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MIKUDIT TRANSLATION -
HOLOCAUST
**Germany after wwi:**

*Completion of World War I and the Versailles Treaty in 1919 signaled the emergence of a "new
world order." The victorious powers, Britain, France, Italy, and the U.S., envisioned a new era of
peace through the Versailles Treaty. However, Germany viewed the agreement as a harsh
humiliation. The treaty falsely accused Germany of initiating the war, leading to territorial losses
and severe restrictions, such as the prohibition on having a military or submarine fleet. Germany
was also required to pay substantial reparations to France and Britain for war damages,
exacerbating its economic crisis.*

*Germany, facing a severe economic downturn, established the new democratic government
called the "Weimar Republic" to restore stability. However, economic hardships, challenges to
economic security, and the democratic regime caused widespread discontent. Extreme
movements on both the right and left gained political momentum. In 1919, the German Workers'
Party (DAP) was founded, reflecting a broader trend of political movements emerging at that
time. Both sides shared a common goal – rejecting the existing government and system and
seeking change that aligned with their worldview.*

*Adolf Hitler joined the German Workers' Party in 1920. A charismatic orator and a war hero
with injuries, he quickly rose to prominence. Hitler transformed the party into the National
Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party). In 1923, he attempted a coup in Munich, known
as the Beer Hall Putsch, which failed. He was convicted and sentenced to five years in prison
but was released after only nine months. During his imprisonment, he wrote "Mein Kampf,"
presenting his views on the state, the regime, and particularly, Jews, whom he considered
Germany's greatest disaster.*

*Following the global economic crisis in 1929, Germany also faced an economic collapse. The
economic downturn led to political instability and frequent elections. In 1932, the Nazi Party
became the second-largest party and, through an alliance with a smaller party, gained the
majority in parliament, forming the government.*

German Ideology:
1. ‫תורת הגזע‬: "Torat Ha-gezah"
2. ‫מרחב מחיה‬: "Merchav Me-chay-ah"
3. ‫עקרון המנהיגות‬: "Ikaron Ha-ma-nhigut"
4. ‫אנטישמיות גזעית‬: "Anti-semitiut Geza-it"

1. **Theory of Race: ‫**תורת הגזע‬

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 The Theory of Race argues that humanity is divided into different races, much like in the
animal kingdom. Continuous warfare exists between these races, as each race strives to
survive at any cost; it's nature's way! The strong survive, and the weak perish. The war between
races is considered beneficial and positive, essential for the world's existence. Without racial
wars, the world could deteriorate (become paralyzed). The 20th century is seen as a decisive
point in the racial war.

The theory categorizes races into three types:

- A culture-producing race (Aryan, Germanic), considered superior and the best.
- A culture-carrying race (Slavs), seen as a cultural buffer for Aryan culture.
- A culture-destroying race, whose goal is the extermination of other races, with the Jewish
race being the primary one. Despite the appearance of wanting to destroy other races, this race
must be acted upon and eliminated due to its alleged desire to destroy others.

2. **Living Space: ‫**מרחב מחיה‬

Nazi ideology believes that a healthy nation constantly expands and requires living space that
provides more resources—food, shelter (housing), and, most importantly, territory. Just like in
the animal kingdom, humans, too, have a natural need to expand their living space.

Germany, according to Nazi beliefs, does not have enough living space for the Aryan race. To
fulfill this need, Germany must expand into Poland and Russia to the east, where supposedly
inferior nations (Slavs) reside, and these areas are fertile (Poland is referred to as 'Europe's
granary'). Additionally, Hitler insists that wherever there are Germans, there should be Germany
(including Austria and parts of Czechoslovakia). Hitler talks about reclaiming regions taken from
Germany following the Versailles agreements, such as Alsace and Lorraine in France.

**The Uniqueness of Nazi Antisemitism: ‫**ייחודה של האנטישמיות הנאצית‬

Modern antisemitism, racial and genetic, posits that the negative essence resides in every Jew
and is a biological and hereditary matter. Unlike medieval times when a Jew could escape anti-
Israel sentiment by converting to Christianity, according to new racial antisemitism, there is no
refuge! In the past, the Jew stood out in appearance and language, arousing hatred, while the
"new Jew" according to modern antisemitism does not stand out from his surroundings. He
dresses like his compatriots and speaks fluent German and French.

However, despite this, his Jewishness is hidden in his body and hereditary traits, making it more
sinful as it is concealed. Nazi ideology expresses the difference between modern and traditional
antisemitism. While traditional antisemitism perceived the Jew as part of the collective –
Judaism, modern racial antisemitism separated the Jewish person from the Jewish religion. The
Nazis directed their hatred towards both the Jewish person and the Jewish religion.

**Accusations against the Jewish Individual:**

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- Jews are incapable of founding and sustaining their own state because they lack the ability to
work and produce. Their detachment from nature and the land makes them an entirely feeble
people, contrasting with the Aryan race, which is productive. The "new Jew" is portrayed as
living off the nations' battle, never willing to join the fight. Their external signs (German language
and non-Jewish attire) are meant to obscure their true identity and purpose to dominate other
nations. According to this view, there is a Jewish conspiracy to take over the world
economically, culturally, artistically, literarily, and through communication. This perception was
based on "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion."

- Jews pollute Aryan-German blood intentionally through intermingling and mixed marriages,
aiming to corrupt the pure and superior Germanic race.

- Jews lead socialist movements, the great enemies of Germany. The goal of socialist and
communist movements is to bring equality without distinction of religion, race, or gender. If this
were to happen, the racial hierarchy would be annulled, and the superiority of the Aryan race
would be abolished. Jews aspire to bring harm to the Aryan race.

**Accusations against the Jewish Religion:**

- Judaism nurtures morality, compassion, help, and charity. In contrast, Nazism emphasizes the
value of power above the law and the right of the strong to eliminate the weak to achieve its
goals.

- Nazism promotes faith in the supreme leader and his authoritative way that requires
obedience. This principle annuls human conscience and suppresses any sense of responsibility
in the heart of man for his actions.

The Establishment of the Nazi Regime in Germany:

In January 1933, the mandate to form the government was handed over to Hitler. Although the
Nazi Party did not win the largest share in the last elections in 1932, it was large enough to form
the government in collaboration with another party.

Upon Hitler's rise to power, party members were appointed to key positions, with Joseph
Goebbels, the Minister of Propaganda, being one of the most crucial. Goebbels' role was
pivotal: to create an atmosphere of incitement against Jews, harm Jews, isolate them, all while
creating a dehumanizing narrative for Jews.

With Hitler in power, he operated on three fronts: aggressive foreign policy, aggressive domestic
policy, and anti-Jewish policy (which will be expanded later in a separate chapter).

Aggressive Foreign Policy:

Upon Hitler's ascent to power, he promised to "restore national honor" that was allegedly
damaged by the Versailles Treaty, according to the perception of many Germans. To achieve

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this, Hitler pursued an aggressive foreign policy towards neighboring countries, which had
agreements with Versailles that were unfavorable to Germany.

1. Saar Basin and Alsace-Lorraine: These were territories rich in natural resources on the
border between Germany and France, which were placed under French control following the
Versailles agreements. In 1934, residents in the Saar Basin were allowed to vote on whether
they wanted to belong to Germany or France. Pro-Nazi groups initiated acts of terror against the
residents as a pressure tactic to vote in favor of German control. After the majority voted to
return to German rule, Hitler annexed Alsace-Lorraine without firing a single shot, and Britain
and France did not respond, revealing their weakness.

2. Annexation of Austria (Anschluss): In 1938, Hitler ordered the annexation of Austria to

Germany. Austria and Germany were sister states, with populations almost identical. The
Versailles Treaty prohibited their union, but Hitler, as part of his desire to restore German
national honor, decided to annex Austria. Britain and France did not react. This policy was
termed "appeasement."

3. Annexation of the Sudetenland and the Munich Agreement: Hitler's next target was territory
within Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia was established following the Versailles agreements
and the end of World War I, with part of its territory under German imperial control. In the
Sudetenland, many Germans resided, and Hitler demanded its annexation. Czechoslovakia,
fearing an attack, sought defense from Britain and France. These two nations hurriedly
convened a conference with Germany in Munich. In the Munich Agreement, Britain and France
agreed that Germany could annex the Sudetenland, but they insisted that Germany should have
no further territorial claims in Europe. Hitler signed the agreement but had no intention of
keeping it. In March 1939, he invaded Czechoslovakia, essentially destroying its existence. At
this point, Britain and France realized that another world war was inevitable and imminent.

