Scientia L 2023

VOL. 3 ISSUE 1.
AUGUST, 2023
SCIENTIA PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES

ISSN: 2636-6010 (ONLINE), 2636-6029 (PRINT)
AN INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT

OF GENERAL STUDIES, PLATEAU STATE UNIVERSITY, BOKKOS
VOL. 3 ISSUE 1. AUGUST, 2023
SCIENTIA
PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES
ISSN: 2636-6010 (ONLINE), 2636-6029 (PRINT)
AN INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL STUDIES, PLATEAU STATE

UNIVERSITY, BOKKOS, NIGERIA www.scientiapiasu.org
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EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-in-Chief
Prof. Umar H.D Danfulani
Associate Editors
Prof. Moses Pyefa Galadima
Iliya Ayuba Ajang Ph.D
Felix B. Masok Ph.D
Pienswang Longman Geoffrey Ph.D
Editorial Secretary
Jacob Ishaya
EDITORIAL ADVISERS
Prof. Sarwuan Daniel Shishima

Benue State University
Prof. Kingsley Ifeanyi Owete

University of Port Harcourt
Prof. Sati Fwatshak

University of Jos
Prof. Chentu Dauda Nguvugher

University of Jos
Assoc. Prof. Jurji N. Gomos

Plateau State University, Bokkos

ABOUT THE JOURNAL
SCIENTIA: PLASU Journal of General Studies is an interdisciplinary Journal of the Department of

General Studies， Plateau State University，Bokkos． It is available both in print and online．
It is a peer－
reviewed journal established to provide academics， scholars and researchers an avenue to publish the
latest research in their different fields of studies with the aim of providing a broad-based
interdisciplinary education which a single discipline in the university system cannot single-
handedly provide. This is in pursuance of the vision of the General Studies programme of the
Nigerian universities，which is to produce well rounded， morally and intellectually capable graduates
by broadening their information base beyond and outside their areas of specialisation．
CALL FOR PAPERS

The Journal invites high quality researched papers in all areas of scholarship whose research
findings are original and scholarly contributions to knowledge and have not been previously
published or accepted for publication elsewhere for the third volume which will be published in
January, 2020.
Guidelines to Contributors:
1. Manuscripts should be prepared in English Language, in MS-word, Times New Roman, Font
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For further enquiries, contact:

Editor
08036554514, 08029471010
PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES iii

ACCOUNTABILITY IN GOVERNANCE AS A SURE WAY TO PROMOTING PEACE IN NIGERIA
Iliya Ayuba Ajang Ph.D and Umar Habila Dadem Danfulani- - - - - - 1
MESSIANIC CONCEPT IN THE BIBLE: ITS DEVELOPMENT THROUGH THE AGES

Daniel James Tali (Ph.D)- - - - - - - - - 13
EFFECT OF JOB STRESS ON COUNTERPRODUCTIVE WORK BEHAVIOUR AMONG ACADEMIC

STAFF OF KADUNA POLYTECHNIC
1
Micah AdamuGumus, (Ph.D) and Okodeje Enonche Patricia- - - - 22
THE ROLE OF COMMUNITY RADIO IN THE PROMOTION

OF REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH OF RURAL WOMEN IN BAUCHI STATE, NIGERIA: THE CASE OF TORO
COMMUNITY RADIO.
Paul David Orude, MSc Sociology and Dauda Daniel Abarshi, MSc Sociology- - 32
THE PASTOR AND TRAUMATIC EXPERIENCE IN THE VIOLENT CONTEXT OF NIGERIA: THE WAY
FORWARD
Rev. Yusuf J. Luxman Ph.D- - - - - - - - - 40
THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF HISTORY AND HISTORIOGRAPHY TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF A NATION

Peter Daddock - - - - - - - - - - 48
GLOBALISATION AND LANGUAGE CHANGE

Mrs. Nneka Chinyere Sule - - - - - - - - 54
THE PROSPERITY GOSPEL AND ITS IMPACT ON THE CATHOLIC CHURCH IN CROSS RIVER STATE
(1996-2019)
Agi Regina Inyagbe (M.A) andProf. Pauline Mark Lere - - 59
JOURNALISTS' PERCEPTION OF BROWN ENVELOPE ACCEPTANCE AND ITS IMPLICATION ON

