Definition of Embryology

Definition of embryology
• Embryology is the study of how embryos form.
Embryo in animals (humans), is a developing individual from the time

the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm have all formed at about 16
days, through the end of 8 weeks when all organ systems are
represented; preceded(come first) by the preembryo and followed by
the fetus.
The embryo is a diploid structure and product of fertilization of the

haploid male and female gametes.
Embryology is the study of the development of an animal from the

fertilized egg to birth.
embryology is the scientific study of prenatal development, from

fertilization to birth.
Embryonic development in animals
Animal (Human) development is divided into three stages called
 the preembryonic,
 embryonic,
 and fetal stages
1.The preembryonic stage begins with the zygote (fertilized egg) and
lasts about 16 days. It involves three main processes:
(a) cleavage, or cell division;
Cleavage consists of mitotic divisions that occur in the first 3 days after
fertilization, dividing the zygote into smaller and smaller cells called
blastomeres.
It begins as the conceptus migrates down the uterine tube
The first cleavage occurs in about 30 hours.
Blastomeres divide again at shorter and shorter time intervals, doubling

the number of cells each time.
In the early divisions, the blastomeres divide simultaneously, but as

cleavage progresses they become less synchronized (harmonized).
 By the time the conceptus arrives in the uterus, about 72 hours

after ovulation, it consists of 16 or more cells and has a bumpy
surface similar to a mulberry—hence it is called a morula.
 The morula is no larger than the zygote; cleavage merely

produces smaller and smaller blastomeres.
 This increases the ratio of cell surface area to volume, which

favors efficient nutrient uptake and waste removal, and it
produces a larger number of cells from which to form different
embryonic tissues.
 The morula lies free in the uterine cavity for 4 or 5 days and
divides into 100 cells or so. It becomes a hollow sphere called the
blastocyst, with an internal cavity called the blastocoel.
 The wall of the blastocyst is a layer of squamous cells called the
trophoblast, which is destined (designed) to form part of the
placenta and play an important role in nourishing the embryo.
Morula is a stage in the embryonic development of some animals that

consists of a solid ball of cells (blastomeres).
The development of a human being can be divided into prenatal

(“before birth”) and postnatal (“after birth”) periods.
During the prenatal period, the developing individual begins life as a

zygote, then becomes a ball of cells called a morula, and eventually
becomes a blastocyst that implants in the endometrium.
From two weeks after fertilization until the end of the eighth week of
its existence, the individual is called an embryo.
From nine weeks until birth, it is a fetus. During or after birth, it is called
a newborn, or baby.
Pregnancy is arbitrarily divided into three-month periods called

trimesters.
The first trimester begins at fertilization, and during this time most of
the organs are formed.
The next two trimesters are mainly periods of growth for the fetus.
 (b) implantation, About 6 days after ovulation, the blastocyst

attaches to the endometrium, usually on the “ceiling” or on the
dorsal wall of the uterus.
 The process of attachment, called implantation, begins when the

blastocyst adheres to the endometrium.
 The trophoblast cells on this side separate into two layers.
(a) In the superficial layer,
(b)The deep layer,
Implantation takes about a week and is completed about the time

the next menstrual period would have occurred if the woman had
not become pregnant.
(C)embryogenesis, in which the embryonic cells migrate and

differentiate into three tissue layers called the ectoderm, mesoderm,
and endoderm—collectively known as the primary germ layers.
2.EMBRYOGENESIS
 During implantation, the embryoblast undergoes embryogenesis

— arrangement of the blastomeres into the three primary germ
layers.
 At the beginning of this phase, the embryoblast separates slightly

from the trophoblast, creating a narrow space between them
called the amniotic cavity.
 The embryoblast flattens into an embryonic disc (blastodisc)

composed of two cell layers:
o The epiblast facing the amniotic cavity & the hypoblast facing
away.
 Some hypoblast cells multiply and form a membrane called the

yolk sac enclosing the blastocoel.
 Now the embryonic disc is flanked (edged, lined) by two spaces:

the amniotic cavity on one side & the yolk sac on the other
The First Trimester
After fertilization, usually in the upper third of the uterine tube, the
zygote goes through several cleavages as it moves down the tube
(figure).
It eventually becomes a solid ball of cells called a morula, and by the

fourth day, it develops into a 50- to 120-cell blastula stage called a
blastocyst
0-2 Weeks from Conception
(3-4 weeks after the last menstrual period)
The egg is released from the ovary. It is fertilized in the fallopian tube
by the sperm. The fertilized egg starts to
divide and forms a ball of cells. The ball of cells digs into the lining of
the uterus.
• The ball of cells begins to form layers and fluid-filled spaces.
• The earliest part of the afterbirth begins to form.
• At this point in its growth, the ball of cells is called an “embryo.”
• The embryo grows to a length of 0.2 mm (about 1
/100 inch).