**Nazi Domestic Policy: Building the Nazi Regime**

In parallel with their aggressive foreign policy, Hitler and the Nazi regime implemented a
domestic policy aimed at consolidating their power.

**Political Consolidation:**
- Upon Hitler's rise to power, he sought to establish his political authority. President Hindenburg,
initially hesitant to grant Hitler the role of Chancellor, had no choice after Hitler gained majority
support in the parliament.
- One of Hitler's early actions was the burning of the Reichstag (German parliament), blaming
communists for the act and leading to the outlawing of the Communist Party. Subsequently,
Hitler declared new elections, preventing his removal by labeling himself as an "interim head of
government."
- During this period, Hitler passed the Enabling Act, stripping the parliament of its power and
allowing the government to make decisions without parliamentary approval.

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**Military Buildup:**
- Despite the Versailles Treaty prohibiting Germany from mandatory conscription and submarine
fleet creation, Hitler did the opposite. He initiated the development of innovative submarine
fleets, announced compulsory military service, and heavily invested in expanding the army.

**Economic Foundation:**
- Addressing the high unemployment rate in Germany, Hitler initiated extensive job creation
projects, including the construction of roads, autobahns, stadiums, and airports. The 1936 Berlin
Olympics also contributed to significant economic growth.
- Germany experienced rapid industrial development during this time, with the establishment of
new companies like Volkswagen, Mercedes, V.M.B, AEG, Hugo Boss, and others. These
industrial endeavors greatly aided the Nazi regime in reducing unemployment.

**Terror, Education, and Intimidation:**

- The Gestapo, the secret police, collected data on perceived enemies of the regime, including
resistance members, Jews, and communists. The regime initiated suppression and terror
against opposition.
- Concentration camps, starting with Dachau, were established to suppress resistance. These
camps witnessed inhumane atrocities such as murder, abuse, and degradation.
- The Nazi regime heavily invested in education, altering curricula to align with racial theories
and Nazi ideology. The "Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service" in 1934
resulted in the dismissal of Jewish educators and those opposing the regime.
- Another emphasis was on propaganda and indoctrination led by Joseph Goebbels, creating a
dehumanizing narrative against Jews. This relentless effort fueled intense hatred towards Jews
in Germany.

**Anti-Jewish Policy under the Nazis**

The rise of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party) to power in January 1933
marked the beginning of a deceptive and anti-Semitic campaign against the Jews. Unlike
previous blood libels and persecutions, this time, it was the government and the institutionalized
system responsible for the campaign.

**Key Figure in the Anti-Semitic Campaign:**

- Joseph Goebbels, the Nazi Minister of Propaganda, played a crucial role in the Nazification
process (conversion of Germans to Nazi ideology). He was Hitler's closest associate until the
end and considered highly loyal to him.

**Expression of Anti-Semitic Policies:**

- The anti-Jewish policies found expression in both written and societal realms.

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- The newspaper "Der Stürmer," edited by Julius Streicher, a close associate of the Nazi
leadership, served as the official (and only) newspaper of the Nazi government. It played an
unparalleled role in promoting anti-Jewish sentiments.

**Dehumanization and Stereotyping:**

- Jews were dehumanized and compared to snakes, animals, pests, parasites, and vermin.
According to racial theories, specific facial features, such as a long nose, were highlighted in the
anti-Semitic propaganda.
- Jewish desires for wealth and success were also emphasized in the propaganda, contributing
to negative stereotypes.

**Governmental Actions Against Jews:**

- The Nazi government targeted Jews across various spheres: societal, economic, legal, and
physical.
- In societal terms, the Nazis portrayed Jews as a threat to German society, fostering a hostile
environment.
- Economically, Jews were systematically discriminated against, leading to exclusion from
various professions and businesses.
- Legal measures were implemented against Jews, stripping them of their rights and legal
standing.
- Physically, the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 institutionalized racial discrimination, prohibiting
marriage and sexual relations between Jews and non-Jews.

**Conclusion:**
The anti-Jewish policy of the Nazis permeated every aspect of German life, creating a hostile
environment through propaganda, legal restrictions, economic discrimination, and ultimately
paving the way for the atrocities of the Holocaust.

**Isolation of Jews in Nazi Germany**

Jews in Germany symbolized integration with the non-Jewish nationals where they resided.
They were educated, held various professions, resembled Germans in appearance, and spoke
German. Politically, they were also well-integrated.

**Prominent Jews in Germany:**

- Notable Jews in Germany included the Foreign Minister Rathenau, Prime Minister
Stresemann, and scientist Albert Einstein.

**Self-Identification as German Citizens:**

- Jews in Germany primarily identified themselves as citizens of the country, with about 12,000
even participating in World War I for the sake of Germany.

**Nazi Anti-Semitic Policies:**

With the rise of the Nazi Party to power:

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- Nazis aimed at social isolation by distancing Jews from German society.
- Economic isolation involved excluding Jews from Germany's economy and stripping them of
economic positions.
- The removal of Jews from Germany was part of the Nazis' vision of a "pure" Germany.

**Social Isolation Evolves:**

- Over time, social isolation intensified. The German public willingly contributed to the hatred
and ostracization of Jews, influenced by Nazi propaganda or pre-existing anti-Semitic
sentiments.
- Many Germans did not oppose actions against Jews and, in some cases, benefited from the
confiscation of Jewish property.

**Olympics as a Facade:**
- In 1936, Berlin hosted the Olympics, and the Nazi regime concealed anti-Jewish measures to
portray an illusion of equality. Jewish sports organizations were allowed to operate, restrictions
on Jews entering public places were temporarily lifted, and the world was presented with an
image of "normalcy" for Jews in Germany.

**Continuation of Deceptive Practices:**

- These actions were part of Germany's strategy to continue acting against the world while
downplaying their intentions and actions.

The social isolation of Jews in Nazi Germany evolved over time, marked by increasing
discrimination, public hostility, and the Nazis' deceptive tactics to present a facade of normalcy
during international events.

**Anti-Jewish Actions in Nazi Germany**

1. **Economic Boycott (1933) (‫**)חרם כלכלי‬

- Action: On April 1, 1933, the Nazi government declared an economic boycott on Jewish
businesses.
- Implementation: SA members stationed themselves at the entrances of Jewish shops,
preventing Germans from buying from Jews.
- Outcome: The boycott lasted only one day due to the threat of an American boycott against
Germany.

2. **Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (1933) ( ‫חוק החזרת הפקידות‬
‫**)המקצועית על כנה‬
- Action: Following the economic boycott, the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil
Service aimed to socially isolate Jews.
- Implementation: The law led to the dismissal of Jewish employees in various professions,
including civil servants, teachers, professors, doctors, and judges.
- Expansion: Over time, the law extended to other fields like medicine and jurisprudence.
- Impact: This law marked a significant reversal of the emancipation granted to Jews in 1871.

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3. **Ban on Ritual Slaughter (1933)**
- Action: Shortly after, a law was enacted prohibiting ritual slaughter (kosher slaughter) of
animals.
- Justification: Jewish ritual slaughter was falsely portrayed as barbaric, and Jews were
depicted as bloodthirsty individuals mistreating animals.
- Discrepancy: Despite the portrayal, Jewish ritual slaughter is generally considered less
painful for animals compared to other non-Jewish methods like stunning or shooting.

4. **Book Burning (1933)**

- Action: The Nazi government organized the burning of books written by Jews and those
opposing the Nazi regime.
- Objective: The burning aimed to condemn and eliminate Jewish culture, associating it with
impurity and separating it from the supposed pure Aryan culture.

These actions collectively reflect the systematic and multifaceted approach the Nazi regime took
to isolate, discriminate against, and dehumanize Jews in various aspects of life, including
economic, professional, religious, and cultural spheres.

**Nuremberg Laws (1935): Anti-Jewish Legislation**

- **Introduction:**
- Enacted in Nuremberg, Germany, these laws formed the legal basis for the exclusion of Jews
from German society, culture, economy, and politics.