JOURNALISM PRACTICE IN NIGER STATE
Onifade, Olawale Abayomi - - - - - - - - - 66
HEGEMONIAL STABILITY THEORY AND THE RATIONALE FOR NIGERIA'S LEADERSHIP ROLE IN
INTEGRATING WEST AFRICAN STATES.
Arin, Solomon Jang and Dawam, Samuel Naansuan- - - - - - 73
MIGRANT'S IDENTITY AND RIGHTS OF POLITICAL PARTICIPATION: AN EXAMINATION OF

CONTESTATIONS OF PAN-AFRICANIST IDEOLOGY BETWEEN NIGERIA AND SOUTH AFRICA
IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Pienswang Longmam Geoffrey (PhD)-- - - - - - 82
THE DIALECTICS OF CONFLICT AND TRANSGENERATIONAL TRAUMA: THE

NORTHEAST NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE
John Umaru Rikka - - - - - - - - - - 91
PERSPECTIVES FROM AFRICAN MENTORING: METHODOLOGIES, CHALLENGES, AND

PROSPECTS
Mathias Tinat, - - - - - - - - - - 97
CHRISTIANS IN GOVERNANCE IN NIGERIA AND SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION

Jacob Ishaya- - - - - - - - - - 106
PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES iv

AN EVALUATION OF JÜRGEN MOLTMANN'S NEW POLITICAL THEOLOGY IN THE LIGHT OF
NIGERIAN POLITICAL CHALLENGES
John Umaru Rikka- - - - - - - - - - - 114
THE RECONCILIATION BETWEEN THE CHRISTIAN REFORMED CHURCH-NIGERIA (CRC-N) AND THE
REFORMED CHURCH OF CHRIST FOR NATIONS (RCCN) IN 2003: A MODEL OF COMMUNION
NuhuAkoga - - - - - - - -120
EXPERIENCE OF THE CHURCH IN NORTHERN NIGERIA: A REFLECTION OF 1 PETER IN ASIA MINOR

Rev. Davou M. Dantoro, PhD - - - - - - - - - 129
ECONOMIC IMPLICATION OF ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS AMONG WOMEN IN PLATEAU STATE: A

THREAT TO CHRISTIAN-MUSLIM RELATIONS IN NORTHERN NIGERIA
Goshit Pwankit Dewan, PhD - - - - - - - - - - 137
AN APPRAISAL OF THE NEW INNOVATIONS IN THE ELECTORAL ACT, 2022

Yebo S. Dabup - - - - - - - - - - - 148
ECCLESIASTICAL CONFUSIONS, THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN

WESTERN CHRISTENDOM: IMPLICATIONS FOR CHURCHES IN NIGERIA
Jordan Samson Rengshwat, PhD - - - - - - - - - 156
THE EMERGENCE, GROWTH AND DECLINE OF CHRISTIANITY IN EGYPT A.D. 100- A.D. 800:
IMPLICATIONS FOR NIGERIAN CHRISTIAN
Bullama Samuel Bulus PhD - - - - - - - - - - 166
WOMEN, AGRICULTURE AND RURAL POVERTY IN PLATEAU STATE

Patience Mamie Kolade - - - - - - - - - - 173
A REVIEW OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES FOR NEW GEOGRAPHY

Adeniran Tolulope, - - - - - - - - - - - 185
EFFECT OF THUNDER STORMON FLIGHT OPERATIONS IN YAKUBU GOWON AIRPORT HEIPANG,

PLATEAU STATE (NIGERIA)
Ishaku Asukudu Peter, - - - - - - - - - - 195
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF RADIOACTIVITY CONCENTRATION IN IRISH POTATOES GROWN IN BAGS

USING FERTILIZER AND WITHOUT FERTILIZER.
Masok F. B. - - - - - - - - - - - - 204
CHRISTIAN /MUSLIM RELATION IN NIGERIA: JOURNEY OF HOPE

Ezekiel Yayi Kakoh - - - - - - - - - - - 213
THE EARLY COLONIAL EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE AND SOCIAL