The embryo changes from a flat disc to a curved, C-shaped form.
Organs begin forming. At this point, the
menstrual period is missed.
• A tube forms along the embryo’s length. This will grow into the brain
and spinal cord.
• The heart starts as a tube, which begins to beat as it grows.
• Simple structures form on the sides of the head. They will become
eyes and ears as time goes on.
• Limb buds, which look like bumps, start to form. Later they will
become arms and legs.
• The embryo grows to a length of 6 mm (about ¼ inch).
About half of the embryo’s length is the head, due to the rapid growth
of the brain. The heart starts to form the
normal four chambers. A heartbeat can be seen on ultrasound.
• The eyes and ears move toward their normal places on the head.
• Kidneys begin to form.
• “Rays” appear in the limbs, which will later form fingers and toes.
• The umbilical cord joins the embryo and the placenta (or afterbirth).
• The embryo is about 14 mm (½ inch) long.

• The neural tube that becomes the brain and spinal cord closes.
7-8 Weeks after Conception
The embryo changes shape as the face forms. It begins to straighten

out from its C-shape. The small tail bud
begins to go away. All of the essential organs, including the basic parts
of the brain and the heart are now formed.
• There are fingers on the hands.
• The toes are almost formed.
• There are eyelids over the eyes, but they cannot open yet.
• Nipples can be seen and the first hair buds form.
• Muscles begin to form. Early bones are formed. The arms can bend at
the elbow.
• The intestines grow rapidly.
• The embryo is about 31 mm (1¼ inches) long.
By this time, all the main body parts are formed and present. The
embryo now is called a “fetus”. Growth
becomes most important. Fetal length is measured from the top of the
head to the curve of the rump
(crown-rump) length.
• The ears move up from around the neck to their normal position.
• Fetal movements and heartbeat can be seen on ultrasound.
• Various glands begin to work.
• The kidneys begin to make urine.
• The crown-rump length is 61 mm (about 21
/3 inches).
• The fetus weighs 14 grams (under one ounce).
Often, at this point, the sex of the fetus can be seen. The fetus begins to
swallow fluid from the amniotic sac
(bag of waters). The fluid is replaced with urine made by the kidneys.
The placenta is fully formed.
• Blood cells are made in the bone marrow.
• The neck can be clearly seen between the head and body.
• The crown-rump length is 86 mm (about 3½ inches).
• The fetus weighs 45 grams (about an ounce and a half
The second trimester (weeks 13 through 24)
is a period in which the organs complete most of their development.

It becomes possible with sonography to see good anatomical detail in
the fetus.
By the end of this trimester, the fetus looks distinctly human, and with
intensive clinical care,
infants born at the end of the second trimester have a chance of

survival.
The fetal head is still large as the body straightens out. The arms and
legs are formed, and can move and bend.
• Sex organs are almost fully formed.
• Toenail and fingernail growth begins.
• The eyes move forward. The ears reach normal position. Now the face
is well formed.
• Tooth buds may appear for the baby teeth.
• The crown-rump length is 120 mm (about 4¾ inches).
• The fetus weighs 110 grams (about 4 ounces).
• The eyelids close.
Some women begin to feel the first fetal movements, called

“quickening.” Growth begins to speed up. The legs
grow longer, so the fetal head seems less large. Slow fetal eye
movements can be seen by ultrasound. The
mouth begins to make sucking motions.
• The bones gain calcium at a rapid rate.
• The ears stand out from the head.
• The crown-rump length reaches 140 mm (about 5½ inches).
• The skin is almost transparent.
• The fetus may sleep and awaken regularly.
Many women feel fetal movement or “quickening” by this time in

pregnancy. The fetal skin is covered by
something called “vernix caseosa”. Vernix caseosa looks a little like

cream cheese. This is about the halfway
point of a normal pregnancy.
• A very fine hair called “lanugo” covers the fetal body.
• The crown-rump length is 160 mm (about 6¼ inches).

The skin is red and wrinkled. Blood vessels can be seen very clearly
beneath it.
• Eyebrow and eyelashes start to form.
• Fingerprints begin to form.
• The crown-rump length is 190 mm (about 7¾ inches).
• The fetus weighs 460 grams (just over a pound).
Fetal weight gain is fast during this time. Rapid eye movements can be
seen by ultrasound.
• Lung growth reaches the point where some gas exchange sacs are
formed.
• The heartbeat can be heard with a stethoscope.
• The crown-rump length is 210 mm (about 8½ inches).
• The fetus weighs 630 grams (1 pound, 6 ounces).
• At this time, there is a chance the fetus may live if delivered.

The lungs continue to grow. The lung cells begin to make a chemical
called “surfactant.” Large amounts of
surfactant are needed to keep the lungs open between breaths after
birth. Fat gradually builds up under the skin.
• The fetus can suck on fingers or hands.
• The fetus begins to store fat under the skin.
• The fetus will blink and act startled in response to loud noises near
the woman’s belly.
• The crown-rump length reaches 230 mm (about 9 inches).
• The fetus weighs 820 grams (a little less than 2 pounds
3. The third trimester (weeks 25 to birth)
 the fetus grows rapidly and the organs achieve enough cellular
differentiation to support life outside the womb.
 Some organs, such as the brain, liver, and kidneys, however,

require further differentiation after birth to become fully
functional.
 At 35 weeks from fertilization, the fetus typically weighs about

2.5 kg.
It is considered mature at this weight, and usually survives if born

early.
 Most twins are born at about 35 weeks’ gestation.

