Theodor Mommsen

German historian, philologist, and legal scholar

Also known as: Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen

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Theodor Mommsen.

Theodor Mommsen

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In full: Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen

Born: November 30, 1817, Garding, Schleswig [now in Germany]

Died: November 1, 1903, Charlottenburg, near Berlin, Germany (aged 85)

Awards And Honors: Nobel Prize (1902)

Subjects Of Study: Roman Empire ancient Rome Roman law constitutional law epigraphy

Theodor Mommsen (born November 30, 1817, Garding, Schleswig [now in Germany]—died November
1, 1903, Charlottenburg, near Berlin, Germany) German historian and writer, famous for his masterpiece,
Römische Geschichte (The History of Rome). He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1902.

Early years

Mommsen was the son of a Protestant minister in Garding, Schleswig, and he grew up in Oldesloe (now
Bad Oldesloe). He received his basic classical training in the senior classes of the Gymnasium (secondary
school) Christianeum in Altona, then part of the Duchy of Holstein. From 1838 to 1843 he studied
jurisprudence at the University of Kiel; inasmuch as the study of jurisprudence in Germany at the time
was largely a study of Roman law, this had an essential influence on the direction of his future research.
He owed his idea of the close interrelationship between law and history not so much to his teachers as
to the writings of Friedrich Karl von Savigny, one of the founders of the historical school of jurisprudence.
After he had received his master’s and his doctor’s degrees, a research scholarship granted by his
sovereign, the king of Denmark, allowed him to spend three years—from 1844 to 1847—in Italy. During
this time Italy became his second home and the Archaeological Institute in Rome one of the
headquarters from which he pursued his research. By that time Mommsen had already conceived the
plan for the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, a comprehensive collection of Latin inscriptions preserved
since antiquity on stone, iron, and other enduring materials, arranged according to the basic principles of
philological methodology. Having been prepared for this field by the young Kiel professor Otto Jahn, he
soon became a master of epigraphy—the study and interpretation of inscriptions—under the guidance
of Bartolomeo Borghesi, the learned statesman of San Marino. Within the next several decades
Mommsen made the corpus of Latin inscriptions into a source work that was essential in complementing
the one-sidedly literary tradition and that, for the first time, made a comprehensive understanding of life
in the ancient world possible.

Temple ruins of columns and statures at Karnak, Egypt (Egyptian architecture; Egyptian archaelogy;
Egyptian history)

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When he returned from Italy, Mommsen found his country in a state of mounting unrest. As a native of
Schleswig he was a subject of the Danish king, but he considered himself German, wanted to remain
German, and looked forward to German unity. For him freedom meant not only the independence of the
German states from foreign influence but also the freedom of the German citizen to adapt himself to any
sort of constitution except that of despotism or a police state. A liberal, he considered the republic the
ideal state, yet he was quite content with a constitutional monarchy so long as it was not a cover for
some sort of pseudo-constitutional autocracy. Mommsen’s political activities began with his editorship of
the Schleswig-Holsteinische Zeitung for the provisional government established during the revolution of
1848. Yet journalism was not much to his taste; he was happy when, at the end of 1848, he was offered a
professorship in civil law at the University of Leipzig. Nevertheless, he remained politically minded as
long as he lived—as a thoughtful and critical observer as well as an active politician. (He was a deputy in
the Prussian Landtag from 1873 to 1879 and in the German Reichstag from 1881 to 1884.) He continued
to devote time and energy to politics, but it is doubtful that he thereby served his country’s and his own
best interests. While he was an acknowledged authority in his field of scholarship, in politics he
remained a camp follower, who achieved no more than many others. Moreover, he more than once
jeopardized his career by his political activities. Because of his participation in an uprising in Saxony in
May 1849, he lost his professorship and almost landed in prison.