- **Definition of Jewishness:**
- The laws defined Jewishness based on ancestry, stating that someone with three Jewish
grandparents is considered Jewish, while those with two Jewish grandparents are deemed of
mixed heritage but fully Jewish.

- **Key Provisions of the Nuremberg Laws:**

1. **Citizenship Restrictions:**
- Jews were denied German citizenship, devoid of political voting rights, and barred from
holding public office.

2. **Marriage Restrictions:**
- Interfaith marriages between Jews and non-Jews were prohibited, and existing such
marriages were declared null and void.

3. **Social Interaction Ban:**

- Any relationships between Jews and non-Jews were strictly forbidden.

4. **Employment Restrictions:**

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 - Jews were barred from engaging in household employment for Germans below the age of
45.

- **Significance of the Nuremberg Laws:**

- These laws embodied the anti-Semitic and racist ideology of Nazi Germany, reflecting the
practical implementation of Nazi beliefs.
- They significantly curtailed the legal rights of Jews, depriving them of protection under the
law.
- The laws marked the end of civic equality and emancipation for Jews in Germany.

- **Aftermath of the Nuremberg Laws:**

- Following the enactment of the Nuremberg Laws, there was a relative calm in anti-Jewish
policies, partly due to the public relations efforts surrounding the Berlin Olympics.
- However, anti-Jewish sentiment persisted, leading to increased unemployment and the
complete exclusion of Jews from stable positions in the Third Reich.
- The ultimate goal was to prepare Germany economically and militarily for war, despite the
temporary lull in anti-Jewish actions.

These laws symbolized the institutionalization of anti-Semitism and racial discrimination, setting
the stage for further oppressive measures against the Jewish population in Nazi Germany.

**Aryanization – Economic Exclusion of Jews**

- **Definition:**
- "Aryanization" refers to the transformation of Jewish property into Aryan (German) property.

- **Timeline (1933-1945):**
- Germans, both within Germany and occupied territories, systematically looted Jewish
property, transferring it to German hands.

- **Nazi Leadership's Perspective:**

- The Nazi leadership considered seizing Jewish property as crucial to "rectify" what they
perceived as Jews having unjustly gained from the German population over the years.

- **Forced Surrender of Jewish Property:**

- Jews across Germany were compelled to surrender their property to the authorities, often in
exchange for meager and arbitrary compensation or, at times, with no compensation at all.
- Jewish businesses were constantly under threat, subject to violence, intimidation, and terror.

- **Methods of Coercion:**
- SS officers stood outside Jewish shops, detaining German customers. Jews who resisted
selling their property were violently attacked, and many were arrested, interned in concentration
camps, or imprisoned without legal rights.

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- **Impact of Nuremberg Laws (1935):**
- Following the enactment of the Nuremberg Laws in 1935, the pressure on Jews intensified.
Jewish enterprises, industries, and shops faced heightened aggression, marked by violence and
the complete absence of legal protections.
- The Nazis used these laws to further oppress Jews, portraying them as "enemies of the
people," publicly shaming them, and subjecting them to degradation.

- **Economic Exploitation (1933-1939):**

- Over the six years from 1933 to 1939, almost all wealth owned by Jews, estimated at around
12 billion marks (a significantly underestimated figure), was forcibly taken from them.
- The Nazi regime economically thrived on the systematic confiscation of Jewish assets, as
Jews were stripped of their possessions, rights, and dignity.

Aryanization represents a dark chapter in history where the economic persecution of Jews was
executed with ruthless efficiency, further marginalizing and dehumanizing them under the Nazi
regime.

**Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass), 1938**

- **Immediate Trigger for Pogrom:**

- The event served as an immediate pretext to initiate a violent pogrom against Jews in
Germany, meticulously planned by the Germans.

- **November 9, 1938:**
- On the night of November 9, 1938, Nazi units, in collaboration with the German populace,
targeted Jewish buildings.
- Approximately 1,000 synagogues across Germany and Austria were destroyed, around 800
Jewish-owned shops were looted and set on fire, hundreds of schools and residences were
damaged or demolished, and Jewish cemeteries were desecrated.

- **Extensive Destruction:**
- The aftermath included widespread destruction and chaos, with a significant impact on the
Jewish community's institutions and places of worship.

- **Forced Financial Penalty:**

- Following the pogrom, Jews were coerced into paying a billion-mark fine for purportedly
causing the unrest.
- Approximately 91 Jews were killed during the violence, and around 30,000 were sent to
concentration camps.

- **Kristallnacht's Significance:**
- The term "Kristallnacht" translates to the "Night of Broken Glass," symbolizing the shattered
windows of Jewish establishments.

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 - It marked a shift from legal and social discrimination to outright physical violence against
Jews in Germany.

- **Outcome and Coined Term:**

- Due to the extensive violence, it earned the grim nickname "Night of Broken Glass."
- The name itself reflects the intentional destruction inflicted upon the Jewish community,
emphasizing the use of violence as a tool for exclusion and persecution.

- **Immediate Ramifications:**
- Kristallnacht became a turning point, signifying a real and physical assault on Jews within
Germany.
- The pogrom completely severed Jews from German society, leading to intensified anti-Jewish
measures, culminating in forced emigration under coercion.

Kristallnacht stands as a tragic milestone, marking the acceleration of anti-Jewish violence in

Nazi Germany and foreshadowing the atrocities that would follow during the Holocaust.

HOLOCAUST
Hi
**The First Phase 1939-1941**

- **War Breaks Out in Poland:**

- Approximately 3,300,000 Jews resided in Poland when the war erupted, with around
2,100,000 in German-occupied territory and the rest in Russian-occupied territory (Eastern
Poland).

- **Initial Weeks of War:**

- In the first weeks of the war, the eastern border with Russia was open, and around 300,000
Jews fled eastward. Some returned later to their families and youth movements.

- **Violent Occupation of Poland:**

- The German occupation of Poland was marked by severe violence against both Polish and
Jewish populations.
- Jews, along with some Poles, were labeled as "enemies of the Nazi regime," subjecting them
to harsh treatment by the Germans.

- **Introduction of 'True Jews':**

- Germans encountered what they termed "true Jews" for the first time in Poland, as depicted
in Nazi propaganda films.
- This portrayal, with Jews wearing sidelocks and black attire, contributed to the
dehumanization of Jews in German eyes.

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- **Lack of Initial Plan for Jewish Population:**
- The Nazis did not initially have a systematic plan for dealing with the Jewish population in
Poland.
- Instructions from Reinhard Heydrich, head of the Reich Security Main Office, were later
provided to Einsatzgruppen (paramilitary death squads) and the Wehrmacht (German military)
concerning the treatment of Jews.

- **"Lightning Letter" Directives:**

- The "Lightning Letter" outlined directives:
- Concentrate all Jews in major cities near railway junctions.
- Establish "Judenräte" (Jewish Councils) in each community composed of "respected men
and rabbis."
- Initiate "Aryanization" of Jewish enterprises, aligning with Germany's interests.

- **First Actions by Germans:**

- The initial German actions against Jews involved physical abuse, degradation, humiliation,
and both mental and physical harm.
- Jews were subjected to forced labor, with the military police collaborating with local residents
in mistreating them.

- **Forced Labor and Concentration Camps:**

- Many Jews were forced into degrading labor, including clearing debris and working on
streets.
- Concentration camps were established, becoming sites of forced labor and exploitation until
death.
- Some were employed for German companies, while others engaged in menial tasks like
street cleaning.

The early phase of the German occupation in Poland witnessed brutal mistreatment of Jews
and Poles, setting the stage for more systematic persecution and atrocities in the subsequent
years of World War II.

**Imprisonment in Ghettos**

- **Forced Eviction from Western Poland:**

- Shortly after the occupation of Poland, a directive from the General Government obligated
Jews to leave the western territories.
- Over 300,000 Jews were uprooted, absorbed into the Reich, and resettled in the General
Government's territories under General-Governor.

- **Creation of Ghettos:**
- The first ghetto was established in Piotrków, with larger ghettos in Warsaw, Łódź, and
Krakow.

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 - The largest, the Warsaw Ghetto, held nearly half a million Jews in appalling conditions, far
exceeding its capacity.