 From a more biological than clinical standpoint, human
development is divided into three stages called the
preembryonic, embryonic, and fetal stages
The lungs continue to grow. The fetus continues to gain weight. The
brain grows and starts to do more
complex tasks.
• Fetal eyes will open slightly.
• Eyelashes are formed.
• The crown-rump length reaches 250 mm (about 10 inches).
• The fetus weighs 1000 grams (about 2 pounds and 3 ounces).
The fetal brain can now control body temperature and direct regular
breathing. The fetus can weakly grasp at
things. Different growth rates from one fetus to another become clear.
Some grow more quickly than others.
• The eyes open wide.
• Toenails begin to form.
• Blood cells are made in the bone marrow.

• The crown-rump length is around 270 mm (nearly 11 inches).
• The fetus weighs 1300 grams (almost 3 pounds).
More fat builds up under the skin. The skin thickens. The fetus starts to
look more like a newborn baby.
The lanugo hairs on the face go away.
• The pupils of the eyes react to light.
• The fetus may now hiccup.
• The crown-rump length is around 280 mm (just over 11 inches).
• The fetus weighs around 1700 grams (about 3¾ pounds)
Fat is still building up under the skin as the fetus grows. The lungs keep
growing and making more surfactant.
Surfactant helps the lungs to remain open if the fetus is delivered at

this point.
• The ear holds it shape when moved.
• Fetal muscle tone increases.
• The crown-rump length is around 300 mm (just under 1 foot).
• The fetus weighs around 2100 grams (over 4½ pounds).

The lungs and the nervous system keep growing. Also, more fat builds
up under the skin. The fetus begins
looking chubby. Hair on the head begins looking normal.
• Testes in male fetuses start to move from the abdomen into the
scrotum.
• The labia (vaginal lips) in female fetuses begin to cover the clitoris.
• The fetus moves into a head-down position to prepare for delivery.
• The average crown-rump length is over a foot.
• The fetus weighs around 2500 grams (over 5 pounds).
In almost all cases, fetal lungs are mature at this point. The fetus drops
lower into the mother’s pelvis. The
mother may notice increased pressure on her bladder. Lanugo hairs are
almost all gone except for around the
shoulders and upper arms. The fetus may be born now or may stay in
the womb while more fat builds up under
the skin.

This is full term in pregnancy. Most babies are born during this time.
The average crown-rump length is 360
(over 14 inches). The total length counting the legs is about 20 inches.
On average, a full-term baby weighs
3400 grams (or 7½ pounds)
EMBRYONIC MEMBRANES
 The conceptus develops a number of accessory organs external to

the embryo itself. These include the placenta, umbilical cord, and
four embryonic membranes—the amnion, yolk sac, allantois,
and chorion (fig. ).
Amnion
 The amnion is a transparent sac that develops from epiblast cells

of the embryonic disc.
 It grows to completely enclose the embryo and is penetrated only

by the umbilical cord.
 The amnion becomes filled with amniotic fluid, which enables the
embryo to
develop symmetrically; keeps its surface tissues from adhering to

each other; protects it from trauma (shock), infection, and temperature
fluctuations; allows the freedom of movement important to muscle
development; and plays a role in normal lung development.
 At first, the amniotic fluid forms by filtration of the mother’s

blood plasma, but beginning at 8 to 9 weeks, the fetus urinates
into the amniotic cavity about once an hour and contributes
substantially to the fluid volume.
 The volume remains stable, however, because the fetus swallows

amniotic fluid at a comparable rate. At term, the amnion
contains 700 to 1,000 mL of fluid
Yolk sac
 The yolk sac, arises from cells of the embryonic hypoblast

opposite the amnion.
o Initially it is larger than the embryo and is broadly connected to

almost the entire length of the primitive gut.
Allantois
 The allantois is initially an out pocketing of the yolk sac;

eventually, as the embryo grows, it becomes an outgrowth of the
caudal end of the gut connected to it by the allantoic duct.
 It forms a foundation for growth of the umbilical cord and

becomes part of the urinary bladder.
Chorion
 The chorion is the outermost membrane, enclosing all the rest of

the membranes and the embryo.
 Initially it has shaggy (hairy) processes called chorionic villi

around its entire surface.
 As the pregnancy advances, the villi on the placental side grow
and branch, and this surface is then called the villous chorion. The
villous chorion forms the fetal portion of the placenta.
 The villi degenerate over the rest of the surface, which is then
called the smooth chorion .
Development of the Embryo from 37 to 56 Days.
At 56 days (8 weeks), all organ systems are present and the individual
begins the fetal phase
The Embryonic Membranes. Frontal section of the uterus with an 8-
week fetus and accessory organs.
1st to 40 weeks of embryonic development (Major Events of Prenatal
Dev’t
Growth of fetus
Placenta
 Nutrients from the mother’s blood diffuse through the placenta

into the fetal blood.
 The placenta is a vascular organ attached to the uterine wall on

one side and, on the other side, connected to the fetus by way of
the umbilical cord.
 It begins to develop about 11 days after conception, becomes the