CLASS STRATA IN NIGERIA
Bot Polycarp Moses - - - - - - - - - - - 220
THEFT AND MUTILATION OF LIBRARY RESOURCES IN PLATEAU STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

BOKKOS: A QUALITATIVE APPROACH
Ajala James Aloli , ZainabNankyerMaren- - - - - - - - 228
PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES v

Accountability In Governance As A Sure Way To Promoting Peace In Nigeria
ACCOUNTABILITY IN GOVERNANCE AS A SURE WAY TO

PROMOTING PEACE IN NIGERIA
Department of General Studies
Plateau State University, Bokkos
Umar Habila Dadem Danfulani

Professor of History of Religions
University of Jos
Abstract
Accountability is crucially germane for the smooth running of governance at all levels and in all its complex
typologies. This paper provides clarifications for the terms account and accountability, governance,
government, and govern, and peace. The paper further establishes a relationship between accountability,
governance, good governance and peace (pax).
The paper further described accountable organizations and the actions they ought to take, typology of
accountability, benefits of accountability, character of accountability, dimensions of accountability and
accountability in good governance and democracy. This paper is also concerned with good governance, as a
tool for entrenching democracy and peace and the importance of monitoring and evaluation (M&E) for
accountable governance. The paper ends by examining accountability as a tool for galvanizing peace and
development.
Key words: Accountability, Governance, Democracy, Development, and Peace
Introduction
Accountability is a popular notion and“a fashionable term that judges and scholars are invoking whenever
they have a position which favours (disfavours) elected officials in some way. The term carries with it a band
wagon tone or effect that is being drummed, trumpeted and adumbrated from the highest mountain peaks of
every level of governance in the Nigerian society today. All politicians need to do to get the attention of
Nigerians, as Buhari did in 2015, he promised tohold all previous governments accountable by thoroughly
probing them if elected as President. This is because we tend to identify accountability with “catching
people out” But for political scientists, the term is often used as a very tiresome, burdensome and general
cliché for democratic theory. Accountability is a central concept in comparative politics, which has become
popular in a number of applied fields, including development politics.
The concept has had a long tradition in political science and financial accounting. John Locke's theory of the
superiority of representational democracy is hinged on the notion that accountability is only possible when
the governed are separated from the governors. The importance of accountability to the American
constitution is such that thinking about the political system is as fundamental as accountability. When
decision-making power is transferred from a principal (e.g. the citizens) to an agent (e.g. government), there
must be a mechanism in place for holding the agent to account for their decisions and if necessary for
imposing sanctions, ultimately by removing the agent from power.
Accountability is a concept normally associated with good governance, which can be established by
utilizing maximum government resources through effective, efficient management of government
components. Governments are required to be responsive, participative and professional in carrying out
basic tasks and functions for the sustainability of governance, while accountability involves availability of
information concerning the implementation of government policies at all levels. This is actually necessary
PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES 1