- **Deteriorating Conditions in Ghettos:**

- Overcrowding in ghettos led to outbreaks of epidemics, exacerbated by winter cold and year-
round food shortages, resulting in many "natural" deaths.
- In the Warsaw Ghetto alone, approximately 20% died from diseases, hunger, inhumane
conditions, and cold.

- **Challenges Faced by Ghetto Residents:**

- Beyond diseases, hunger, humiliation, and forced labor, women and mothers assumed
household leadership roles, as men were often taken for forced labor or killed.
- Children, vulnerable to famine and disease, played a crucial role in smuggling food into the
ghetto.

- **Role of Children in Ghettos:**

- Despite the absolute prohibition on leaving the ghetto, agile and small-bodied children
managed to slip out, risking their lives to bring back food.
- Many children were captured and killed.

- **Ghettoization Facilitates Plunder:**

- Concentrating Jews in ghettos eased the Germans' process of "Aryanization."
- Jews entering ghettos left behind significant property, which Germans and local Poles quickly
seized, including real estate, factories, art, and valuable collections.

- **Plunder and Aryanization:**

- Germans, as well as local residents, swiftly took control of remaining property, businesses,
and even Jewish-run enterprises.
- Jewish-owned factories and assets were transferred to German hands, exacerbating the
economic dispossession of the Jewish population.

The establishment of ghettos in Nazi-occupied territories marked a dark chapter in the

persecution of Jews, with deplorable living conditions, disease, hunger, and widespread looting
of their properties by both Germans and local inhabitants.

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**Second Stage: 1941-1945**

- **Military Retreat and Shift in Jewish Policies:**

- **Military Aspect:**
- The German army faced a retreat from 1942 onwards during the second stage of the war.
- **Policies Against Jews:**
- A significant shift occurred in the anti-Jewish policy, transitioning from a general approach of
"natural death" due to imprisonment to a systematic, industrial extermination known as the
Holocaust.

- **Escalation of Jewish Persecution:**

- Historians estimate that during 1941-1945, the majority of Jewish deaths in the Holocaust
occurred.
- The obsession with Jewish extermination led to the construction of specialized camps
designed for systematic extermination.

- **Occupation of the Soviet Union and Change in Policy:**

- After the occupation of the Soviet Union, Jewish policy changed.
- Soviet Jews were immediately suspected of collaborating with the Communist authorities, a
deep-seated Nazi enemy.

- **Similarities to Polish Policies:**

- Policies in some occupied Soviet territories mirrored those in Poland – property restrictions,
abuse, concentration in ghettos, wearing yellow badges, legal rights annulled, and the
establishment of Judenräte.

- **Local Collaboration and Mass Killings:**

- Collaboration with local populations, as seen in Vilnius, facilitated the capture and execution
of Jews.
- In some areas, immediate liquidation of Jews became the norm. They were taken out of cities
and sent to killing pits within a short distance.

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- **Challenges in Mass Shootings:**
- Issues arose with mass shootings:
- Escalating costs of ammunition.
- Psychological strain on executioners.
- Slow execution pace.
- Audible gunfire in urban areas.

- **Transition to Gas Vans:**

- To address the challenges, gas vans were introduced.
- Vans were equipped with exhaust pipes directed into a sealed compartment where Jews
were placed, causing death by carbon monoxide poisoning.
- Notably, the first such extermination camp, Chelmno, was established in western Poland.

- **Problems with Mass Shootings:**

- The approach of mass shootings faced practical, psychological, and logistical challenges.
- Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, recognized the issues and decided to streamline the killing
process.

- **Introduction of Gas Chambers:**

- Gas vans and gas chambers were seen as more efficient and cost-effective for mass murder.
- The technique was borrowed from the euthanasia program targeting Germans with various
disabilities from 1939 to 1941.

- **Implementation and Scale:**

- Jews were loaded into gas vans, and later gas chambers, marking a shift to more systematic
and industrialized extermination.
- Estimates suggest that around one and a half million Jews were murdered using gas vans
and chambers during this method's implementation.

The second stage of the war witnessed a transformation in anti-Jewish policies, moving from
imprisonment-related deaths to systematic extermination through gas vans and chambers,
marking the devastating era of the Holocaust.

**Wannsee Conference:**

- **Background:**
- The mass killings in the Soviet Union and the challenges arising from it, combined with mass
imprisonments in ghettos, necessitated a final solution to the Jewish problem in Europe.

- **Unclear Initiation of Systematic Murder:**

- It is unclear when the directive for systematic murder in the Reich was given, and whether it
came directly from Hitler or his subordinates.

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- **Reinhard Heydrich's Conference (January 1942):**
- Reinhard Heydrich, head of the Reich Security Main Office, conducted the Wannsee
Conference in Berlin in January 1942.
- The conference, known as the "Wannsee Conference," made decisions on how, not if, to
exterminate the Jews in Europe.

- **Necessity for Coordination:**

- The "Final Solution" required coordination among various government authorities and
collaboration among different ministries.

- **Participants and Authorities:**

- Key figures from the Gestapo, SS, and police, responsible for the Eastern European
occupation, participated.
- Heads of the Ministries of Justice, Interior, Foreign Affairs, Party Chancellery, Chancellor's
Office, and the Main Office for Racial and Settlement Affairs were also present.

- **Data Presentation:**
- The conference presented a table with precise data on the number of Jews in each European
country, totaling 11,000,000 Jews.

- **Totalitarian Nature of the Final Solution:**

- The conference reflects the comprehensive nature of the "Final Solution" to the Jewish
question.
- Even neutral countries (Sweden, Switzerland), partially occupied ones (Soviet Union),
unoccupied ones (England), and Axis allies (Spain, Italy) were included in the document.

The Wannsee Conference, held in 1942, played a pivotal role in outlining the systematic
extermination of Jews in Europe. It emphasized the need for coordinated efforts among various
government bodies and highlighted the comprehensive and totalitarian nature of the proposed
"Final Solution." The conference marked a dark turning point in the Holocaust.

**Operation Reinhard and the Death Camps:**

- **Post-Wannsee Conference Decision:**

- Following the Wannsee Conference, it was decided to establish three camps with the goal of
exterminating the Jews.

- **Establishment of Death Camps:**

- Operation Reinhard aimed at creating three camps: Treblinka, Belzec, and Sobibor.
- These camps were strategically built in Eastern Poland within forests and concealed
locations.

- **Deceptive Migration Ruse:**

- Jews were falsely informed that they were being relocated to a "new settlement" in the East.

17
 - This deceptive journey was orchestrated by the Germans.

- **Upgraded Killing Methods:**

- The killing methods evolved; in addition to gas vans, Jews were now murdered using engine
exhaust gas.
- The camps utilized gas chambers housed within armored rooms, called "gas chambers."

- **Treblinka:**
- Located in Northern Poland, Treblinka saw the murder of approximately one million Jews
from Warsaw and its surroundings.

- **Sobibor:**
- Situated in the East, Sobibor was intended for Soviet prisoners of war and Jews.
- Approximately a quarter of a million Jews and Russians were murdered there.

- **Belzec:**
- Established in Southern Eastern Poland, Belzec witnessed the extermination of around
250,000 Jews.

- **Deceptive Actions and Selections:**

- Actions, known as "aktions," were organized from ghettos, especially in Poland, involving the
relocation of Jews to the death camps.
- The first aktion from the Warsaw Ghetto to Treblinka occurred on the evening of Tisha B'Av in
1942.

- **Camp Life Deception:**

- Upon arrival, Jews were subjected to apparent cleanliness procedures, showers, new
clothing, food, and drink.
- Some were chosen for labor, while the rest were sent to gas chambers.

- **Burial and Cremation:**

- Contrary to other camps, there were no crematoria; the victims' bodies were initially buried in
large pits.
- Later, the bodies were exhumed and incinerated in open-air pits.

- **Closure of Camps:**
- Belzec closed in December 1942 following a prisoner revolt.
- Treblinka closed in August 1943 after an uprising.
- Sobibor, intended to become a concentration camp, closed in October 1943 due to a massive
prisoner rebellion.

- **Birkenau and Zyklon B:**

- Auschwitz II-Birkenau, constructed near Auschwitz, included gas chambers using Zyklon B, a
lethal cyanide-based gas.

18
- **Prisoner Resistance:**
- In 1944, prisoners in Birkenau rebelled, known as the 'Sonderkommando.'
- They successfully sabotaged crematoria to prevent further mass murder.

