occurs in such a way that it reduces the size of the population, the demographer refers to it

as a negative growth but when it adds to the size of the population, he regards it as a positive one.

What we get from this concept is that population growth can be positive or negative depending on

whether there is an increase or decrease in the size of a given population. Population whether

positive or negative is derived from three demographic variables such as birth, death, and

migration rates.

Udabah (1999) threw more light on this by adding that birth and death rates in

underdeveloped countries are quite different from those of developed countries. Birth rates in

underdeveloped are generally high, while those in developed countries are low. On the other hand,

death rates are higher in underdeveloped nations. The higher rate of population growth is therefore

a major characteristic of underdeveloped nations and is partly responsible for the low rates of

economic development. Moreover, the population of any country constitutes the most vital

component of its resource base. This aspect is based mostly on its size, growth rate, spatial

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distribution, demographic structure, and quality in terms of level of education, fitness, and social

welfare. Population statistics are indispensable impute into the planning process in any area.

Government issuing programs for instance in the efforts of government in developing

countries to feed the people and also provide quality services for them are being frustrated by rapid

population growth. This growth is attributable on the one hand to improvement in human survival

associated with the application of modern medical science to health matters, better sanitation, and

immunization of children which have caused the death rate to decrease. On the other hand, so

many socio-cultural issues have complimented the growth of the population in Nigeria positively

(Lee and Miler 1990, Rennne 1995, Ainsword et al 1996). Consequently, the world population has

been increasing and the last two decades have been demographically unprecedented as it rose from

4.2 billion people in 1985 to 6.4 billion in 2010. Much of this occurred in the developing nations

as their population grew from 3.7 billion to 5.1 billion as against that of the developed nations

which grew from 1.1 billion to 1.2 billion over the same period (United Nations 2001 billion).

Nigeria’s population is one of the fastest growing populations in the world and Nigeria is

the most populous country in Africa, ranked tenth as obtained from two major sources, viz the

1991 census and the Population Reference Bureau World Population Data Sheet. The population

of Nigeria is large which makes it a “giant” relative to the other African countries. The large

population of Nigeria implies a large market for goods and services as well as a large pool of

human resources for development. However, the impact of population on development depends

not only on the absolute size but also on its quality. The major function responsible for the rapid

increase in the population of the country is the relatively high fertility level as portrayed by a total

fertility rate of about 6.0 births per woman in the 1990s.

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 Degema Local Government Area (LGA) in Rivers State, Nigeria, is one of the regions

grappling with the consequences of overpopulation. The LGA is located in the Niger Delta region,

known for its oil wealth but is also faced with numerous socioeconomic challenges. The population

of Degema LGA has been steadily increasing, and the effects of overpopulation are evident in

various aspects of community life, including education, healthcare, housing, and employment

opportunities. Education is an essential component of socioeconomic development, but

overpopulation can strain the education system in Degema LGA. The increasing student

population puts pressure on existing schools, leading to overcrowded classrooms, inadequate

teaching materials, and a decline in the quality of education (UNESCO, 2020). This situation

hampers the development of human capital and limits the potential for economic growth and

innovation.

Healthcare services in Degema LGA also face significant challenges due to overpopulation.

The increasing population places a burden on healthcare facilities, resulting in overcrowded

hospitals, longer waiting times, and limited access to quality healthcare services (Ogunbodede,

2017). This can lead to inadequate healthcare provision, increased vulnerability to diseases, and

reduced life expectancy, thereby impeding socioeconomic development in the region.

Furthermore, overpopulation in Degema LGA contributes to the strain on housing and urban

infrastructure. The rising demand for housing exceeds the available supply, leading to overcrowded

living conditions, informal settlements, and inadequate sanitation facilities (Oluwatayo, 2015).

These conditions not only affect the quality of life but also hinder economic productivity and social

progress.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

The issue of overpopulation has significant implications for socioeconomic development

in Degema Local Government Area (LGA), Rivers State, Nigeria. As the population continues to

grow rapidly, it poses challenges in terms of resource allocation, infrastructure development, and

social services provision. Understanding the causes and effects of overpopulation is crucial for

developing effective strategies to address this issue and foster sustainable development. One of the

key causes of overpopulation in Degema LGA is high fertility rates. Studies have shown that the

region has a high total fertility rate, which is the average number of children born to a woman over

her lifetime (National Population Commission, 2019). Factors such as early marriage, low

contraceptive use, and cultural preferences for large families contribute to this high fertility rate

(Ibisomi, 2015). The resulting population growth exacerbates the strain on resources and services,

hindering socioeconomic development.

The effects of overpopulation on Degema LGA are multifaceted. Firstly, it leads to

increased competition for limited resources, such as land and water. The growing population puts

pressure on agricultural land, leading to decreased productivity and food insecurity (Amaza et al.,

2017). This impacts the livelihoods of the local population, particularly those engaged in

agriculture, and hampers economic development. Secondly, overpopulation in Degema LGA

contributes to high unemployment rates. The population growth outpaces the rate of job creation,

resulting in a surplus of labor in the region (Eboh & Omojola, 2015). Limited employment

opportunities lead to increased poverty levels and inequalities, impeding socioeconomic progress

and exacerbating social challenges.

In conclusion, overpopulation poses significant challenges to socioeconomic development

in Degema LGA, Rivers State, Nigeria. The high fertility rates, competition for resources,

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unemployment, and strain on basic services are key issues that need to be addressed to foster

sustainable development in the region.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1. To assess the extent and dynamics of overpopulation in Degema Local Government Area

(LGA), Rivers State, Nigeria.

2. To examine the socioeconomic development indicators in Degema LGA and their current

status.

3. To analyze the relationship between overpopulation and socioeconomic development in

Degema LGA.

4. To provide recommendations for policymakers and stakeholders to address the challenges

posed by overpopulation and promote sustainable socio-economic development in Degema

LGA.