dominant mode of nutrition around the beginning of week 9,
and is the sole mode of nutrition from the end of week 12 until
birth.
 The period from week 9 until birth is called the placental phase of
the pregnancy.
Placentation
 Placentation, the development of a placenta, begins when

extensions of the syncytiotrophoblast, the first chorionic villi,
penetrate more and more deeply into the endometrium, like the
roots of a tree penetrating into the nourishing “soil” of the uterus
(fig. ).
 As they digest their way through uterine blood vessels, the villi
become surrounded by pools of free blood.
These pools eventually merge to form a blood-filled cavity, the

placental sinus.
Exposure to maternal blood stimulates increasingly rapid growth of the

villi, which become branched and treelike.
Embryonic mesenchyme grows into the villi and gives rise to the blood
vessels that connect to the embryo by way of the umbilical cord
The umbilical cord connects the fetus to the placenta and it contains
two umbilical arteries and one umbilical vein
Influences during prenatal stage
 There are several factors which affect the development during the
prenatal stage.
 These factors are collectively called as teratogens.
1) Maternal Nutrition : In order to grow, the fetus needs nutrients

which in turn come from the mother.
Mother's dietary intake must be balanced. Care must be given to

include vitamins and minerals (such as calcium, phosphate, iron) water,
proteins, fats and not carbohydrates alone. Vegetables, green leaves,
seasonal fruits, pulses and cereals in addition to milk, eggs and meat or
fish provide a
diet adequate for the baby and the mother.

2) Material age: Between the ages of 21 to 29 years is the ideal age of
the mother to have children.
Below this bracket the mother is too immature physiologically and

psychologically with a high risk of infant death.
Beyond 30, risk of incidence of mental retardation and other genetic

abnormalities is very high.
3) Rest and exercise of the mother: These are essential specially during
pregnancy. When the mother is tired and over worked the fetal activity
4) Rh blood group: Majority of us are Rh+ while some have Rh- blood
group.
If the mother is Rh- and the fetus is Rh+ then it is an incompatible

condition.
The mother must be aware of it and at the time of delivery, if

precautions are not adequate then complication such as jaundice can
occur and may result in infant death.
5) Addictions: If the mother is addicted to alcohol, cigarettes or drugs

the waste material is passed onto the fetus.
Risk of irritability, low birth weight or prematurity, even still birth or

child being born with addictions are very high.
6. ) Maternal diseases: The diseases of the mother can significantly

affect the fetus.
Specially during the initial critical times during pregnancy.
German measles or Rubella can cause deafness, mental retardation or

even heart trouble.
7. Maternal stress: When the mother has emotional problems, tensions

and anxieties, blood supply to the fetus is not adequate, but is diverted.
 Therefore growth is hindered. This also can result in prematurity,

still birth or the child being irritable (ill tempered).
 Prenatal development comes to an end with the onset of the birth

process. Birth can be normal and -spontaneous or assisted.
3. Postembryonic development in animals (humans as example)

Human development characteristically passes through different stages.
These stages are orderly and sequentially linked with the preceding and
succeeding stages.
Features unique to each stage, change from stage to stage.
They also vary from person to person thus making us unique in our own
way.
For some of us, these factors may move on smoothly while others may
experience ups and downs.
 These factors and the way they are established in each person
mark the foundation of the human personality.
 Let us familiarize ourselves with some important concepts which

are used in analyzing the journey of life.
1) Growth: It refers to the increase in size, number of cells and it is

quantitative improvement. It is not based on what the person or
organism learns but only on maturation.
2) Maturation: It refers to those changes which primarily reveal on

unfolding of genetically
Like' a bud opens and blossoms into a flower, maturation brings out the
full potential.
It is not dependent on any special training or environment.
3) Development: It can be defined as a progressive series of orderly,

coherent changes leading towards the goal of maturity.
It means qualitative changes which are directed towards maturation.

Development is considered as a function of or a product of maturation
and learning.
 Development follows an observable pattern which can be

predicted. Researchers have identified two principles of
development. They are
A. Ceplralo-caudal principle: This states that development spreads

over the body from head to foot.
o Changes in structure and function can first be observed in the

head, then trunk and finally, the legs.
B. Proximodistal principle: According to this principle, development

proceeds from near to far, from the midpoint of the body to the
extremities
2.1 Infancy
The period of human development from birth to two-three years of

age. The word infant means “without language”.
Infancy includes development in the areas of cognition, perception,

motor activity, emotion, sociability and language.
1.Discuss briefly the cognitive, physical, emotional mental and social

developments of infancy period
During the infancy period, which typically spans from birth to around
two years of age, infants undergo significant cognitive, physical,
emotional, mental, and social developments. Here's a brief overview of
each of these areas:
1.Cognitive Development: Infants start developing their cognitive
abilities from the moment they are born. Initially, they rely on reflexes
and instinctual behaviors, but quickly begin to acquire new skills. They
learn to recognize faces, track moving objects with their eyes, and
develop basic problem-solving abilities. They also engage in
sensorimotor exploration, where they learn about the world through
their senses and actions.
Others
 Ability to learn and remember are present, even in early

weeks.
 Use of symbols and ability to solve problems develop by end

of second year.
 Comprehension and use of language develop rapidly.
2. Physical Development: Infancy is a time of rapid physical growth

and development. Infants gain weight and grow in height, their muscles
strengthen, and they develop motor skills. They begin with simple
reflexes, such as sucking and grasping, and gradually progress to more
complex actions like
 rolling over, sitting
 crawling, and eventually
 All senses and body systems operate at birth to varying degrees.
 Physical growth and development of motor skills are rapid.
 Growth is faster than other periods of life, walking.