Operation Reinhard and the subsequent death camps marked a dark chapter in the Holocaust.
Treblinka, Sobibor, and Belzec were instrumental in the systematic extermination of Jews,
employing increasingly sophisticated and deceptive methods. The prisoner resistance in some
camps stands as a testament to the resilience and bravery of those facing unimaginable
horrors.

**Liquidation of Ghettos during the Holocaust:**

- **Introduction:**
- The deportations to extermination camps and the subsequent mass murder of Jews led to the
liquidation of ghettos.

- **Systematic Elimination:**
- Every few weeks, the Germans selected another ghetto for liquidation, sending its inhabitants
to extermination camps.
- Within days, the ghetto's Jewish population would be entirely eradicated.

- **Varied Timelines:**
- Some ghettos were quickly liquidated shortly after the onset of Operation Reinhard, while
others survived for an extended period.
- Example: The Lodz Ghetto, despite its proximity to Germany, was only liquidated in August
1944, much later than expected.

- **Ghetto Characteristics:**
- The duration of a ghetto's existence varied, influenced by factors such as its industrial
productivity for the Reich.
- Lodz Ghetto, for instance, was considered a "productive ghetto" due to its significant
industrial output.

- **Rapid Liquidations:**
- Certain ghettos faced swift liquidation as part of the systematic plan for mass extermination.
- The speed of liquidation depended on the strategic considerations of the German authorities.

- **Survival Factors:**
- Ghettos with industrial significance or those serving specific purposes for the Nazis might
survive longer than others.
- The survival of a ghetto was not solely dependent on its location but also on its perceived
utility.

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- **Lodz Ghetto Example:**
- Despite being geographically close to Germany, Lodz Ghetto survived until August 1944,
possibly due to its industrial contributions.
- The delay in its liquidation might have been influenced by its status as a productive ghetto.

The liquidation of ghettos during the Holocaust was a systematic process, marked by the
Germans periodically selecting ghettos for eradication. The survival or rapid demise of ghettos
depended on factors such as their industrial productivity and strategic importance to the Nazi
regime. The example of Lodz Ghetto illustrates the varying timelines and considerations that
influenced the liquidation process.

**Death Marches during the Holocaust:**

- **Context:**
- Late 1944 and early 1945, as the Germans faced impending defeat with the Red Army
advancing and Allied forces closing in on Germany, they initiated the evacuation of
concentration, labor, and extermination camps in Poland.

- **Forced Marches to Germany:**

- In a desperate attempt to move inmates away from the advancing Allies, both Jewish and
non-Jewish prisoners were evacuated from camps in Poland toward Germany.
- These forced marches covered hundreds of kilometers, and prisoners, ill-equipped and
freezing, were made to travel on foot.

- **Harsh Conditions:**
- The evacuees endured extreme conditions, often without proper clothing or sustenance,
leading to severe exhaustion and death.
- Approximately 40,000 Jews lost their lives during these marches due to freezing
temperatures, starvation, and exhaustion.

- **Lack of Clear Orders:**

- There was a lack of explicit orders for conducting these death marches, and some argue that
the decision to initiate them was a result of the initiative taken by SS officers in the camps.
- The absence of clear directives suggests a chaotic and desperate attempt by the Nazis to
maintain control over inmates.

- **Initiation by SS Officers:**
- Some accounts suggest that the commencement of the death marches was driven by the SS
officers in the camps, marking a cruel and last-ditch effort to maintain authority.
- The decision to force prisoners to march toward Germany became a tragic chapter in the
closing stages of World War II.

The death marches, initiated by the Germans in the final stages of World War II, reflected a
desperate attempt to relocate inmates from camps in Poland as the Allies closed in. The lack of

20
clear orders and the harsh conditions during these marches led to the deaths of tens of
thousands of Jewish and non-Jewish prisoners. Some argue that SS officers in the camps took
the initiative to begin these marches, highlighting the chaotic and cruel nature of this chapter in
Holocaust history.

**Righteous Among the Nations: Acts of Compassion during the Holocaust**

- **Local Collaboration and Indifference:**

- Despite widespread collaboration, persecution, and abuse of Jews by many locals during the
Holocaust, not all were indifferent or complicit.
- Some individuals, referred to as "Righteous Among the Nations," acted from different
motivations to aid Jews.

- **Exemplary Case: Denmark:**

- In Denmark, a prominent example during the Holocaust, King Christian X refused to enforce
anti-Jewish policies imposed by Germany.
- When the Germans planned to deport Danish Jews, a massive spontaneous operation
unfolded to transfer thousands of Jews from Denmark to neighboring neutral Sweden. They
were transported clandestinely in fishing boats, saving them from persecution.

- **Recognition for Denmark's Actions:**

- King Christian X and the Danish people earned recognition as "Righteous Among the
Nations" for their humanitarian efforts during the Holocaust.
- Despite the capture of around 500 Danish Jews who were sent to Theresienstadt ghetto, the
Danish king and residents continued to demand their well-being.

- **Individual Acts of Heroism:**

- Across various nations, there were individuals who went to great lengths to save Jews,
whether by providing refuge, obtaining forged documents, facilitating escapes to safe countries,
or supplying food and water.
- Some hid Jews in workshops until the war's end, risking their own lives and often those of
their families.

- **Motivations of Righteous Among the Nations:**

- Righteous Among the Nations acted solely out of humane and moral motives, distinct from
economic gain or personal benefit.
- Some notable figures, like Oskar Schindler and Herman Göring, employed Jews without
financial interest, solely for their rescue.

- **Risking Lives for Others:**

- Acts of compassion came at great personal risk, with many Righteous Among the Nations
risking not only their lives but also the lives of their families.
- In Poland, where the penalty for aiding Jews was often death for the rescuer and their family,
some still chose to help.

21
"Righteous Among the Nations" were individuals or organizations motivated by compassion and
morality, risking their lives to rescue Jews during the Holocaust. Their actions, whether on a
national scale like Denmark's effort or through individual heroism, stand as shining examples of
humanity amidst the darkest times.

**Jewish Resistance during the Holocaust: Spiritual Resilience**

- **Daily Struggle for Survival:**

- The Jewish resistance during the Holocaust wasn't just armed resistance or defiance in
ghettos and camps; it extended to the daily struggle for spiritual, mental, and human survival.
- It encompassed the determination to remain Jewish despite the harsh conditions and the
spiritual battle against Nazi ideology.

- **Spiritual Resistance in Four Dimensions:**

1. **Preserving Human Identity:**
- The Nazis aimed to dehumanize Jews, but many resisted by fighting for the continuity of
their human existence.
- Jews strived to maintain their pre-Holocaust way of life, continuing their professions and
preserving their humanity in the face of adversity.

2. **Preserving Jewish Identity:**

- Despite the dire circumstances, there was a strong desire among Jews to maintain their
Jewish identity, adhering to Torah commandments and religious practices.
- Observing Jewish traditions and religious life became a way for individuals to safeguard
their human image.

3. **Sanctification of God's Name (Kiddush Hashem):**

- Many Jews chose to follow the commandment of "Kiddush Hashem," willingly sacrificing
their lives for the sake of Torah and faith in God.
- This reflected a continuation of a historical tradition where Jews faced death with religious
rituals like wearing a prayer shawl and reciting the Shema.

4. **Sanctification of Life (Kiddush Hachayim):**

- Individuals made every effort to preserve their lives as an act of resistance against the
Nazis.
- "Kiddush Hachayim" manifested in building bunkers, organizing patrols, escaping ghettos,
providing food, educational activities, and maintaining a semblance of normalcy.

- **Strength in the Face of Adversity:**

- The concept of "Kiddush Hachayim" derived its strength from the belief that victory over the
Nazis would come, and Jews wanted to live to witness the downfall of their oppressors.
- Jewish resistance found expression in the commitment to life, which was seen as a supreme
value: "And you shall be exceedingly watchful for your lives."

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Spiritual resistance during the Holocaust demonstrated the Jewish commitment to maintaining
human and religious identity, making choices rooted in Kiddush Hashem and Kiddush
Hachayim. Whether through daily observances, organized resistance, or sustaining cultural and
educational activities, Jews showcased resilience in the face of unimaginable challenges, fueled
by the belief in the eventual triumph over the Nazis.