1.4 Research Questions

1. To what extent do population growth rates and demographic trends indicate overpopulation

in Degema Local Government Area (LGA), Rivers State, Nigeria?

2. To what extent do socioeconomic development indicators, such as education, healthcare,

employment, and housing, reflect the current status of development in Degema LGA?

3. To what extent does overpopulation impact various socioeconomic development indicators

in Degema LGA, such as education, healthcare, employment, and housing?

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 4. To what extent do existing policies and interventions address the challenges posed by

overpopulation in Degema LGA, and what additional recommendations can be made to

promote sustainable socioeconomic development in the area?

1.5 Significance of the Study

This research holds significant importance for several reasons. Firstly, understanding the

extent and dynamics of overpopulation in Degema Local Government Area (LGA) is crucial for

policymakers and stakeholders. Accurate data on population growth rates, demographic trends,

and the factors contributing to overpopulation will provide a comprehensive understanding of the

issue. This knowledge will enable policymakers to make informed decisions and develop targeted

interventions to address the challenges posed by overpopulation. Secondly, examining the

socioeconomic development indicators in Degema LGA and their current status is essential for

assessing the overall progress and identifying areas that require attention. By analyzing indicators

such as education, healthcare, employment, and housing, policymakers can gain insights into the

existing gaps and disparities. This understanding will help in formulating strategies to improve

these indicators and foster sustainable socioeconomic development in the region.

Furthermore, analyzing the relationship between overpopulation and socioeconomic

development in Degema LGA will provide valuable insights into the causal links and impacts.

Understanding how overpopulation affects various aspects of development, such as education,

healthcare, employment, and housing, will enable policymakers to prioritize interventions and

allocate resources effectively. It will also highlight the need for integrated and holistic approaches

that consider the interconnected nature of these issues. Lastly, providing recommendations for

policymakers and stakeholders to address the challenges posed by overpopulation and promote

sustainable socioeconomic development is a critical outcome of this research. The

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recommendations will be evidence-based, drawing on the findings and analysis of the study. They

will serve as a guide for policymakers, helping them implement targeted interventions, formulate

effective policies, and allocate resources efficiently. By addressing the challenges of

overpopulation, policymakers can create an environment conducive to sustainable socioeconomic

development in Degema LGA.

In conclusion, this research on overpopulation and socioeconomic development in Degema

LGA holds significant importance. By assessing the extent and dynamics of overpopulation,

examining socioeconomic development indicators, analyzing the relationship between

overpopulation and development, and providing recommendations, this study will contribute to

evidence-based decision-making and policy formulation. Ultimately, the research aims to promote

sustainable socio-economic development in Degema LGA and improve the well-being and

opportunities of the local population.

1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study

This research on overpopulation and socioeconomic development in Degema Local

Government Area (LGA), Rivers State, Nigeria, has a defined scope and some inherent limitations

that should be considered. The scope of the study focuses specifically on Degema LGA, situated

within Rivers State, Nigeria. It aims to assess the extent and dynamics of overpopulation in the

area and examine its relationship with socioeconomic development. The study will analyze various

indicators such as population growth rates, demographic trends, education, healthcare,

employment, and housing.

However, it is important to acknowledge the limitations of this research. One limitation is

the availability and reliability of data. While efforts will be made to gather accurate and up-to-date

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information from various sources, there may be constraints in accessing comprehensive data on

certain indicators. In such cases, the study will rely on existing data and make interpretations based

on the available information. Furthermore, the study's findings and conclusions are based on the

specific context of Degema LGA and may not be easily generalized to other regions. Each locality

has its unique socioeconomic dynamics, cultural factors, and developmental challenges that may

influence the relationship between overpopulation and socioeconomic development differently.

Therefore, caution should be exercised in applying the research findings to other areas without

considering their specific contexts.

Additionally, the study will primarily rely on quantitative data and statistical analysis to

assess the extent of overpopulation and examine socioeconomic development indicators. While

quantitative analysis provides valuable insights, it may not capture the full complexity of the issues

at hand. Qualitative research methods, such as interviews and focus groups, could provide a deeper

understanding of the local perspectives and experiences related to overpopulation and

development. However, due to resource and time constraints, qualitative research may not be

extensively incorporated in this study.

1.7 Definition of Terms

To ensure clarity and a common understanding of key concepts used in this study, the following

terms are defined:

Overpopulation refers to a situation in which the population of an area exceeds the carrying

capacity of its environment to sustain a desirable standard of living. It is characterized by a high

population density relative to available resources and infrastructure.

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Population Growth Rate is the rate at which the population of an area increases over a specific

period, usually expressed as a percentage. It takes into account factors such as births, deaths, and

migration.

Demographic Trends refer to the patterns and changes in the composition, structure, and

distribution of a population over time. It includes factors such as age distribution, fertility rates,

mortality rates, and migration patterns.

Socioeconomic Development Indicators are the quantitative measures used to assess the social

and economic progress of a region or community. These indicators include education, healthcare,

employment, housing, income levels, poverty rates, and other factors that reflect the quality of life

and well-being of the population.

Education refers to the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes through

formal or informal means. In the context of this study, education may include indicators such as

literacy rates, enrollment rates, educational attainment levels, and quality of educational

institutions.

Healthcare encompasses the provision of medical services, preventive care, and promotion of

well-being. It includes indicators such as access to healthcare facilities, healthcare professionals,

immunization rates, disease prevalence, and health outcomes.

Employment refers to the availability, accessibility, and quality of job opportunities in an area.

Employment indicators may include employment rates, unemployment rates, informal

employment, underemployment, and the types of occupations prevalent in the area.