After his dismissal from his post in Leipzig, Mommsen in 1852 accepted a professorship in jurisprudence
in Zürich. The grief he expressed about being an “exile” showed how deeply he felt himself to be a
German. In 1854, however, he was offered a professorship in Prussia at the University of Breslau. It was
at this time that he married Marie Reimer, daughter of a bookseller. Their long and happy marriage
produced 16 children.

The historian and his works

During the years he spent at Leipzig, Zürich, and Breslau, Mommsen wrote the first three volumes of the
Römische Geschichte, up to the Battle of Thapsus, 46 BC. This work embodied the new historical method
applied to the history of Rome. Mommsen critically examined hitherto unquestioned traditions and
rejected the attitude of the Enlightenment, which had idealized the classical age. He readily
acknowledged himself to be a disciple of the historian Barthold Georg Niebuhr, who introduced rigorous
criticism of sources into historiography, however much their methods of research and presentation
differed and despite the fact that he went considerably beyond his great predecessor in demythologizing
Roman history. In Mommsen’s view it was important that the ancients should come down to earth from
the Olympian heights upon which they appeared to the mass of the public. This modern style was not to
everyone’s taste, for, in bringing the past to life, he used the political and sociological vocabulary of the
19th century. When he speaks of the squirearchy and the cloth exerting their “malignant” influence even
in ancient Rome, it is Mommsen the liberal politician speaking. Nevertheless, his Römische Geschichte is
not a politically tendentious work but a piece of scholarship of the highest rank, which gains from its
distinction of style.

The philologist is regarded as the preserver of verbal tradition, but as a philologist Mommsen was more
than that: he was an artist, and he proved his artistry in his treatment of language. He disliked any
incongruous mixture of prose styles and, in the Römische Geschichte and Römisches Staatsrecht
(“Roman Constitutional Law”), he created two works, both of which attain exemplary unity of form and
content yet demonstrate two different styles. Without being a creative poet, he used the means of
poetry and enjoyed exercising his poetic talent. An excellent testimony to his abilities is the Liederbuch
dreier Freunde (“Songbook of Three Friends”), which he published in 1843 together with his brother
Tycho and the writer and poet Theodor Storm. Throughout his life Goethe was his ideal not only as a
poet but also as “the wisest man of the century.” His perfect command of English, French, and Italian did
much to make his journeys of research successful; he quoted Shakespeare in his letters almost as often
as Goethe.

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To many critics Mommsen’s glorification of the dictator Caesar and his disparagement of Caesar’s
opponents, Pompey and Cicero, seem strangely inconsistent with his political liberalism. He tried to
make his critics understand that he had praised Caesar only as a saviour of the decaying state; yet
Mommsen’s admiration for the autocrat reveals something of his own character. He himself was an
autocrat in his own branch of scholarship, adopting a manner that his opponents labeled “caesarism.” At
the same time, however, he had an unusual need for the fellowship of like-minded men. He held
personal contacts to be one of the most important elements of life; indeed, it might be said that he had
a genius for friendship. Yet it was mostly a friendship with men who looked up to him. With anyone who
considered himself Mommsen’s equal, a friendly relationship was not likely to last long.

It was only as a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences that Mommsen could pursue his project of
publishing his collection of Latin inscriptions, and for this reason in 1858 he was offered a post in Berlin.
In 1861 he also became a professor in the philosophy faculty at the university; because of his philological
and historical interests he chose that faculty rather than that of law. As a teacher of Roman history and
epigraphy—especially in his seminars—he trained many students who were later to make their mark in
these fields. The main part of his scholarly work was taken up with the continuation of the Corpus
Inscriptionum Latinarum (published 1863 and after). He also acted as adviser on many other great
scholarly enterprises, such as the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, the exploration of the limes (Roman
border fortifications in southwestern Germany), the numismatic work of the Prussian Academy, and the
Thesaurus Linguae Latinae. Even in old age his mind was open to the new demands of scholarship, as
shown by his interest in the new study of papyrology.