**Kiddush Hashem (Sanctification of God's

Name) in the Holocaust: Manifestations**

- **Preserving Jewish Identity and

Observance:**
- Jews practiced Kiddush Hashem by
preserving Jewish identity and adhering to
Jewish commandments at any cost, even in
the face of severe danger and hardship.
- Examples include observing holidays,
abstaining from non-kosher food, lighting
Hanukkah candles, reading the Book of
Esther on Purim, and fulfilling prayer and Sukkot commandments.

- **Distinct Signs of Kiddush Hashem:**

- Internal acceptance of death: Many exhibited a quiet and dignified acceptance of death,
standing tall without crying or pleading before their murderers.
- Facing death wrapped in prayer shawls, holding Torah scrolls, and singing Torah verses
reflected a profound commitment to Jewish tradition.

- **Announcing Identity and Dying with Dignity:**

- Some declared proudly before execution that they were dying as proud Jews, even if they
hadn't strictly observed Torah and commandments and recited the Shema prayer audibly.
- Facing execution, many maintained dignity, affirming their Jewish identity with courage and
spiritual strength.

- **Unprecedented Halachic Questions:**

- Jews encountered unprecedented halachic questions they never considered before, driven
by extreme circumstances.
- Questions included whether it was permissible to hide Jewish children among non-Jews,
whether it was allowed to pray publicly despite the danger, and whether forging documents to
adopt a Christian identity was permissible.

Kiddush Hashem during the Holocaust took various forms, from daily religious observance to
dignified acceptance of death, proudly declaring one's Jewish identity, and facing
unprecedented halachic challenges. Despite the extreme conditions, individuals upheld their

23
commitment to God's name, exhibiting resilience, spiritual strength, and an unwavering
connection to their Jewish identity.

**Leadership Coping - Judenrat (Jewish Councils) in the Holocaust**

- **Divergence in Leadership:**
- Leadership during the Holocaust can be divided into two entities: Administrative leadership,
represented by the Judenrat in ghettos, and Rabbinical leadership.
- Both functions often overlapped, with administrative leadership focusing on minimal quality of
life, and rabbinical leadership addressing religious matters within the ghettos.

- **Central Role of Judenrat:**

- The Judenrat, recognized by the Germans as the sole representative of Jews in ghettos,
played a crucial role in the daily lives of Jews.
- Responsible for education, culture, food distribution, order, and overall routine within ghettos,
the Judenrat operated for about two to three years before mass deportations to camps began.

- **Establishment and Composition:**

- The directive to establish Judenrat came shortly after the occupation of Poland, instructing
each community to form a Jewish council led by competent individuals or rabbis.
- Heinrich Himmler's order outlined the appointment of 12-24 representatives depending on
ghetto size, initially chosen by the Judenrat. In some cases, German authorities directly
appointed influential individuals.

- **Role Evolution Over Time:**

- Initially, the Judenrat was tasked with managing the day-to-day affairs of Jewish life in
ghettos, without an immediate intention of carrying out mass killings.
- As deportations approached, conflicts arose, leading to the liquidation of Judenrat members
who opposed or disrupted German orders.

- **Roles Assigned by Germans:**

- Transfer of Jews from small locations to ghettos and finding suitable housing.
- Compulsory labor recruitment with predetermined quotas submitted to Judenrat.
- Concentration of Jews and preparation for deportation to extermination camps based on
German-set quotas.

The Judenrat, despite its controversial role, served as a pivotal intermediary between the
German authorities and Jewish communities. Initially tasked with maintaining order, its functions
evolved as the Holocaust progressed, facing ethical dilemmas and internal conflicts.

**Roles of the Judenrat from the Perspective of Jews in the Ghetto:**

- **Tax Collection:**
- Collected taxes from ghetto residents to fund its operations.

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- **Enforcement of Order and Law:**
- Maintained order and law within the ghetto to protect Jews from violence, fraud, and similar
threats.

- **Health Conditions:**
- Attempted to ensure reasonable health conditions in the ghetto, although achieving this was
nearly impossible given the circumstances.

- **Employment Strategy:**
- Managed Jewish employment in various industries, following the concept of "work as a
means of survival." As long as the ghetto remained productive, it was believed it would not be
closed.
- Example: In the Lodz Ghetto, a large textile industry was established, serving the Germans.
Despite being the last ghetto to be liquidated in 1944, it was supposed to be one of the first,
illustrating the paradoxical nature of this strategy.

The Judenrat's responsibilities were multifaceted, encompassing financial matters, maintaining

civil order, addressing health concerns, and managing employment. The attempt to balance
these roles amid the oppressive conditions of the ghetto posed significant challenges. The
example of Lodz Ghetto highlights the complex dynamics between productivity, survival, and the
ultimate fate of these communities.

**Dilemmas of the Judenrat:**

The Judenrat faced a challenging dilemma, torn between providing assistance to ghetto
residents and complying with German directives, which could impact the lives of Judenrat
members and, in a worst-case scenario, the lives of many other Jews.

- **Primary Concerns:**
- The Judenrat's main difficulties, leading up to the final solution, revolved around balancing
the welfare of the community with the demands imposed by the Germans. This included
considerations for sustenance, education, health, and more.

- **Enforcement of Law and Order:**

- Challenges in maintaining law and order in the ghetto raised questions about how strictly to
adhere to regulations. This included deciding whether to punish smugglers or turn a blind eye to
certain activities, such as food smuggling.

- **Relations with Other Organizations:**

- The Judenrat grappled with how to deal with other organizations in the ghetto, especially
youth movements that sometimes opposed the Judenrat's stance.

- **Establishing Factories:**

25
 - The dilemma of whether creating factories in the ghetto would aid the Germans in prolonging
the war or serve as a means of survival for the Jews remained a pressing issue.

- **Two Main Judenrat Positions:**

- **Opposition to Collaboration:**
- Some Judenrat leaders, like Chaim Rumkowski in the Lodz Ghetto, chose not to assist the
Nazis in organizing deportations, opting to resist and ultimately face personal sacrifice.
- **Support and Compliance:**
- Others, such as Chaim Mordechai Rumkowski in the Lodz Ghetto, believed that cooperating
with the Germans in deportations could grant the Judenrat some control, enabling them to
influence who would be sent away, potentially saving those left behind.

- **Role in Youth Movements:**

- The Judenrat grappled with whether to support or resist youth movements organizing
resistance. The dilemma stemmed from the fear that active opposition could lead to severe
German reprisals, potentially resulting in the swift liquidation of the ghetto.

These dilemmas highlight the moral and ethical struggles faced by the Judenrat, navigating
complex decisions with profound consequences for the Jewish community in the ghettos during
the Holocaust.

**Chaim Rumkowski: A Leader in Turbulent Times**

- **Background:**
- Born and raised in Warsaw, Chaim Rumkowski was part of Polish culture. He worked as an
engineer and served as a teacher in the Jewish school. Additionally, he was a member of the
Jewish community's leadership.

- **German Occupation:**
- When the Germans occupied Warsaw, they appointed Rumkowski to lead the Judenrat, a
Jewish council tasked with managing the affairs of the Jewish community.

- **Moral Dilemma and Tragic End:**

- In 1942, facing German demands to provide 6,000 Jews daily for resettlement in the East,
Rumkowski confronted a moral dilemma. Unable to reconcile with aiding the Germans in the
potential murder of Jews, he couldn't be certain of the true destination of the deportations.
- Tragically, in 1942, Chaim Rumkowski chose to end his own life, unable to comply with the
Germans' horrifying demands.

- **Leadership in Struggle:**
- Throughout his tenure, Rumkowski did his utmost to alleviate the plight of ghetto residents.
He provided food, minimal living conditions, supported youth movements, and facilitated an
informal education system in Warsaw.

26
- **Significance:**
- Rumkowski holds significance both as the head of the largest ghetto (housing around half a
million Jews) during the Holocaust and for embodying Jewish resistance, standing against the
Germans' brutal policies.

Chaim Rumkowski's leadership during this tumultuous period remains a subject of historical
reflection, encapsulating the complex moral decisions faced by individuals in the midst of
unimaginable hardship.

**Rabbinical Leadership During the Holocaust: Rabbi Kalonymus Kalmish Shapiro**

- **Expanded Role of Rabbi:**

- Traditionally, a rabbi was seen as a legal decisor ("Posek"). However, during the Holocaust,
the role expanded beyond being a decisor to encompass guidance, reassurance, direction, and
leadership for the community.