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Sustainable Socioeconomic Development refers to the balanced and equitable improvement of

social, economic, and environmental factors to meet the needs of the present generation without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It entails promoting

economic growth, social equity, and environmental sustainability.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical Framework

MALTHUSIAN THEORY

The Malthusian theory, proposed by Thomas Malthus in the late 18th century, posits that

population growth tends to outpace the availability of resources, leading to negative consequences

for socioeconomic development. While the theory originated centuries ago, its concepts can be

applied to understand the potential dynamics and implications of overpopulation and

socioeconomic development in contemporary contexts, including Degema. This discussion will

explore the Malthusian theory and its relevance to Degema, drawing upon relevant literature and

empirical evidence. According to Malthus, the population increases exponentially, while the

production of resources grows at a slower rate. This imbalance can result in food scarcity, poverty,

and social unrest (Malthus, 1798). In the case of Degema, where the population growth rate may

exceed the region's capacity to provide essential resources and services, the Malthusian theory

implies potential challenges for socioeconomic development.

Degema, located in Rivers State, Nigeria, experiences rapid population growth due to

factors such as high fertility rates, limited access to family planning, and migration from rural areas

(Mogaji, 2019). This population growth can strain the availability of resources, infrastructure, and

social services, hindering socioeconomic development. For instance, limited access to quality

education, healthcare, and employment opportunities may lead to persistent poverty and inequality

(Ovie, 2018). Empirical evidence from the region supports the Malthusian theory's implications

for Degema's socio-economic development. A study by Amadi and Eke (2019) found that rapid

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population growth in Degema has resulted in increased pressure on natural resources, such as land

and water, leading to environmental degradation and reduced agricultural productivity. This has

further amplified food insecurity and hindered the region's economic progress.

Furthermore, the Malthusian theory highlights the need to address the challenges

associated with high population density. Investments in education and skills development are

crucial in enhancing human capital, which is central to socio-economic development. In Degema,

educational attainment levels are relatively low, limiting individuals' ability to access higher-

paying jobs and contribute to the local economy (Abiodun et al., 2019). To mitigate the potential

negative impacts of overpopulation, Degema can focus on implementing policies and interventions

aligned with the Malthusian theory's recommendations. This includes prioritizing investments in

education and healthcare, promoting sustainable agricultural practices, and improving access to

family planning services. For example, enhancing educational infrastructure and quality in

Degema can equip individuals with the skills and knowledge necessary for economic participation

and productivity. This, in turn, can contribute to poverty reduction and overall socioeconomic

development (Egbon, 2020).

The Malthusian theory's implications for overpopulation and socioeconomic development

in Degema are multifaceted. Rapid population growth in the region can strain the availability of

resources, infrastructure, and social services, impeding progress and exacerbating poverty and

inequality. One significant implication is the pressure on natural resources and the environment.

With a growing population in Degema, there is an increased demand for land, water, and other

natural resources. This can lead to overexploitation, environmental degradation, and a decline in

agricultural productivity. Degema's agricultural sector, which is vital for food security and

economic development, may struggle to meet the demands of a rapidly increasing population

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(Amadi & Eke, 2019). This can result in food shortages, and malnutrition, and hinder the region's

overall socioeconomic progress.

Moreover, the Malthusian theory highlights the potential strain on infrastructure and public

services. As the population expands, there is a need for adequate housing, transportation systems,

healthcare facilities, and educational institutions. However, insufficient investment in

infrastructure to accommodate the growing population can lead to overcrowding, inadequate

access to basic services, and a decline in quality (Ovie et al., 2018). This can further exacerbate

socioeconomic inequalities and hinder the overall development of Degema.

In terms of socioeconomic development, the Malthusian theory underscores the importance

of addressing poverty and inequality. Rapid population growth can intensify poverty by stretching

the limited resources available to meet the needs of a growing population. Limited access to

education, healthcare, and employment opportunities can perpetuate cycles of poverty and hinder

upward mobility for individuals in Degema (Abiodun et al., 2019). This can create social tensions,

contribute to social unrest, and impede overall socioeconomic development. To mitigate the

implications of overpopulation, Degema needs to adopt comprehensive strategies that align with

the Malthusian theory's recommendations. Priority should be given to investments in education

and human capital development. Enhancing the quality of education and expanding access to

vocational training programs can equip individuals with the skills and knowledge necessary for

economic participation and productivity (Egbon et al., 2020). This can contribute to poverty

reduction, improved employment prospects, and overall socioeconomic development in Degema.

Additionally, addressing the issue of limited access to family planning services is crucial.

By providing comprehensive reproductive health services, including information about

contraception methods and family planning, Degema can empower individuals to make informed

14
decisions about family size and spacing (Amadi & Eke, 2019). This can help manage population

growth and ensure a balance between population size and available resources, thus supporting

sustainable socioeconomic development.

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION THEORY

The Demographic Transition Theory provides insights into the relationship between

population dynamics, overpopulation, and socioeconomic development. It suggests that as

societies undergo economic and social transformations, there is a predictable pattern of changes in

birth rates, death rates, and population growth. Exploring the implications of this theory can help

understand the dynamics of overpopulation and its impact on socioeconomic development in

Degema. This discussion will delve into the Demographic Transition Theory and its relevance to

the context of Degema, supported by relevant literature and empirical evidence. The Demographic

Transition Theory outlines four stages of demographic change that societies typically experience.

In the first stage, characterized by high birth rates and high death rates, population growth is

relatively slow. As societies progress to the second stage, improvements in healthcare, sanitation,

and living conditions lead to a decline in death rates, while birth rates remain high. This results in

rapid population growth. In the third stage, birth rates begin to decline, leading to a gradual

decrease in population growth. Finally, in the fourth stage, both birth and death rates stabilize at

low levels, resulting in slow or stagnant population growth (Caldwell, 2001).