Mommsen’s historical work was interrupted by his work on inscriptions; thus, the Römische Geschichte
was never completed. Its first three volumes had been published in 1854–56. When, several decades
later, in Berlin, Mommsen set out to complete his history, he abandoned the idea of writing the fourth
volume, which was to contain the history of the emperors, because he felt that he would not be capable
of writing it in the same brilliant style as his history of the republic. The fifth volume (1885) deals with
the history of the Roman provinces in the first three centuries of the empire. No one but Mommsen
could have depicted this period in so authoritative a manner, for no one else knew the nonliterary
sources—the inscriptions and coins—as did he. The Römische Geschichte has been translated into
English as The History of Rome, with the fifth volume entitled The Provinces of the Roman Empire.

The greatest monument to Mommsen’s scholarship, the work which is of even greater significance for
scholars than the Römische Geschichte, is Römisches Staatsrecht (“Roman Constitutional Law”),
published in 3 volumes between 1871 and 1888. He himself said that if he were to be remembered by
anything, it would be by this work. The Romans themselves never codified their constitutional law;
Mommsen was the first to do it. His historical approach to classical scholarship led him to systematize
the innumerable legal details upon which the Roman constitution was based and to explain this complex
body of law through an understanding of its historical development. Only an individual who, like
Mommsen, was grounded both in law and in the classics would be in a position to investigate the public
law of the Romans, and only an individual trained to think in historical concepts could understand it.
In public law, criminal law stands side by side with constitutional law, and Mommsen’s last great work,
published in 1899, is Römisches Strafrecht (“Roman Criminal Law”).

When Mommsen, who had already become a mythical figure for his contemporaries, died just four
weeks before his 86th birthday, he had attained what he had always wanted. The task which he had set
himself to fulfill, according to his own almost superhuman standards, he had completed.

Lothar F.K. Wickert

Roman Empire

Table of Contents

Introduction

Rise and consolidation of imperial Rome

Height and decline of imperial Rome

Legacy of Rome

References & Edit History

Quick Facts & Related Topics

Images & Videos

Extent of the Roman Empire in 117 ce

Glimpse remnants of the Roman Empire in the Colosseum, Roman Forum, and Via Appia

The rise and fall of the Roman Empire

statue of the Roman emperor Augustus

How Constantine the Great changed Rome forever

Learn about the magnificent infrastructural work of imperial Rome, especially Roman masonry

ColosseumPont du Gard, Nîmes, France

Hannibal's daring strategy against Rome explained

The dramatic birth of the Roman Empire

Quizzes

Overlooking the Roman Forum with Temple of Saturn in Rome, Italy

The Roman Empire

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Roman Empire

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Last Updated: Feb 25, 2024 • Article History

Extent of the Roman Empire in 117 ce

Extent of the Roman Empire in 117 ce

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Date: 27 BCE - 476

Major Events: Battle of Milvian Bridge Battle of the Teutoburg Forest Classical antiquity Battle of Mursa
Antonines

Key People: Augustus Constantine I Tiberius Hadrian Diocletian

Related Topics: Senate Hadrian’s Wall Antonine Wall Tabula Peutingeriana Pont du Gard

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Roman Empire, the ancient empire, centred on the city of Rome, that was established in 27 BCE
following the demise of the Roman Republic and continuing to the final eclipse of the empire of the West
in the 5th century CE. A brief treatment of the Roman Empire follows. For full treatment, see ancient
Rome.

Rise and consolidation of imperial Rome

Glimpse remnants of the Roman Empire in the Colosseum, Roman Forum, and Via Appia

Glimpse remnants of the Roman Empire in the Colosseum, Roman Forum, and Via Appia

Remains of Rome's Colosseum and the Roman Forum and the still-traveled Appian Way.

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The rise and fall of the Roman Empire

The rise and fall of the Roman Empire

Learn how the tactics and discipline of the Roman army enabled the Roman Empire to expand and
endure.