- **Unprecedented Halachic Challenges:**

- Rabbis like Rabbi Meizelish, Rabbi Ushri, and Rabbi Aharonson faced novel halachic
questions that were never addressed before. These included issues related to kashrut, laws of
mourning, Sabbath observance, and many others untouched by previous legal authorities.

- **Prominent Rabbi: Rabbi Kalonymus Kalmish Shapiro:**

- Rabbi Kalonymus Kalmish Shapiro, also known as the Piasetzner Rebbe, was a notable
figure during the Holocaust. Although residing in Piasetzna, he went to the Warsaw Ghetto to be
close to his disciples. Leading the traditional "Tish" (Yiddish for table, a practice where Hasidic
leaders sit with followers on Friday nights, sharing Hasidic tales, enhancing Sabbath joy), he
greatly influenced those around him.

- **Spiritual Leadership:**
- Despite the harsh conditions, Rabbi Shapiro strengthened the spiritual resilience of his
followers. His teachings, compiled in the book "Esh Kodesh" (Holy Fire), remain influential. He
emphasized the belief that everything is from God, even if incomprehensible, and cried out
about the challenging trials that the Almighty tests His people with during those hours.

- **Focused Support and Guidance:**

- Rabbi Shapiro utilized the ghetto as a focused platform, offering wise and good advice,
providing spiritual and emotional support to the distressed. He preserved religious life in the
ghetto, maintaining practices such as Shabbat, holidays, immersion in the ritual bath,
circumcision, baking matzah, and Torah study.

Rabbi Kalonymus Kalmish Shapiro's significant impact during the Holocaust stemmed from his
multifaceted leadership, addressing both the unprecedented halachic challenges and the
spiritual needs of his community in the face of unimaginable adversity.

27
**Responsa Literature During the Holocaust: A Lifeline in Crisis**

- **Traditional Form of Communication:**

- **Responsa (She'elot u-Teshuvot):**
- Historical Jewish communication between the layperson and the rabbi often took the form of
responsa, where individuals wrote questions to rabbis seeking guidance on matters of Jewish
law (halacha), and the rabbis provided answers.

- **Crucial Role During the Holocaust:**

- **Heightened Significance:**
- During the Holocaust, the importance of "Responsa Culture" escalated significantly. Jews
faced unprecedented complex halachic questions during this period, and rabbis, often lacking
access to comprehensive legal texts, made every effort to address the needs of the Jewish
community.

- The Holocaust marked the first time in generations that Jews were confronted with intricate
and challenging halachic questions due to the extreme circumstances.

- **Rabbinic Responses Amidst Crisis:**

- **Limited Legal Resources:**
- Many rabbis, who frequently had to render halachic decisions, lacked the usual array of
books and legal resources due to the dire conditions. Despite this, they strove to provide
halachic guidance to address the challenges faced by Jews.

- **Prominent Examples:**
- Examples include the "She'elot u-Teshuvot Mikdash HaShem" by Rabbi Zvi Hirsch
Meiselish, who responded to halachic queries post-Holocaust, offering guidance on issues that
arose during those traumatic times.

- Another example is the responsa "Mima'amakim" by Rabbi Ephraim Oshry. This work,
composed after the Holocaust, addresses questions posed to Rabbi Oshry during the
Holocaust, tackling issues such as hiding a Jewish child with non-Jews to save their life.

- One poignant case involved a father asking Rabbi Meiselish whether he could bribe a Nazi
guard to save his son, who was taken in an action by the Germans. The rabbi, despite the
desperate circumstances, emphasized that Torah does not permit redeeming one life at the cost
of another.

- In another instance, a boy under thirteen asked Rabbi Oshry if he could don tefillin before
his bar mitzvah, fearing he might not survive until then. Rabbi Oshry permitted it, and sadly, the
boy was killed before reaching the age of thirteen.

- **Central Dilemma: Preservation of Life vs. Halachic Adherence:**

- **Life and Soul:**

28
 - A central dilemma faced by both leaders and rabbis was whether the Nazis sought to kill
only the body or both the body and the soul of the Jews. The response to this question
significantly impacted the halachic decisions made during the Holocaust.

- Many rabbis, understanding the dire intent of the Nazis, acknowledged that the threat
extended beyond physical harm, impacting the soul as well.

In essence, responsa literature played a vital role as a channel for seeking halachic guidance
during the Holocaust. Rabbis, despite challenging circumstances, endeavored to respond to
intricate questions that arose during this tumultuous period, addressing the central dilemma of
preserving life while adhering to Jewish law.

**Resistant Attitudes Against the Nazis: Two Phases of Resistance**

- **Distinguishing Holocaust Resistance:**

- **Phase Division:**
- Holocaust resistance can be differentiated into two phases: the initial period of Jewish
persecution and segregation and the later phase marked by widespread physical destruction.

- **Passive Resistance in the Early Phase:**

- **Spiritual Standpoint:**
- Initially, when Jews faced segregation, dehumanization, and confinement to ghettos, Jewish
resistance was passive. It involved a spiritual stand in the face of the Holocaust, emphasizing
the determination to remain Jewish, humane, and preserve our shared humanity.

- **Active Resistance During Widespread Destruction:**

- **Shift in Nazi Actions:**
- As the Nazis escalated to the physical extermination of Jews during the occupation of
Eastern Europe, Jews recognized the systematic genocide and engaged in active resistance.

- **Awareness and Rebellion:**

- Recognizing the mass extermination, Jews understood the need for resolute resistance.
While the chances of success in a rebellion against the Germans were minimal, the desire to
dictate the terms of their demise fueled their defiance.

- **Youth Movements' Crucial Role:**

- **Vilna Youth Movement's Call to Action:**
- On January 1, 1942, youth movements in Vilna, led by Abba Kovner, issued a proclamation
addressing Jewish youth in the ghetto. This marked the first time the systematic destruction of
Jews across Europe was openly discussed.

- **Systematic Annihilation:**

29
 - The proclamation revealed the deliberate and systematic nature of the Germans' actions,
dispelling any notion of isolated incidents. Kovner emphasized that this was a methodical and
intentional approach by the Germans.

- **Reasons for Youth's Central Involvement:**

- **Youth as Authority Figures:**
- Youth movements became authoritative leadership as adults ceased normative functioning
due to fear, creating a leadership vacuum.

- **Independence from Family Responsibilities:**

- Youth, not burdened by family responsibilities, played a decisive role in planning and
executing rebellions.

- **Desire for Honor and Vengeance:**

- The youth's desire for pride, self-honor, and high vengeance exceeded that of adults,
contributing to their active involvement.

- **Physical Capability of Youth:**

- Young individuals possessed greater physical abilities for resistance, making them
formidable participants in uprisings.

In essence, the resistance against the Nazis during the Holocaust can be understood in two
phases. Initially, it was a spiritual resistance to maintain Jewish identity and humanity. As the
Nazis intensified their physical destruction, active resistance, particularly led by the youth,
became crucial in the face of the systematic genocide.

**Resistance in Ghettos: Challenges and Dilemmas**

- **Challenges Faced by Jewish Resistance:**

- The Jewish resistance in ghettos encountered numerous difficulties that characterized their
operations.
- Due to these challenges, uprisings typically occurred late, involving a small number of
participants, mainly youth.

- **Feelings of Despair:**
- **Ghetto Hardships:**
- Severe conditions in ghettos, including hunger, poverty, diseases, forced labor, loss of
property, and family separation, created a sense of hopelessness and apathy.
- This despair deterred many from attempting to fight against the Nazis.

- **Collective Punishment Dilemma:**

- **Fear of Collective Punishment:**
- Knowledge that the Nazis employed collective punishment without distinction created a
dilemma. A failed rebellion could lead to the immediate liquidation of the ghetto or camp.

30
 - This dilemma often restrained resistance efforts.

- **Timing of the Uprising:**

- **Strategic Timing:**
- Another dilemma revolved around the timing of the uprising. Leaders debated whether to
wait until the Germans initiated the final liquidation of the ghetto to avoid collective punishment
for those who could have already fled.
- The question remained: When is the right time?