In the case of Degema, the application of the Demographic Transition Theory provides

insights into the population dynamics and their implications for socioeconomic development. The

region has experienced significant changes in its demographic indicators over the years. High

fertility rates, coupled with improvements in healthcare and declining mortality rates, have led to

rapid population growth (Mogaji et al., 2019). The implications of overpopulation on socio-

15
economic development in Degema can be understood through the lens of the Demographic

Transition Theory. The high population growth rate can put pressure on the availability of

resources, infrastructure, and social services. Inadequate access to essential resources such as land,

food, and water can hinder agricultural productivity and contribute to food insecurity (Amadi &

Eke, 2019). Insufficient infrastructure and social services can limit educational and employment

opportunities, further exacerbating poverty and inequality (Ovie et al., 2018).

Empirical evidence supports the relevance of the Demographic Transition Theory for

understanding overpopulation and socioeconomic development in Degema. A study by Abiodun

et al. (2019) found that high population growth in Degema has implications for education and

human capital development. Limited access to quality education and skill development programs

can hinder individuals' ability to participate in the labor market and contribute to the local

economy. Addressing the implications of overpopulation and promoting socioeconomic

development in Degema requires targeted interventions aligned with the stages of the

Demographic Transition Theory. In the early stages characterized by high birth and death rates,

investments in healthcare infrastructure, access to clean water, and sanitation services are crucial

to reduce mortality rates and improve overall population health (Odimegwu et al., 2008). During

the transition from the second to the third stage, efforts should focus on family planning programs

and reproductive health services. Ensuring universal access to contraception, comprehensive sex

education, and maternal healthcare can empower individuals to make informed decisions about

family size and spacing (Amadi & Eke, 2019). This can contribute to a decline in birth rates and

help manage population growth.

Furthermore, in the later stages of the demographic transition, attention should be given to

promoting education, skill development, and employment opportunities. Enhancing educational

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infrastructure, improving the quality of education, and expanding vocational training programs can

equip individuals with the necessary skills for economic participation and productivity (Abiodun

et al., 2019).

2.2 Conceptual Framework

2.2.1 Population Growth and Resource Scarcity:

Population growth and resource scarcity are critical factors that significantly impact

socioeconomic development, particularly in the context of overpopulation. This section will

discuss the relationship between population growth and resource availability, the concept of

carrying capacity, and the implications of overpopulation on land, water, food, and energy

resources. The relationship between population growth and resource availability is well-

documented. As the population expands, the demand for resources increases, placing pressure on

their availability and distribution. According to the United Nations, the global population is

projected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050, leading to increased resource demands (United Nations,

2019). This has substantial implications for socioeconomic development, as resources are

fundamental to economic productivity, infrastructure development, and human well-being.

Carrying capacity, defined as the maximum population size that an environment can

sustainably support, is a crucial concept in understanding the implications of overpopulation on

resource scarcity. When a population exceeds the carrying capacity of an area, resource scarcity

becomes more pronounced, hindering sustainable development. For instance, in a study examining

the relationship between population growth and resource use in developing countries, Ehrlich and

Holdren (1971) noted that exceeding carrying capacity can lead to resource depletion and

environmental degradation. The impact of overpopulation on land resources is evident in the

17
conversion of agricultural land for housing, industrial activities, and infrastructure development.

This can result in deforestation, habitat loss, and land degradation. According to the Food and

Agriculture Organization (FAO), approximately 13 million hectares of forests are lost each year,

primarily due to population growth and increased demand for agricultural land (FAO, 2020). Land

degradation affects agricultural productivity, exacerbates food insecurity, and hampers rural

livelihoods.

Water scarcity is another significant consequence of overpopulation. As the population

grows, the demand for water increases for various purposes, including agriculture, industry, and

domestic use. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that around 2.2 billion people lack

access to safely managed drinking water services, primarily in regions with high population

densities (WHO/UNICEF, 2019). Population growth and inadequate water management

exacerbate water stress, groundwater depletion, and pollution, compromising water quality and

availability. Food security is a critical concern associated with overpopulation. The demand for

food rises as the population expands, placing strain on agricultural systems and food production.

The FAO estimates that global food production needs to increase by 70% to meet the demands of

the projected population by 2050 (FAO, 2019). However, overpopulation can lead to unsustainable

farming practices, land degradation, and climate change impacts, which can result in reduced

agricultural productivity and food shortages, particularly in vulnerable communities.

Energy resources are essential for economic development and societal well-being. As the

population grows, energy consumption increases, leading to higher demands for energy sources.

Overreliance on fossil fuels contributes to environmental degradation and climate change. The

International Energy Agency (IEA) states that addressing energy-related challenges, including

18
overpopulation and increasing energy demands, requires a transition to sustainable energy systems

and the adoption of clean and renewable energy sources (IEA, 2020).

Relationship between population growth and resource availability

The relationship between population growth and resource availability is a crucial aspect to

consider when examining the impacts of overpopulation on socio-economic development. This

section will discuss this relationship, the concept of carrying capacity, and the implications of

overpopulation on land, water, food, and energy resources. Population growth exerts pressure on

resource availability due to increased demands for essential resources. As the population expands,

the demand for land, water, food, and energy rises, leading to potential scarcity and distribution

challenges. This relationship has significant implications for socioeconomic development, as

access to resources is vital for economic productivity, infrastructure development, and human well-

being. Carrying capacity is a key concept in understanding the relationship between population

growth and resource availability. It refers to the maximum population size that an environment can

sustainably support. When a population exceeds the carrying capacity of an area, resource scarcity

becomes more pronounced, hindering sustainable development. Ehrlich and Holdren (1971) noted

in their study that surpassing carrying capacity can lead to resource depletion and environmental

degradation.