3. Emotional Development: Infants experience a wide range of
emotions, including joy, fear, anger, and sadness.
 Initially, their emotions are primarily expressed through facial

expressions,
 crying, and body movements. As they develop,
 they become more capable of understanding and expressing their

emotions.
 They also begin to form attachments to their caregivers, which

contribute to their emotional development.
4. Mental Development: Infancy is a period of rapid brain

development. Infants' brains are highly adaptable and capable of
forming new neural connections.
 They start to recognize and respond to familiar voices and

sounds,
 and their memory and attention span gradually improve.
 They also begin to develop basic language skills,
 such as babbling and imitating sounds.
 Psychologically Attachments to parents and others form.
5. Social Development: Infants are social beings from early on, and
they start to engage in social interactions with their caregivers and
others around them. They learn to communicate through gestures,
facial expressions, and vocalizations, and they develop a basic
understanding of social cues. They also begin to show preferences for
familiar people and may exhibit separation anxiety when separated
from their primary caregivers .It's important to note that the
developmental milestones and timelines can vary from one infant to
another, and these areas of development are interconnected and
influence each other.
 Additionally, caregivers play a crucial role in supporting and

nurturing
 infants' development through responsive and loving interactions
2.2 Childhood
 This stage includes two sub-stages: one is early childhood (3-6

years) and another is late childhood (6-11 years).
 Sometimes the girls at 13 years and boys at 14 years of age are

considered as adolescents and till then the child is considered
being in the childhood stage.
In this stage, children gain 2 to 3 inches in height and 5 to 6 pounds in

weight every year.
Early Childhood Age: 1-6 years old
Conflict:
A. Toddler 1 to 3 years Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Preschool 3 to 6 years – Initiative vs. Guilt
2 .Discuss briefly the cognitive, physical, emotional mental ,and social

developments of childhood
During childhood, which encompasses the period from approximately

two years of age to adolescence, children undergo significant cognitive,
physical, emotional, mental, and social developments. Here's a brief
overview of each of these areas:
1.Cognitive Development: Childhood is marked by significant cognitive

growth. Children's thinking becomes more logical and organized as they
develop the
 ability to understand concepts, solve problems, and reason.
 They develop language skills, expand their vocabulary,
 and begin to understand more complex grammar.
 They also start to engage in imaginative play,
 which helps foster creativity and abstract thinking.
2. Physical Development: Childhood is a time of continued physical

growth and refinement of motor skills. Children experience growth
spurts, gaining height and weight.
 growth slower than in infancy. Muscle coordination allows the

child to run, climb, move freely. Can write, draw, use a fork and
knife
 They refine their fine motor skills, such as
 handwriting and using utensils,
 and develop more advanced gross motor skills,
 like running, jumping, and riding a bike.
 slow but steady (stable).

 Muscle coordination is well developed and children can engage in
physical activity that require complex motor-sensory coordination
3. Emotional Development: Emotional development in childhood

involves a growing understanding and regulation of emotions. Children
develop a broader range of emotions and become more adept at
identifying and expressing their feelings. They also begin to understand
and empathize with others' emotions.
 develop self-awareness and recognize the effect they have on

other people and things.
Children feel impatience and frustration as they try to do things

beyond their abilities.
They learn to cope with frustration, manage conflicts, and develop a

sense of self-esteem and self-concept.
 develop self-awareness and recognize the effect they have

on other people and things.
 Children feel impatience and frustration as they try to do

things beyond their abilities.
4. Mental Development: Mental development in childhood involves

the acquisition of knowledge, memory skills, and the ability to think
critically. Children expand their knowledge base through formal
education and informal learning experiences. They develop memory
strategies, such as repetition and organization, to improve their recall
abilities. They also refine their attention and concentration skills,
enabling them to engage in more complex cognitive tasks.
 verbal growth progresses, short attention span, at end of stage
ask questions, recognize letters, and some words
 verbal growth progresses, short attention span,
 at end of stage ask questions, recognize letters,
 and some words
5. Social Development: at beginning of stage very self-centered one

year old to sociable six year old. Strong attachment to parents. Needs
are food, shelter, protection, love and security.
Social development in childhood involves the development of social

skills, relationships, and a sense of identity within the larger social
context. Children begin to form friendships and engage in cooperative
play.
 at beginning of stage very self-centered one year old to sociable

six year old.
 Strong attachment to parents.
 Needs are food, shelter, protection, love and security,
 and the areas of development are interconnected and influence

each other.
The support and guidance provided by caregivers, teachers, and the

broader social environment play a crucial role in fostering healthy
development during childhood.
2.3 Teenage (Adolescence
Adolescence Age: 12-20 years old
Conflict – Identity vs. Role Confusion
 Physical development – growth spurts (rush), muscle