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A period of unrest and civil wars in the 1st century BCE marked the transition of Rome from a republic to
an empire. This period encompassed the career of Julius Caesar, who eventually took full power over
Rome as its dictator. After his assassination in 44 BCE, the triumvirate of Mark Antony, Lepidus, and
Octavian, Caesar’s nephew, ruled. It was not long before Octavian went to war against Antony in
northern Africa, and after his victory at Actium (31 BCE) he was crowned Rome’s first emperor, Augustus.
His reign, from 27 BCE to 14 CE, was distinguished by stability and peace.

statue of the Roman emperor Augustus

statue of the Roman emperor Augustus

Statue of the Roman emperor Augustus, 1st century CE.

Augustus established a form of government known as a principate, which combined some elements
from the republic with the traditional powers of a monarchy. The Senate still functioned, though
Augustus, as princeps, or first citizen, remained in control of the government..

With a mind toward maintaining the structure of power entrusted to his rule, Augustus began thinking
early about who should follow him. Death played havoc with his attempts to select his successor. He had
no son and his nephew Marcellus, his son-in-law Agrippa, and his grandsons Gaius and Lucius each
predeceased him. He eventually chose Tiberius, a scion of the ultra-aristocratic Claudia gens, and in 4 CE
adopted him as his son.

Overlooking the Roman Forum with Temple of Saturn in Rome, Italy

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The Roman Empire

Tiberius (reigned 14–37) became the first successor in the Julio-Claudian dynasty and ruled as an able
administrator but cruel tyrant. His great-nephew Caligula (37–41) reigned as an absolutist, his short reign
filled with reckless spending, callous murders, and humiliation of the Senate. Claudius (41–54)
centralized state finances in the imperial household, thus making rapid strides in organizing the imperial
bureaucracy, but was ruthless toward the senators and equites. Nero (54–68) left administration to
capable advisers for a few years but then asserted himself as a vicious despot. He brought the dynasty to
its end by being the first emperor to suffer damnatio memoriae: his reign was officially stricken from the
record by order of the Senate.

Following a war of succession, Vespasian became emperor, and the Flavian dynasty was established. His
reign (69–79) was noted for his reorganization of the army, making it more loyal and professional; for his
expansion of the membership of the Senate, bringing in administrators with a sense of service; for his
increase and systematization of taxation; and for his strengthening of the frontiers of the empire (though
little new territory was added). The brief but popular reign of his son Titus (79–81) was followed by the
autocracy of Domitian (81–96), Vespasian’s other son, who fought the senatorial class and instituted
taxes and confiscations for costly buildings, games, and shows. A reign of terror in his final years was
ended by his assassination. The Flavian dynasty, like the Julio-Claudian, ended with an emperor whose
memory was officially damned.

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Height and decline of imperial Rome

Domitian was succeeded by an elderly senator of some distinction, Marcus Cocceius Nerva (96–98).
Among the beloved rulers of Rome that succeeded him were Trajan (reigned 98–117), Hadrian (117–
138), Antoninus Pius (138–161), and Marcus Aurelius (161–180). Together these are known as the Five
Good Emperors. Their non-hereditary succession oversaw a golden age, which witnessed a considerable
amount of expansion and consolidation. But all the changes that occurred during this era, beneficial as
they were, brought with them the attendant evils of excessive centralization. The concentration of an
empire in the hands of an emperor like Commodus (180–192)—juvenile, incompetent, and decadent—
was enough to steer it toward decline.

The following century was plagued by strife and mismanagement. When the commander of the Danube
army, Septimius Severus, was swept to power in 193, he effectively made Rome a military monarchy. The
“barbarian invasions” weighed heavily on the empire, as did usurpations and political destabilization.
The instability fed on itself and was responsible for heavy expenditure of both life and treasure.
Disruptions in commerce, harsh taxation, inflation, and extortion from stationed troops all contributed to
perpetual economic hardship for decades.