Resource depletion and environmental degradation

Resource depletion and environmental degradation are significant challenges associated

with overpopulation and have profound implications for socioeconomic development. This section

will discuss the impacts of overpopulation on resource depletion and environmental degradation,

particularly focusing on land, water, and biodiversity loss. Overpopulation exerts pressure on

19
resources, leading to their depletion and contributing to environmental degradation. As the

population grows, the demand for resources such as land, water, energy, and raw materials

escalates, often surpassing the Earth's capacity to regenerate them. This overconsumption and

exploitation of resources can lead to their depletion, compromising sustainable development. Land

degradation is a key consequence of overpopulation. As the population expands, the demand for

land for agriculture, housing, and infrastructure increases. This leads to deforestation, soil erosion,

desertification, and loss of biodiversity. According to the United Nations Convention to Combat

Desertification (UNCCD), approximately 12 million hectares of productive land are lost each year

due to land degradation, with population growth being one of the main drivers (UNCCD, 2020).

Land degradation reduces agricultural productivity, exacerbates food insecurity, and poses

challenges to rural livelihoods.

Water scarcity and pollution are also significant outcomes of overpopulation. As the

population grows, the demand for water for various purposes, including agriculture, industry, and

domestic use, escalates. This places stress on water resources, leading to the depletion of

freshwater sources and water scarcity. Additionally, inadequate water management practices, such

as pollution from industrial and agricultural activities, further degrade water quality and

availability. The United Nations estimates that by 2025, two-thirds of the global population may

face water scarcity conditions (United Nations, 2018). Water scarcity hampers agricultural

production, affects public health, and creates social and economic disparities. Biodiversity loss is

a critical consequence of overpopulation and resource exploitation. As the population expands,

there is an increased demand for land and resources, resulting in habitat destruction and

fragmentation. This, in turn, leads to the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. The

Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES)

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highlights that overexploitation of resources, including land conversion for agriculture and

urbanization, is a significant driver of biodiversity loss (IPBES, 2019). Biodiversity loss negatively

impacts ecosystem functioning, including pollination, nutrient cycling, and climate regulation,

with far-reaching consequences for human well-being and sustainable development.

2.2.2 Socioeconomic Impacts of Overpopulation

The socioeconomic impacts of overpopulation are significant and multifaceted, affecting

various aspects of society and economic development. This section will discuss the implications

of overpopulation on employment, poverty, education, healthcare, and urbanization.

Overpopulation exerts pressure on the job market and employment opportunities. As the

population expands, the labor force grows, leading to increased competition for jobs. This can

result in higher unemployment rates and underemployment, particularly in countries with limited

job creation capacities. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), population

growth outpacing job creation can lead to a mismatch between labor supply and demand, resulting

in unemployment and social unrest (ILO, 2019). High unemployment rates hinder socioeconomic

development, reduce income levels, and contribute to poverty. Poverty is a significant consequence

of overpopulation. The increased population places strain on limited resources, exacerbating

income inequality and poverty rates. Overpopulation can lead to resource scarcity, inadequate

access to basic services, and limited employment opportunities, all of which contribute to poverty.

The United Nations estimates that nearly 10% of the global population lived in extreme poverty in

2019, with overpopulation being one of the factors exacerbating poverty (United Nations, 2020).

Addressing overpopulation and its impacts is crucial for poverty reduction and achieving

sustainable development goals.

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 Education is another area significantly affected by overpopulation. As the population

grows, the demand for educational infrastructure and services increases. However, limited

resources and inadequate educational facilities can result in overcrowded classrooms, reduced

quality of education, and limited access to education, particularly in low-income countries. This

hampers human capital development, perpetuates inequality, and impedes socioeconomic

progress. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

highlights that overpopulation can strain education systems, resulting in inadequate access to

quality education (UNESCO, 2020). Overpopulation also poses challenges to healthcare systems.

The growing population places increased pressure on healthcare infrastructure, resources, and

services. Inadequate access to healthcare facilities, including hospitals, clinics, and trained

healthcare professionals, can result in limited healthcare coverage, reduced quality of care, and

compromised public health. The World Health Organization (WHO) emphasizes that

overpopulation can strain healthcare systems, leading to inadequate access to essential healthcare

services (WHO, 2021). Addressing overpopulation is crucial for ensuring access to quality

healthcare and improving public health outcomes.

Urbanization is both a consequence and a driver of overpopulation. As populations grow,

there is a rapid expansion of urban areas to accommodate the increasing number of people. This

can lead to overcrowding, inadequate housing, and strained urban infrastructure, such as

transportation, water supply, and sanitation systems. Urbanization challenges can exacerbate

socioeconomic inequalities and hinder sustainable urban development. The United Nations

estimates that by 2050, over two-thirds of the global population will live in urban areas,

emphasizing the need for effective urban planning and management to address overpopulation-

related challenges (United Nations, 2018).

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Effects of overpopulation on poverty and inequality

Overpopulation has significant effects on poverty and inequality, which in turn impact

socioeconomic development. This section will discuss how overpopulation contributes to poverty

and inequality, and the implications for socioeconomic development. Overpopulation exacerbates

poverty by increasing the demand for limited resources and straining the capacity to meet basic

needs. As the population grows, the availability of resources such as land, food, water, and energy

becomes scarcer. Limited resources can lead to higher prices, reduced access to essential goods

and services, and inadequate infrastructure. This, in turn, perpetuates poverty and hampers

socioeconomic development. The United Nations estimates that nearly 10% of the global

population lived in extreme poverty in 2019, and overpopulation is one of the factors that

contribute to this persistence (United Nations, 2020).

Inequality is another consequence of overpopulation. Rapid population growth often leads

to unequal distribution of resources and opportunities. Limited resources and inadequate access to

education, healthcare, and employment can perpetuate income inequality and hinder

socioeconomic mobility. Overpopulation exacerbates social and economic disparities, as

marginalized and vulnerable populations face greater challenges in meeting their basic needs and

accessing opportunities for upward mobility. The World Inequality Report highlights that rising

population can intensify inequality by putting pressure on resources and exacerbating disparities

in income and wealth (World Inequality Lab, 2018). The effects of overpopulation on poverty and

inequality have profound implications for socioeconomic development. Persistent poverty and

widening inequality hinder inclusive economic growth and human development. Poverty reduction

becomes more challenging as the population expands, leading to a larger number of people

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struggling to meet their basic needs. Inequality undermines social cohesion, can lead to social

unrest, and impedes efforts to achieve sustainable development goals.