coordination slows.
o Development of sexual organs and secondary sexual

characteristics (puberty).
o Secretion of sex hormones leads to the onset of menstruation in

girls and the production of sperm and semen in boys. Body
shape and form changes.
3. Discuss briefly the cognitive, physical, emotional mental ,and social

developments of Teenage
During the teenage years, which typically span from around 13 to 19

years of age, individuals experience significant cognitive, physical,
emotional, mental, and social development. Here's a brief overview of
1.Cognitive Development: Teenagers' cognitive abilities continue to

advance, as they develop more advanced reasoning and problem-
solving skills. They become capable of abstract thinking, hypothesis
testing, and critical analysis.
 They also start to think more about their future goals,

 make plans, and engage in introspection.
 Teenagers may explore different interests, develop personal

values,
 and start to form their own beliefs and opinions.
2. Physical Development: The teenage years are characterized by

significant physical changes due to puberty. Adolescents experience
rapid growth, with changes in their height, weight, and body
proportions. Secondary sexual characteristics develop, such as the
growth of breasts in girls and facial hair in boys. Hormonal changes can
lead to mood swings, acne, and increased sexual interest. Physical
activity, nutrition, and proper sleep are important for healthy physical
development during this stage.
3. Emotional Development: Teenagers experience a wide range of

intense emotions as they navigate the challenges of adolescence. They
may experience heightened sensitivity, mood fluctuations, and
increased self-awareness. Teenagers strive for independence and
autonomy, which can lead to conflicts with parents and authority
figures.
 They also develop more complex emotions, such as love, romantic

attraction,
 and a sense of identity.
 Developing emotional regulation skills and seeking support from

trusted adults or peers can be helpful during this period.
4. Mental Development: Teenagers continue to expand their

knowledge, critical thinking abilities, and academic skills. They engage
in higher-level thinking, explore their interests, and develop specialized
knowledge in specific subjects. They may face increased academic
pressures and challenges, as they prepare for future educational and
career paths.
 Mental health and well-being become important considerations,
 as the teenage years can be accompanied by increased stress and

the onset of mental health disorders.
5. Social Development: Teenagers experience significant social

development as they navigate relationships with peers, family, and
their broader social environment. Friendships become increasingly
important, and teenagers may form close bonds with peers who share
similar interests and values. They also explore romantic relationships
and experience the complexities of dating and intimacy. Teenagers
engage in social comparison, seeking to establish their identity and fit
within social groups while also asserting their individuality.
It's important to note that the teenage years can be a challenging and
transformative period, with individual experiences varying greatly.
 Supportive relationships,
 healthy communication,
 and opportunities for self-expression and exploration are crucial

for fostering positive development during adolescence.
2.4 Adulthood
2.4.1Early Adulthood Age: 20-40 years old
 Conflict Intimacy vs. Isolation
4. Discuss briefly the cognitive, physical, emotional, mental and social

developments of adulthood
Adulthood encompasses a broad range of ages and life stages, but

generally refers to the period from around 20 to 65 years and beyond.
During this time, individuals experience ongoing cognitive, physical,
emotional, mental, and social development. Here's a brief overview of
1.Cognitive Development: In adulthood, cognitive abilities continue to

develop and mature. Adults refine their critical thinking skills, problem-
solving abilities, and decision-making processes. They accumulate
knowledge and expertise in their chosen fields and engage in lifelong
learning.
 Adults may also develop wisdom,
 gained through experience and reflection,
 allowing them to approach complex situations with a

broader perspective.
2. Physical Development: Physical development in adulthood involves

maintaining and managing one's physical health and well-being. While
physical growth has largely stabilized, adults need to engage in regular
exercise, maintain a balanced diet, and practice healthy habits to
support their overall physical fitness.
Additionally, adults may experience changes related to aging,
 such as changes in metabolism,
 hormonal shifts,
 and changes in sensory abilities.
3. Emotional Development: Emotional development in adulthood

involves continued growth in self-awareness, emotional regulation, and
the ability to navigate relationships. Adults deepen their understanding
of their emotions and those of others, developing empathy and
compassion.
 They may also face significant life events,
 such as marriage, parenthood, career changes,
 and loss, which contribute to emotional growth and resilience.
4. Mental Development: Mental development in adulthood involves

ongoing learning, psychological well-being, and mental health. Adults
continue to acquire knowledge and skills through work, hobbies, and
personal interests.
 They may also face new challenges and transitions,
 requiring adaptation and problem-solving.
 Mental health becomes an important aspect of adulthood,
 and individuals may seek support, engage in therapy, or practice

self-care to maintain their psychological well-being.
5. Social Development: Social development in adulthood involves the
establishment and maintenance of relationships, as well as the
development of a sense of identity within social contexts. Adults form
and nurture friendships, romantic partnerships, and familial
relationships.
 They also contribute to their communities through work,
 volunteering, and civic engagement. Additionally,
 adults may experience shifts in social roles and responsibilities,

such as becoming parents, caring for aging parents, or taking on
leadership positions.
It's important to note that adulthood is a diverse and dynamic period,

