Reviewer for Organic Chemistry - MODULE 1

 1807 - Jons Jacob Berzelius - great contribution to biology

 Jons Jacob Berzelius - first to make the distinction between organic compounds (those
containing carbon) and inorganic compounds.
- gave names to two (2) kinds of materials (organic & inorganic compounds)
 term “protein” - was proposed by Berzelius because these molecules seemed to be the primitive
substance of animal feed that plants prepare for herbivores.
 Organic compounds - living organisms that contain immeasurable vital force
- essence of life
- compounds that contain CARBON
 Inorganic compounds - compounds derived from minerals
- lacking the vital force
 Organic Chemistry - is the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and
preparation of carbon-containing compounds.
- is the chemistry of carbon containing compounds.

SIGNIFICANCE OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY:

 All molecules that make life possible and that make us who we are – proteins, enzymes,
vitamins, lipids, carbohydrates, DNA, RNA – are organic compounds.
 Chemical reactions that take place in living systems are reactions of organic compounds.
 Most of compounds found in nature – food, clothing, energy – are organic as well.
 Organic compounds synthesize to prevent shortage of natural compounds
 Synthetic organic compounds – fabrics, rubber, commonly prescribed medications.

 Carbon - group 4A element, can share four valence electrons and form four strong covalent
bonds.
- center of the second row of elements.
- able to form millions of stable compounds with a wide of chemical properties simply by
sharing electrons.
- it shares electrons.

 Atoms to the LEFT - have a tendency to give up electrons

 Atoms to the RIGHT - have a tendency to accept electrons
 Bonds form - when two atoms share electrons
 bonds break - when two atoms no longer share electron.

 Atom - consists of tiny, dense nucleus surrounded

by electrons that are spread throughout relatively
large volume of space around the nucleus called an
electron cloud.
 the nucleus contains protons – positively charged
particles, and neutrons – uncharged particles, so it
is positively charged.
 Electrons – negatively charged.

 Atomic Number - number of protons in its nucleus.

- unique to a particular element.
- number of protons in an atom of a particular element never changes.
 Mass Number - sum of its protons and neutrons.
 Atomic Weight - average mass of its atoms.
 Molecular weight - sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule.
HOW THE ELECTRONS IN AN ATOM ARE DISTRIBUTED
The first shell is the one closest to the nucleus. The second shell lies farther from the nucleus. The
third and higher numbered shells lie even farther out.

 Atomic Orbitals - subshells – where electrons reside in particular energy levels

- each shell is further divided into sublevels of increasing energy named s, p, d, and f.

 Electron Configuration - describes what orbitals the electrons occupy.

 Core electrons - electrons in inner shells.

 Valence electrons - electrons in outer shells.
- elements in the same column in the periodic table have the same number of
valence electrons because it is the major factor determining an element’s chemical
properties.
 Ionic bonds - attraction of two elements having opposite changes.
- results in the formation of an ionic compound.
 Ionic compounds - occurs when a metallic element reacts with a non-metallic element.
- due to metals usually having excess valence electrons that are needed by non-
metals.
2 Types of Ionic Compounds:
 Binary Compound - compounds composed of only 2 elements
Example: NaCl (Sodium Chloride) H2O (water)
 Ternary Compound - compounds composed of three or more elements
Example: H2SO4 (Sulfuric Acid)
2 Types of IONS:
 Monoatomic - atoms of different elements that either gained or lost electrons.
charges can be determined using the periodic table.
 Polyatomic - tightly bound groups of atoms that behave as a unit and carry a charge.

 Cations - Atoms that lose an electron (gaining a positive charge).

 Anions - Atoms that gain an electron (gaining a negative charge).
 Covalent Bond - bond formed between two non-metals that share electrons.
- non-metallic elements tend to accept electrons from a metallic element to
be stable. Nonmetallic elements can also react with each other to become stable.
usually illustrated using the Lewis structure configuration.
 Lewis structure - electron-dot structures.
- represent the valence electrons as dots around the chemical symbol of an
element.

TYPES OF COVALENT BONDS

 Single Covalent Bond - one pair of electrons is shared.
- denoted by a short line
 Double Covalent Bond - two pairs of electrons are shared.
- denoted by two short line.
 Triple Covalent Bond - three electrons are shared.
- denoted by three short line.
 Electronegativity - Measure of the ability of an atom to pull the bonding electrons toward itself.
 - Increases in the periodic table as you go from left to right.
 - With the exception of noble gases, elements on the right of the periodic table are
more electronegative than those on the left.
 - Noble gases do not have electronegativity values because they are already stable.
 Polar covalent - occurs between two atoms having unequal electronegativities.
 Nonpolar covalent bond - occurs when there is an equal sharing of electrons.

MODULE 2

 Organic Compounds - Compounds that contain CARBON in combination with hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and other elements.
 Every living organism is made of organic compounds.
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - is the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and
preparation of carbon-containing compounds.
 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY- is concerned with the study of the behavior and properties of all
chemical compounds except organic compounds. Most inorganic
compounds are found in nature as minerals.
 Chain or carbon skeleton - carbon atoms can bind together in large numbers
 Functional Groups – are atoms or group of atoms that are arranged in a specific manner in the
skeletal structure and dictate the behaviour of certain organic compounds.
 Homologous Series – classification of organic compounds based on similarities in chemical
structure and properties.
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES FUNCTIONAL GROUP
Alkane Alkanes do not have any
 Composed of only carbon atoms and functional group.
hydrogen atoms and contain only single
bonds.
 Hydrocarbons – compounds contain only
carbon and hydrogen.
 Saturated Hydrocarbons – saturated with
hydrogen.
Alkene The double bond between two
 Hydrocarbons that contain a carbon – carbon atoms
carbon double bond.
 Unsaturated
Naming Alkene:
Replacing the “ane” at the end of the parent
hydrocarbon’s name with the suffix “ene”.
Ex. Ethene, Ethylene
Alkyne The triple bond between two
 Hydrocarbons that contain a carbon - carbon atoms
carbon triple bond.
Naming Alkyne: Ex. Ethyne, Butyne, Pentyne
Carboxylic Acid
 is an organic compound that contains
carboxyl functional group.
Naming: Ex. Methanoic Acid, Ethanoic Acid
Aldehydes
 A very common structural component of
organic structures is the carbonyl, which is
simply a carbon atom and an oxygen atom
connected by a double bond
Naming: Ex. Methanal, Ethanal, Bromopropanal

Ketones
 is an organic compound in which the
carbonyl group is attached to a carbon atom
within the carbon chain.
Naming: Propanone, Hexanone
Alcohol
 The alcohol functional group involves an
oxygen atom that is bonded to one
hydrogen atom and one carbon atom.
Ether
 The ether functional group consists of an
oxygen atom that forms single bonds with
two carbon atoms.
Ester
 An ester is similar to acarboxylic acid, in that
it contains a carbonyl where the carbon is
bonded to one additional oxygen atom and
one carbon or hydrogen atom. However,
the second oxygen atom is bonded to
another carbon instead of to an acidic
hydrogen atom.
Amine
 An amine consists of a nitrogen atom
bonded to some combination of carbons
and hydrogens.
Amide
 An amide is a carbonyl in which the carbon
is attached to one nitrogen atom and one
carbon or hydrogen atom.