Impact on employment opportunities and labor markets

The impact of overpopulation on employment opportunities and labor markets is a complex

issue with significant implications for socioeconomic development. This section will discuss how

overpopulation affects employment, labor markets, and the overall economy. Overpopulation can

lead to increased competition for jobs as the labor force expands. The growing population creates

a larger pool of job seekers, which can result in higher unemployment rates and underemployment.

In countries with limited capacity for job creation, the mismatch between labor supply and demand

becomes more pronounced, leading to higher rates of unemployment. The International Labour

Organization (ILO) highlights that population growth outpacing job creation can lead to

unemployment and social unrest (ILO, 2019). High unemployment rates hinder socioeconomic

development, reduce income levels, and contribute to poverty. Moreover, overpopulation can

affect the structure of labor markets. As the population grows, there is a greater demand for

different types of jobs and skills. However, the supply of skilled labor may not keep pace with this

demand, leading to skill shortages in certain sectors. Conversely, there may be an oversupply of

unskilled labor, which can depress wages and working conditions. Overpopulation can exacerbate

structural inequalities in the labor market, as marginalized groups face greater challenges in

accessing employment opportunities and decent work.

Overpopulation can also have implications for the overall economy. The strain on resources

due to population growth can impact economic productivity. Limited resources may lead to higher

prices for goods and services, affecting the cost of production and reducing the competitiveness of

businesses. Additionally, inadequate infrastructure to support a growing population may hinder

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economic development and investment. The United Nations Department of Economic and Social

Affairs highlights that population growth can have a significant impact on economic development,

particularly in terms of resource availability, infrastructure needs, and investment requirements

(United Nations, 2019). Addressing the impact of overpopulation on employment opportunities

and labor markets requires a multi-faceted approach. It involves strategies to promote job creation,

skill development, and inclusive economic growth. Investments in education and training

programs are crucial to equip the workforce with the necessary skills to meet the demands of the

labor market. Vocational training and apprenticeship programs can bridge the skills gap and

enhance employability. Moreover, fostering an environment that supports entrepreneurship and

small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) can create diverse employment opportunities and

stimulate economic growth.

The strain on healthcare systems and public health outcomes

Overpopulation exerts a significant strain on healthcare systems and has implications for

public health outcomes, impacting socioeconomic development. As the population grows, the

demand for healthcare services increases. Overpopulation places strain on healthcare

infrastructure, resources, and personnel. Limited healthcare facilities, including hospitals, clinics,

and trained healthcare professionals, can result in inadequate access to healthcare services. This

leads to long waiting times, overcrowded healthcare facilities, and reduced quality of care. The

World Health Organization (WHO) emphasizes that overpopulation can strain healthcare systems,

leading to inadequate access to essential healthcare services (WHO, 2021). Furthermore,

overpopulation can exacerbate existing healthcare disparities. Marginalized and vulnerable

populations often face greater challenges in accessing healthcare services, and overpopulation can

intensify these disparities. Limited resources and inadequate healthcare infrastructure

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disproportionately affect these populations, leading to unequal health outcomes. This contributes

to socioeconomic inequalities and hampers efforts to achieve inclusive and sustainable

development.

Overpopulation also poses challenges for public health. The increased population density

and overcrowding associated with overpopulation create an environment conducive to the spread

of infectious diseases. Inadequate sanitation and hygiene facilities, as well as limited access to

clean water, can facilitate the transmission of diseases. Moreover, strained healthcare systems may

struggle to respond effectively to outbreaks and public health emergencies. This can lead to

increased morbidity and mortality rates, further exacerbating public health challenges. The strain

on healthcare systems and public health outcomes due to overpopulation has implications for

socioeconomic development. Inadequate access to healthcare services and poor public health

outcomes hinder human capital development and economic productivity. Illness and disease

prevent individuals from participating fully in the workforce, leading to absenteeism, reduced

productivity, and increased healthcare costs. Furthermore, the burden of healthcare costs on

individuals and governments can divert resources away from other critical areas of development,

such as education and infrastructure.

2.2.3 Technological Advancements and Adaptation

Technological advancements and adaptation play a crucial role in addressing the challenges

posed by overpopulation and fostering socioeconomic development. This section will discuss how

technological advancements and adaptation can help mitigate the impacts of overpopulation and

promote inclusive and sustainable development. Technological advancements offer innovative

solutions to address the strain on resources and infrastructure caused by overpopulation. One area

where technology has a significant impact is agriculture. Advancements in agricultural technology,

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such as improved irrigation systems, precision farming techniques, and genetically modified crops,

can enhance agricultural productivity and increase food production. This is essential to meet the

growing demands for food due to population growth. The Food and Agriculture Organization of

the United Nations highlights that technology and innovation are key drivers of agricultural

productivity growth (FAO, 2019). Furthermore, technology can help optimize the use of limited

resources. For example, smart grid systems and energy-efficient technologies can reduce energy

consumption and minimize the strain on energy resources. Renewable energy technologies, such

as solar and wind power, offer sustainable alternatives to meet the increasing energy demands

associated with population growth. Technological advancements in water management, such as

desalination and water recycling, can help alleviate water scarcity issues.

In addition to resource management, technology enables better urban planning and

infrastructure development. Smart city technologies, including intelligent transportation systems,

efficient waste management, and sensor-based infrastructure, can enhance the quality of life in

rapidly growing urban areas. These advancements contribute to sustainable urban development

and improve the overall well-being of the population. Moreover, technological advancements

facilitate access to critical services, particularly in remote and underserved areas.

