CARBOHYDRATES:-

 The carbohydrates are a group of naturally occurring carbonyl compounds (aldehydes or

ketones) that also contain several hydroxyl groups.
 It may also include their derivatives which produce such compounds on hydrolysis.
 They are the most abundant organic molecules in nature and also referred to as
“saccharides”.
 The carbohydrates which are soluble in water and sweet in taste are called as “sugars”.
 The general empirical structure for carbohydrates is (CH2O)n.

Classification of Carbohydrates

N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM).

Monosaccharides
•Simplest form of sugars
•Do not undergo hydrolysis but oxidize to carbon dioxide and water
•These are soluble in water but less soluble in alcohol and insoluble in ether.
• Number of carbons is 3 - 7
•Suffix -ose is used in nomenclature
•General Formula: Cn H2n On

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Oligosaccharide
 When 2-10 molecules of monosaccharide undergo condensation, oligosaccharide is formed.
 These are group of compoundu which on hydrolysis yield two or more molecules of same or
different monosaccharide units.
Polysaccharides
 Polysaccharides can be regarded as complex carbohydrates as they are formed by polymerisation of
11 to thousands of monosaccharide monomers.
 General formula (C6H10O5)n.

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Functions of carbohydrates
 Carbohydrate acts as a bio-fuel and the energy source of the body. Most of the
metabolic activities of the cells in all organisms need energy which is derived from
the oxidation of carbohydrates.
 Carbohydrates act as storage of food. All animals get energy from the different types
of carbohydrates in their diet.
 Some polysaccharide such as starch acts as storage of food for plants.
 It provides energy to the body and regulates blood sugars.
 Carbohydrates stop skeletal muscle degradation and other tissues such as the liver,
kidneys, and heart.
 It helps to prevent the breakdown of proteins to make energy.
 Carbohydrates also help to enhance fat metabolism.
 Carbohydrates form genetic material like DNA and RNA in the form of deoxyribose
and ribose sugars.
 Carbohydrates prevent constipation and help to clear gut.
 Carbohydrate makes the sweetness of the food.
 In many industries like textile, paper, lacquers, and breweries, carbohydrates are
used as an important component.
 Some polysaccharides such as agar used in culture media, laxative and food.
 Carbohydrates form components of biomolecules which play a key role in blood
clotting, immunity, fertilization, etc.
 It helps to make up all the parts of the cell and tissues.
 Some carbohydrates such as hepatic glycogen help in detoxifying a normal liver.

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Glucose and its isomers
Mutarotation:-

 The term “mutarotation” (literally “change in rotation”) refers to the observed

change in the optical rotation of the α- and β- anomers of glucose upon dissolution
in solvent.
 Due to ring-chain tautomerism, the α- and β- forms slowly interconvert until
equilibrium is established.

Examples of Mutarotation

 In an aqueous solution, D-Glucose exists as 36% α-D glucose and 64% of β-D
glucose.
 When either Anomer is dissolved in water, the value of the specific rotation changes
over time, eventually reaching the same value of +52.5°.
 The specific rotation of α-D-glucopyranose decreases from +112° to +52.5°.
 The specific rotation of β-D-glucopyranose increases from +19° to +52.5°.