- **Internal Opposition to Rebellion:**

- **Resistance from Within:**
- Resistance faced additional challenges from internal bodies and organizations, such as the
Jewish police and the Judenrat, who opposed uprisings. In some cases, the Judenrat even
arrested resistance members.
- Despite occasional tensions, the relationship between the Judenrat and the resistance was
often characterized by suspicion and concealment.

- **Considerations of Anti-Rebellion Supporters:**

- **Concerns of Anti-Rebellion Factions:**
- Those opposed to rebellion, like the Judenrat, feared primarily German reprisals. They
believed that cooperative behavior might save lives, and as long as the ghetto remained
productive, it wouldn't be closed.
- Many anti-rebellion supporters perceived armed resistance as futile and adhered to the
traditional approach of passive resistance.

- **Supporters of Rebellion:**
- **Fight for Jewish Honor:**
- Supporters of rebellion saw the fate of Jews in ghettos as heading towards complete
annihilation and believed in the need to fight to avoid being led "like sheep to the slaughter."
- Rebellion was viewed as the last expression of Jewish and human values, a symbolic
defiance and a message for future generations to fight for dignity and against oppression.
- The uprising was also seen as a form of revenge for the atrocities committed, requiring
maximum impact against the Germans.

In summary, the resistance in ghettos faced dilemmas arising from harsh conditions, fear of
collective punishment, internal opposition, and conflicting viewpoints on the timing and feasibility
of armed rebellion. The decision to rebel was driven by a fight for honor, human values, and the
preservation of Jewish identity.

**Ghetto Uprising in Warsaw: A Struggle for Survival**

- **Background:**
- The large-scale action from the Warsaw Ghetto to Treblinka began on July 22, 1942, lasting
for nine months until April 1943.

31
 - Despite nearly half a million Jews in the ghetto initially, only around 50,000 remained due to
the harsh conditions and mass deportations.

- **Emergence of Resistance:**
- The idea of resistance started brewing among the population during the deportations and was
embraced by various organizations.
- Youth movements, such as "Hashomer Hatzair," "Akiva," and "Dror," initially focused on
education and community support but gradually shifted towards resistance.

- **Formation of Main Resistance Organizations:**

- The youth movements merged into the primary organization, "Jewish Fighting Organization"
(ŻOB), shortly after the major action in 1942.
- Another group, the anti-Zionist communist organization "The Bund," later joined forces.
Mordechaj Anielewicz led the ŻOB, while Paweł Frenkel and Dawid Moryc Apfelbaum led the
Bund.

- **Military Capability Disparities:**

- The ŻOB faced challenges due to the lack of external support, suffering from a critical
shortage of military equipment crucial for the uprising.
- In contrast, the smaller but more organized military group, the "Jewish Military Union" (ŻZW),
led by Paweł Frenkel and Dawid Moryc Apfelbaum, was better equipped.

- **Preparation for the Uprising:**

- Local residents in the ghetto actively participated in preparing bunkers beneath the ground to
hide during the uprising.
- Both organizations understood that the upcoming actions by the Germans would likely lead to
the liquidation of the ghetto.

- **The Ideological Divide:**

- Despite sharing a common goal against the Germans, ŻOB and ŻZW did not unite, and their
collaboration was tactical.
- Ideological differences kept them from forming a unified front.

- **Ghetto Residents' Involvement:**

- Unlike other ghettos, Warsaw Ghetto residents actively participated in preparing for the
uprising, contributing to the construction of bunkers.
- The fighters in the uprising were aware that their choice was not between life and death but
rather between death with dignity and the previous existence without resistance.

- **The "Small Revolt" and Prelude to Uprising:**

- In January 1943, the Germans faced the first resistance, termed the "Small Revolt," which
resulted in significant losses for the Germans.
- However, it was clear to everyone that the liquidation of the ghetto was imminent.

32
- **Ghetto Liquidation:**
- On the eve of Passover in April 1943, the Germans initiated the complete liquidation of the
ghetto.
- The main uprising, known as the "Great Revolt" or "Warsaw Ghetto Uprising," unfolded as
the fighters resisted German forces for days.

- **Outcome of the Uprising:**

- The Germans systematically destroyed buildings, used incendiary devices, and flooded
bunkers during the uprising.
- The revolt officially ended on May 16, 1943, with General Jürgen Stroop declaring, "There
are no more Jews in the Warsaw Ghetto."

The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, despite its ultimate suppression, symbolized a courageous stand
against oppression and remains a poignant chapter in Jewish and human history.

**Partisans during the Holocaust: Fighters for Freedom**

- **Definition of Partisans:**
- The term "partisan" refers to a freedom fighter in French.

- **Partisan Groups in Europe:**

- During the Holocaust and World War II, numerous irregular groups of fighters, known as
partisans, sought refuge in the vast forests of Europe, primarily in Eastern Europe.

- **Utilizing Forests as Hideouts:**

- Forests provided excellent hiding spots for partisans, capitalizing on the dense tree cover for
concealment. Often, German soldiers avoided entering these forests.

- **Challenges of Escaping from Ghettos:**

- Escaping from ghettos to join partisan groups was a highly risky endeavor. Capture meant
almost certain death, and many Jews hesitated to leave the ghettos, fearing for the safety of
their families left behind.

- **Survival Challenges in the Forest:**

- Surviving in the forest posed additional challenges. Some partisans were suspicious of fellow
Jews, leading to instances where Jews were killed by the partisans themselves, who, at times,
harbored anti-Semitic sentiments.

- **Jewish Collaboration with Partisans:**

- Despite the dangers, many Jews fled to the forests and joined partisan groups. They actively
participated in the resistance, engaging in irregular warfare against the Germans.
- In Yugoslavia, for instance, Jews collaborated extensively with non-Jewish partisans against
the German forces. The leadership of non-Jewish partisans saw Jews as allies in the fight
against the common enemy.

33
- **Unique Phenomenon: Bielski Family Camp:**
- A unique phenomenon among Jewish partisans was the "Bielski Family Camp." Despite
significant risks, Tuvia Bielski saved around 1,200 people by establishing a partisan camp that
included families, children, and women.
- Men served as defenders and fighters, while women and children hid within the forest's
depths.

Partisan groups, including Jewish fighters, engaged in irregular warfare, targeting military
objectives such as bases, bridges, and railroads. Despite the challenges and risks, the Jewish
partisans played a crucial role in resisting the German forces during this tumultuous period.

Events Dates

‫נמסר המנדט להקמת הממשלה לידיו של היטלר‬ 25 jan 1933

‫חרם כלכלי על היהודים‬ 1 apr 1933

‫חוק החזרת הפקידות המקצועית על כנה‬ 7 apr 1933

(‫)שישה ימים לאחר החרם‬

‫איסור שחיטה כשרה ושריפת הספרים‬ 10 may 1933

‫היטלר סיפח את חבל אלזס לורן הסמוך‬ 17 jan 1935

‫חוקי נירנברג‬ 15 sep 1935

‫התקיימה בברלין האולימפיאדה‬ 1 aug 1936

)‫סיפוח אוסטריה (האנשלוס‬ 13 mar 1938

‫ליל הבדולח‬ 9 nov 1938

‫סיפוח חבל הסודטים והסכם מינכן (הגרמנים כובשים‬ 15 mar 1939

)‫את צ'כוסלובקיה‬

)1939 - 1941( ‫השלב הראשון של השואה‬ 1 sep 1939 - 11 dec

1941

"‫היידריך מונה ליישם את "הפתרון הסופי‬ 31 jul 1941

)1941 - 1945( ‫השלב השני של השואה‬ 26 dec 1941 - 2 sep

1945

‫ועידת ואנזה‬ 20 jan 1942

34
‫הקמת מחנה בירקנאו (‪))1942‬אושוויץ ‪(Ⅱ‬‬ ‫‪6 mar 1942‬‬

‫מרד גטו ורשה‬ ‫‪22 jul 1942‬‬

‫חיסול הגטאות (‪)1943 - 1944‬‬ ‫‪1943 - 1944‬‬

‫צעדות המוות (‪)1944 & 1945‬‬ ‫‪17 jan 1945‬‬

‫היטלר מתאבד‬ ‫‪30 apr 1945‬‬

‫סוף מלחמת העולם השנייה‬ ‫‪2 sep 1945‬‬

‫‪35‬‬