Telecommunications technologies, such as mobile phones and internet connectivity, enable access

to education, healthcare, and financial services, even in areas with limited physical infrastructure.

This helps bridge the digital divide and ensures that marginalized populations have access to

essential services and opportunities. The World Bank highlights that digital technologies can

empower individuals and communities, enabling them to participate in the digital economy and

access vital services (World Bank, 2019).

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 Adaptation to technological advancements is crucial for harnessing their full potential. This

includes ensuring that individuals are equipped with the necessary digital skills and knowledge to

effectively utilize technology. Investments in education and training programs that focus on digital

literacy and technological skills development are essential. Additionally, creating an enabling

environment for innovation and entrepreneurship promotes the adoption and adaptation of

technology to address societal challenges associated with overpopulation. However, it is important

to consider the equitable distribution of technological advancements and ensure that they benefit

all segments of society. The digital divide, particularly in developing countries, can perpetuate

inequalities. Efforts should be made to bridge this divide through policies that promote affordable

access to technology and digital inclusion programs that reach marginalized populations.

Role of technology in mitigating the impacts of overpopulation

The role of technology in mitigating the impacts of overpopulation is crucial for promoting

socioeconomic development. This section will discuss how technology can address the challenges

posed by overpopulation and contribute to inclusive and sustainable development. One of the key

challenges of overpopulation is the strain on resources. Technology can play a significant role in

resource management and conservation. For example, advancements in renewable energy

technologies, such as solar and wind power, can provide sustainable and clean sources of energy

to meet the increasing energy demands associated with population growth. This reduces reliance

on finite fossil fuel resources and helps mitigate environmental impacts. Additionally, smart grid

systems and energy-efficient technologies can optimize energy consumption, reducing waste and

improving resource efficiency. Furthermore, technology can enhance agricultural productivity and

food security. With a growing population, there is an increased need for efficient and sustainable

agriculture. Precision farming techniques, such as remote sensing, drones, and data analytics,

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enable farmers to optimize the use of resources, improve crop yields, and reduce environmental

impacts. Similarly, genetic engineering and biotechnology can help develop crop varieties that are

more resistant to pests, diseases, and environmental stresses, contributing to increased food

production. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations emphasizes that digital

technologies can transform the agricultural sector and enhance productivity (FAO, 2020).

Technology also plays a crucial role in improving access to essential services, particularly

in underserved areas. Telecommunications technologies, such as mobile phones and internet

connectivity, enable access to education, healthcare, and financial services, even in remote regions.

This helps bridge the digital divide and ensures that marginalized populations have access to vital

services and opportunities. For example, telemedicine and mobile health applications can provide

remote healthcare services, reaching populations with limited access to healthcare facilities. The

World Health Organization highlights the potential of digital health technologies in improving

healthcare delivery (WHO, 2021). Moreover, technology facilitates efficient urban planning and

infrastructure development. Smart city technologies, including intelligent transportation systems,

sensor-based infrastructure, and data analytics, can enhance the quality of life in densely populated

areas. These advancements contribute to sustainable urban development, improving transportation

systems, waste management, and energy efficiency. Efficient urban planning helps alleviate the

strain on resources and enhances the livability of cities.

2.2.4 Sustainable Development and Future Prospects

Sustainable development and future prospects are intrinsically connected to addressing the

challenges of overpopulation and promoting socioeconomic development. This section will

discuss the importance of sustainable development in the context of overpopulation and its

potential future prospects. Overpopulation poses significant challenges to sustainable

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development. The strain on resources, such as land, water, and energy, increases with a growing

population. Unsustainable consumption patterns and inefficient resource management exacerbate

these challenges. However, sustainable development offers a framework to address these issues by

balancing economic growth, social well-being, and environmental conservation. Sustainable

development promotes the efficient use of resources and the adoption of sustainable practices. It

emphasizes the need to meet present needs without compromising the ability of future generations

to meet their own needs. This entails transitioning to renewable energy sources, promoting

sustainable agriculture, improving waste management, and protecting ecosystems. By integrating

sustainability principles into policies and practices, societies can mitigate the negative impacts of

overpopulation and foster long-term socioeconomic development.

Future prospects for sustainable development in the face of overpopulation are promising

due to several factors. Technological advancements offer innovative solutions to address resource

constraints and environmental challenges. Renewable energy technologies, such as solar and wind

power, are becoming increasingly affordable and accessible, reducing reliance on fossil fuels.

Advancements in agriculture, such as precision farming techniques and genetic engineering,

contribute to sustainable food production. Additionally, digital technologies enable improved

resource management, increased access to essential services, and enhanced communication and

collaboration for sustainable development initiatives. Furthermore, awareness and understanding

of the importance of sustainable development are growing. Governments, international

organizations, and civil society are increasingly recognizing the need to prioritize sustainability in

policymaking and planning. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) serve as

a global framework for sustainable development, addressing a wide range of issues, including

poverty, health, education, clean energy, and environmental conservation. The SDGs provide a

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roadmap for countries to tackle the challenges associated with overpopulation and achieve

sustainable socioeconomic development by 2030.

Investments in education and capacity building are essential for future prospects of

sustainable development. Education plays a vital role in raising awareness, fostering sustainable

practices, and empowering individuals to contribute to sustainable development efforts. By

equipping individuals with the knowledge, skills, and values necessary for sustainable living,

societies can create a culture of sustainability that permeates all aspects of life. Collaboration and

partnerships are also crucial for future prospects of sustainable development. Addressing the

challenges posed by overpopulation requires collective action and cooperation among

governments, organizations, and communities. Multilateral agreements and initiatives that

promote knowledge sharing, technology transfer, and financial support are instrumental in

advancing sustainable development goals.