A period of recovery began with Diocletian (284–305), whose broad reforms renewed the integrity and
cohesion of the imperial administration. His most notable adjustment was the reorganization of the
empire into a tetrarchy, wherein power was divided among himself, Maximian (who became Augustus,
or emperor, in 286), Constantius (who became Caesar, or hereditary prince, in 293), and Galerius (who
also became Caesar in 293). The arrangement proved practical in stabilizing the empire for a time against
usurpation, and it also promised the rulers legitimacy and regular succession.

The tetrarchy soon led to confusion, however, and by 308 there were seven pretenders to the title of
Augustus. Among them was Constantius’s eldest son, Constantine, who was passed over for formal
succession. As a high-ranking military tribune, however, he had a forceful command and was able to
eliminate his rivals successively in the West. He became the uncontested emperor of the West in 312
and, upon the defeat of his co-emperor in the East, he became the sole Augustus of the empire in 324.

Constantine’s reign (312–337) saw significant and lasting changes to the Roman Empire. Christians, who
had been tolerated at best—but often tortured or killed—found new favour after the Edict of Milan (313)
assured toleration for all religions. From about 320 the Roman state no longer persecuted Christians but
rather showered Christian institutions with patronage. In 324 Constantine relocated the imperial capital
to Byzantium (which was renamed Constantinople), a move whose strategic and economic benefits
helped reinvigorate the state for some time. But Constantine failed to save the empire from decline. The
last of his line, Theodosius I (379–395), was the last emperor to rule over a unified Roman Empire. The
Western Empire, suffering from repeated invasions and the flight of the peasants into the cities, had
grown weak compared with the East, where spices and other exports virtually guaranteed wealth and
stability. When Theodosius died, in 395, Rome split into Eastern and Western empires.

How Constantine the Great changed Rome forever

How Constantine the Great changed Rome forever

Explore possible reasons for the decline of the Roman Empire in this video.See all videos for this article

The West was severely shaken in 410, when the city of Rome was sacked by the Visigoths, a wandering
nation of Germanic peoples from the northeast. The fall of Rome was completed in 476, when the
German chieftain Odoacer deposed the last Roman emperor of the West, Romulus Augustulus. The East,
always richer and stronger, continued as the Byzantine Empire through the European Middle Ages.

Legacy of Rome

Learn about the magnificent infrastructural work of imperial Rome, especially Roman masonry

Learn about the magnificent infrastructural work of imperial Rome, especially Roman masonry

Learn about the infrastructure of imperial Rome, particularly Roman masonry.

See all videos for this article

During the later republic and most of the empire, Rome was the dominant power in the entire
Mediterranean basin, most of western Europe, and large areas of northern Africa. The Romans
possessed a powerful army and were gifted in the applied arts of law, government, city planning, and
statecraft, but they also acknowledged and adopted contributions of other ancient peoples—most
notably, those of the Greeks, much of whose culture was thereby preserved.

Colosseum

Colosseum

Interior of the Colosseum in Rome.

Pont du Gard, Nîmes, France

Pont du Gard, Nîmes, France

Pont du Gard, an ancient Roman aqueduct near Nîmes, France.

The Roman Empire was distinguished not only for its outstanding army—the foundation upon which the
whole empire rested—but also for its accomplishments in intellectual endeavours. Roman law, for
example, was a considered and complex body of precedents and comments, which were all finally
codified in the 6th century (see Justinian, Code of). Rome’s roads were without match in the ancient
world, designed for comparatively fast transportation and adapted to a wide variety of functions:
commerce, agriculture, mail delivery, pedestrian traffic, and military movements. Roman city planners
achieved unprecedented standards of hygiene with their plumbing, sewage disposal, dams, and
aqueducts. Roman architecture, though often imitative of Greek styles, was boldly planned and lavishly
executed. Triumphal arches commemorated important state occasions, and the famous Roman baths
were built to stir the senses as well as to cleanse the body.

Finally, Latin, the language of the Romans, became the medium for a significant body of original works in
Western civilization. Cicero’s speeches, the histories of Livy and Tacitus, Terence’s drama, and above all
the poetry of Virgil are all part of the legacy of Rome.