with individual experiences varying greatly. The development and
experiences of adults can be influenced by factors such as culture,
socioeconomic status, and life circumstances. Supportive relationships,
self-reflection, ongoing learning, and a focus on physical and mental
well-being are important aspects of fostering positive development
throughout adulthood.
2.4.2 Middle Adulthood Age: 40-65 years of age
Conflict – Generosity vs. Stagnation (inactivity)
5. Discuss briefly the cognitive, physical, emotional , mental and social

developments of middle adulthood
5. Middle adulthood typically spans from around 40 to 65 years of age

and is characterized by continued cognitive, physical, emotional,
mental, and social development. Here's a brief overview of each of
these areas:
1. Cognitive Development: In middle adulthood, cognitive abilities
remain stable or may even improve in certain areas. Adults continue to
accumulate knowledge and expertise in their fields of work or personal
interests. They often demonstrate improved problem-solving skills and
decision-making abilities based on their experiences.
 Middle-aged adults may also engage in introspection and self-

reflection,
 gaining a deeper understanding of their values, beliefs, and life

goals.
2. Physical Development: Physical development in middle adulthood

involves maintaining and managing one's physical health and well-
being. While physical changes associated with aging may become more
noticeable, individuals can take steps to maintain good health.
 This includes engaging in regular exercise, practicing healthy

eating habits, getting sufficient sleep,
 and attending to preventive healthcare measures.
 Middle-aged adults may also experience changes in physical

appearance, such as graying hair, skin changes, or shifts in body
composition.
3. Emotional Development: Emotional development in middle

adulthood involves increased emotional stability and a deeper
understanding of one's emotions. Individuals may experience a greater
sense of self-acceptance and self-confidence. They often develop better
emotional regulation skills and a more balanced perspective on life's
challenges.
 Middle-aged adults may also focus on nurturing and maintaining
their relationships,
 including those with partners, children, extended family, and

friends.
4. Mental Development: Middle adulthood is a time when many

individuals reach their peak cognitive abilities. They have accumulated
a wealth of knowledge and experience, which can contribute to
enhanced mental skills and problem-solving abilities.
 Mental development may involve continued learning, pursuing

new interests or hobbies,
 and engaging in activities that stimulate the mind, such as

reading, puzzles, or creative endeavors.
 Middle-aged adults may also face new mental challenges, such as

caring for aging parents or adapting to changing work
environments.
5. Social Development: Social development in middle adulthood

involves maintaining and strengthening existing relationships while also
forming new connections. Individuals often invest more time and
energy in their relationships with family, friends, and professional
networks.
 They may take on new roles, such as becoming grandparents or

mentors,
 and contribute to their communities through volunteering or

leadership positions.
 Middle-aged adults also tend to prioritize work-life balance and
may seek to establish a sense of purpose and fulfillment outside
of their careers.
It's important to note that middle adulthood is a diverse and

multifaceted period, and individual experiences can vary greatly.
Factors such as culture, socioeconomic status, and personal
circumstances can influence development during this stage. Nurturing
relationships, pursuing personal growth, maintaining physical and
mental health, and adapting to life transitions and challenges are key
aspects of fostering positive development in middle adulthood.
It's worth noting that middle adulthood is a diverse and unique period,
and individual experiences can differ significantly. Factors like culture,
socioeconomic status, and personal circumstances can influence
development during this stage. Nurturing relationships, pursuing
personal growth, maintaining physical and mental health, and adapting
to life transitions and challenges are crucial aspects of fostering positive
development during middle adulthood.
2.4.3.Late Adulthood Age: 65 years of age & up
Conflict – Ego integrity vs. despair
During late adulthood, individuals typically experience various

developmental changes across cognitive, physical, emotional, mental,
and social domains. Here's a brief overview of these developments:
Cognitive Development: In late adulthood, cognitive abilities may
show some decline, particularly in processing speed and working
memory. However, other areas of cognition, such as crystallized
intelligence (accumulated knowledge and skills), may remain stable or
even improve. Wisdom and expertise tend to increase, as older adults
possess a wealth of life experiences and problem-solving skills.
Physical Development: Late adulthood is often associated with

physical changes and a gradual decline in physical functioning. Common
physical changes include reduced strength, flexibility, and stamina.
There may also be an increased vulnerability to illness and a decline in
sensory abilities, such as vision and hearing. However, regular exercise
and a healthy lifestyle can help mitigate some of these effects.
Emotional Development: Emotional development in late adulthood

can be characterized by increased emotional stability and a greater
ability to regulate emotions. Older adults tend to experience a more
positive emotional outlook, with a greater focus on emotional well-
being and satisfaction. They may also develop better coping
mechanisms and resilience in dealing with life stressors.
Mental Development: Late adulthood is a period when mental health

and well-being become crucial. Older adults may face mental health
challenges such as depression, anxiety, and cognitive disorders like
dementia. However, many older adults maintain good mental health
and exhibit resilience. Engaging in mentally stimulating activities, social
connections, and maintaining a healthy lifestyle can support mental
well-being.
Social Development: Late adulthood often involves significant