2.3 Empirical Review

Some observers attributed nearly all of the world’s maladies to excessive population

growth. Then claim that rapid population growth has at least three adverse effects on human well

being. First, it increases poverty the number of people that are impoverished, the proportion of the

community that is impoverished, and the severity of the impoverishment. Secondly, it increases

environmental degradation - the misuse of natural resources with adverse consequences on many

dimensions of human well-being.

Finally, it presents environmental enhancement by holding back the savings and

investment that would permit environmentally sustainable economic growth and retards the

agricultural productivity that would encourage environmentally friendly agriculture and

31
conservation (Ahlburg 1994, Kelly and McGreevy 1994).

These contentions however are not necessarily accurate. The adverse effects of population

growth can easily be confused with other factors because rapid population often occurs along with

the factors that reduce human example, rapid population growth is common in many tropical areas

of the world. Yet tropical environments themselves retard human productivity activity due to heat,

endemic disease, and poor soils, (Sachs and Warner 1997). It would be easy to conclude that fast

population lowers productivity when actually the tropical environment may be the cause.

Furthermore, a large body of demographic literature documents the incidence of population

growth in Nigeria (see, for example Olusanya and Purcell, 1981: Faroog, 1985: Feyisetan and

Ainsworth, 1996; Anyimue and Okojie, 1978; National population commission, 2002 and Federal

Republic of Nigeria, 2004). These documents argue that this growth in population should not be

cause for concern since in certain circumstances, a large population could be to the advantage of

the country in terms of the sheer size of its domestic market, better division of labour, increased

productivity through improvement in the ratio of labour force to population as well as enhancement

of its political and military power. A large population also diversifies the demand for products and

services and promoters the tendency to increasing returns to scale, thereby raising economic

development and growth (Tesnu, 2000).

Additionally, advances in the arts, sciences and technology are the purview of highly

talented individuals and invariably the large the population the more likely would be the number

of such individuals in the society (Jakande ,1988, Mauldin and Sinding, 1993 and Idele, 1997).

Admittedly, population growth puts severe pressure on existing resources, but as Simon 1996)

observes, such growth Ushers in needed adjustments that neutralize the effects of depleting

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resources through the search for substitutes by stimulating technological change. Put differently,

the ultimate resource is people who exert their dexterity to manage the challenges of growth. When

viewed from the perspective, population growth is not necessarily a problem but an opportunity in

disguise. Be that as it may, Nigeria’s large population has growth and development implication.

To begin with it does not augur well for planning purposes. Plans only succeed when the

implementation is pursued with reliable data. But in Nigeria experience the unreliability of

demographic data makes plan implementation futile exercise in the country (African Development

Bank, 2001).

Studies described elsewhere (World Bank, 1994; United Nations, 1998; Adonri, 2003) also

detail other negative consequences associated with demographic change in Nigeria such as health

complications arising from pregnancies that occur too early or too frequently during the

reproductive of the mother. Population and health are thus closely related when considering high

risk pregnancies. By preventing such pregnancies a significant impact can be made in enhancing

the quality of life of the mother and child and by extension that of the entire population.

Population growth in Nigeria is equally associated with unemployment with figures

ranging from 17 percent per annum for the entire population to 60 percent for the youth because

job opportunities are fewer than the number seeking for them and stagnating economic

performance because a large proportion of available resource is consumed instead of invested to

generate growth (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004). In addition, it posses continuous pressure on

resources, particularly on agricultural land. For instead, due to high density of people in the Eastern

states as much as 53 percent of the farming population cultivate less than 0.4 hectares in a given

year and in the more congested areas of these state most farmers cultivate only 0.2 hectares per

year. This results to fragmentation of farm land and their subdivision into smaller plots to

33
accommodate the growing farming populace. With time, the small plots would become untenable

for even subsistence farming, forcing those concerned to move into marginal soils, where greater

degradation takes place with attendant reduction in agricultural output (Akinbode, 2002, Madu,

2005). The application of modern farming techniques and fertilizers could assuage. This problem

but unfortunately as a capital-deficient country, traditional farming dominates agricultural practice

in Nigeria. Inevitably, therefore population pressure on a fixed factor like land would usher in

diminishing returns (Iniodu 1998). This is one of the explanations to decreasing peasant income

and accompanying widespread poverty among the rural dwellers, the incessant food storage, and

insufficient calorie intake among the Nigerian people.

2.4 Summary of Literature

This chapter discusses the Malthusian theory and the Demographic Transition Theory, and

their implications for overpopulation and socioeconomic development in Degema, a region in

Rivers State, Nigeria. The Malthusian theory, proposed by Thomas Malthus in the late 18th

century, suggests that population growth tends to outpace the availability of resources, leading to

negative consequences for socioeconomic development. In the context of Degema, rapid

population growth due to factors such as high fertility rates, limited access to family planning, and

rural-urban migration strain the availability of resources, infrastructure, and social services. This

can result in food scarcity, poverty, and social unrest. Empirical evidence from the region supports

the theory's implications, as rapid population growth has led to increased pressure on natural

resources, environmental degradation, and reduced agricultural productivity.

The chapter also discusses the importance of addressing the challenges associated with

high population density. Investments in education and skills development are highlighted as crucial

34
for enhancing human capital and promoting socioeconomic development. However, in Degema,

educational attainment levels are relatively low, limiting individuals' access to higher-paying jobs

and hindering economic participation. To mitigate the potential negative impacts of

overpopulation, the chapter suggests implementing policies aligned with the Malthusian theory's

recommendations. These include prioritizing investments in education and healthcare, promoting

sustainable agricultural practices, and improving access to family planning services. The chapter

emphasizes the need for targeted interventions aligned with the stages of the Demographic

Transition Theory. These include investments in healthcare infrastructure, access to clean water,

sanitation services, family planning programs, reproductive health services, and education and

skill development. By addressing these implications of overpopulation, Degema can promote

sustainable socioeconomic development.

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