changes in social relationships and roles. Retirement and the loss of
loved ones can impact an individual's social network. However, many
older adults maintain active social lives, engaging in activities and
connections that provide a sense of purpose and belonging.
Grandparenting and becoming mentors to younger generations can
also contribute to social development.
Death and Dying
Death is ―the final stage of growth
Experienced by everyone and no one escapes Young people tend to

ignore its existence
Usually it is the elderly, who have lost others, who begin to think about
their own death
Death and dying are natural and inevitable aspects of the human
experience. Here's a brief discussion on the topic:
Understanding Death: Death refers to the permanent cessation of all

vital functions in an organism. It marks the end of life and the transition
from the living state to the non-living state. Cultures and societies have
different beliefs, rituals, and interpretations regarding death, which can
shape individuals' attitudes and responses to it.
Stages of Dying: In the 1960s, psychiatrist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross
proposed a model known as the "five stages of grief" to describe the
emotional and psychological responses of individuals facing their own
impending death or the death of a loved one. These stages include
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. It's important to
note that these stages are not universal, and individuals may not
experience them in a linear or predictable manner.
End-of-Life Care: The field of palliative care focuses on providing

support and comfort to individuals with life-limiting illnesses and their
families. Palliative care aims to alleviate physical pain, manage
symptoms, and address emotional, social, and spiritual needs. Hospice
care, a specialized form of palliative care, is typically provided in the
final stages of life when curative treatment is no longer an option.
Cultural and Religious Perspectives: Different cultures and religions

have diverse beliefs, rituals, and traditions surrounding death and
dying. These can include funeral customs, mourning practices, and
views on the afterlife. Understanding and respecting cultural and
religious diversity is important when providing support to individuals
and families during the dying process.
Bereavement and Grief: Bereavement refers to the period of

mourning and adjustment following the death of a loved one. Grief is
the emotional response to loss. The grieving process is unique to each
individual and can involve a range of emotions, including sadness,
anger, guilt, and confusion. It's important to provide support and
empathy to individuals experiencing grief, as it is a natural and
necessary part of healing.
Advance Care Planning: Advance care planning involves making

decisions about medical treatment preferences and end-of-life care
while an individual is still capable of expressing their wishes. This can
include creating advance directives, appointing a healthcare proxy, and
discussing preferences with loved ones. It allows individuals to have
their choices respected and relieves the burden on family members
during difficult times.

Definition of Embryology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Definition of Embryology

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Definition of Embryology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Definition of embryology

• Embryology is the study of how embryos form.

Embryo in animals (humans), is a developing individual from the time

The embryo is a diploid structure and product of fertilization of the

Embryology is the study of the development of an animal from the

embryology is the scientific study of prenatal development, from

Embryonic development in animals

Animal (Human) development is divided into three stages called

It begins as the conceptus migrates down the uterine tube

The first cleavage occurs in about 30 hours.

Blastomeres divide again at shorter and shorter time intervals, doubling

In the early divisions, the blastomeres divide simultaneously, but as

 By the time the conceptus arrives in the uterus, about 72 hours

 The morula is no larger than the zygote; cleavage merely

 This increases the ratio of cell surface area to volume, which

Morula is a stage in the embryonic development of some animals that

The development of a human being can be divided into prenatal

During the prenatal period, the developing individual begins life as a

Pregnancy is arbitrarily divided into three-month periods called

 (b) implantation, About 6 days after ovulation, the blastocyst

 The process of attachment, called implantation, begins when the

(a) In the superficial layer,

(b)The deep layer,

Implantation takes about a week and is completed about the time

(C)embryogenesis, in which the embryonic cells migrate and

 During implantation, the embryoblast undergoes embryogenesis

 At the beginning of this phase, the embryoblast separates slightly

 The embryoblast flattens into an embryonic disc (blastodisc)

 Some hypoblast cells multiply and form a membrane called the

 Now the embryonic disc is flanked (edged, lined) by two spaces:

It eventually becomes a solid ball of cells called a morula, and by the

0-2 Weeks from Conception

(3-4 weeks after the last menstrual period)

• The ball of cells begins to form layers and fluid-filled spaces.

• The earliest part of the afterbirth begins to form.

• At this point in its growth, the ball of cells is called an “embryo.”

• The embryo grows to a length of 0.2 mm (about 1

3-4 Weeks from Conception

(5-6 weeks after the last menstrual period)

menstrual period is missed.

• The heart starts as a tube, which begins to beat as it grows.

• The embryo grows to a length of 6 mm (about ¼ inch).

5-6 Weeks from Conception

(7-8 weeks after the last menstrual period)

normal four chambers. A heartbeat can be seen on ultrasound.

• Kidneys begin to form.

• The embryo is about 14 mm (½ inch) long.

7-8 Weeks after Conception

(9-10 weeks after the last menstrual period)

The embryo changes shape as the face forms. It begins to straighten

• There are fingers on the hands.

• The toes are almost formed.

• Nipples can be seen and the first hair buds form.

• The intestines grow rapidly.

• The embryo is about 31 mm (1¼ inches) long.

9-10 Weeks after Conception

(11-12 weeks after the last menstrual period)

• Fetal movements and heartbeat can be seen on ultrasound.