to ensure public openness about how the process of policy formulation, performance and results are
achieved in every government activity. Thus, the principles of transparency, accountability, responsiveness,
and professionalism in creating better governance conditions at all levels need to be applied consistently and
continuously. This paper is timely and germane because we, together with renowned Nigeria's Social
scientist, Prof. Jonah Isawa Elaigwu, CEO, Institute of Governance and Social Research, Jos (Plateau State,
Nigeria), agree that the following about majority of Nigerian leaders is correct:
Yes, we have reason to be disappointed with our leaders and ourselves in our 62 years of sojourn as a
nation-state. We have reasons to be angry or even mad with ourselves. We could have done better and we
can still do much better. My belief is that staying together as a country for 62 years is an achievement.
While us leaders and followers have not lived up to expectation.
A part of this failure is the refusal to accept the kultur of accountability or rendering account. This is very true
of many heads of institutions all over Nigeria. Whenever an audit is sent to them, they come out to face it
with ghostlike attitude, instead of embracing it as a normal exercise.
Clarification of Terms
Accountability
Accountability is king and key in modern public administration, because it provides necessary measurable
results Paterson (1993).It means a written or spoken report or explanation of something that has happened,
especially one given to somebody in authority. It is also very often associated with banking arrangement of
financial institutions, companies, stockbrokers, customers, or other business in which financial services are
offered. The word entered the English language via the Anglo-Norman, who borrowed it in the 14th century
from the Old French aconte, meaning “a counting up”. The French in turn got it from the Latin aconter or
computare, meaning “sum up”.
Accountability is the state of acknowledging, assuming responsibility for and being transparent about the
impacts of an organization's policies, decisions, actions, products, services and associated performance.
When an organization holds itself fully accountable, it seeks to involve stakeholders in identifying,
understanding and responding to material sustainability topics and concerns, and to communicate with and
be responsive to stakeholders regarding one's decisions, actions and performance. Accountability
comprises the way in which an organization sets strategy, governs and manages performance.
Governance
While BondanWinarno (2017) proposes the word “organization” to imply governance, I add to this,
“discipline” and “informed” “appropriate professional” or “right education”. Governance is the system or
manner of government. It is the actual state or act of governing a place, region, nation, institution, company,
county or local government. It denotes formal authority, power or control over an estate, land, country,
place, region or county.
Governance is involved with wider, deeper and various activities and measures of public service, policy
making processes, bureaucracies and their implementation. In fact, government bureaucracy is still
burdened with the execution of the tasks of traditional government, especially maintenance of law and
security and public order, as well as the building the various community infrastructures, addressing broader
issues bordering on education, health and social welfare. This situation makes bureaucracy as a central
player in serving the various needs of the public, from formulating and policymakers, as agents of social
change, development agencies, managers to crises, social workers, intermediaries of interest brokers, public
relations officers relations expert), regulatory of various economic commodities, to become spokespersons
of various interest groups (Dwivedi and Jabbra, 1989).

The Report of the Commission on Global Governance (1995) defines governance as: The sum of the many
ways individuals and institutions, public and private, manage their common affairs. It is a continuing
process through which con? icting or diverse interests may be accommodated and co-operative action may
be taken. It includes formal institutions and regimes empowered to enforce compliance, as well as informal
arrangements that people and institutions either have agreed to or perceive to be in their interest.
Government on the other hand refers to political authority being wielded or exercised by a group of people
who have the power to make and enforce laws for the smooth and profitable running of a country, company,
or institution. It also means the particular style or type of political system, authority or control employed in
running an institution or the ruling power over the management a particular state.
Both governance and government emanate from the term govern, which is a transitive verb that describes
the process of having political authority, that is, to be officially responsible for directing the affairs, policies,
politics, economic and judicial (executive, legislative and legal) affairs of a state, country or organization. It
refers to controlling something, that is, to control, regulate and direct or possessing influence over
something. Like the term account, govern also entered English usage from the Old French governer, but a
th
century earlier, that is, in the 13 century. The French got it from the Latin gubernare, which is related to the
Greek kubernan, which means “steer”.
Good Governance
The use of the phrase word good governance in defining politics was first used by the UK Department for
International Development under the label good government. It comprises four elements: First, it provides
legitimacy, which implies that government systems must proceed with government approval. Second, the
legitimacy seen in the government policy is guaranteed by pluralistic, diversified, superior multi-party and
electoral-oriented democratic systems. It recognizes the forms of political authority that combines
efficiency with accountability in variegated ways. Third, governance must be accountable by upholding the
existence of mechanisms where public officials and political leaders are responsible for their actions,
utilization of public resources and transparency of government and media freedom. Fourth, accountability
in governance must possess the competence and capacity to make and run the right public policy including
the ability to deliver effective and efficient service to the public as stated in Khotami (2017).
Good governance according to Agere (2000) places emphasis on predictable on open-policy and policy-
making, professional policy, capability management, and effective use of resources to achieve improved
levels of social and economic development. It also requires and galvanizes strong community participation,
and clear implementation within the rule of law (World Bank, 1994).Good and clean government is also an
important part of good governance, which implies the government must be free from any forms of
corruption, collusion, nepotism, tribalism or ethnicity.
Good governance emerged as a powerful idea that is births a citizen-friendly, citizen caring and responsive
administration. There are no development schemes that can bring any improvement in the quality life of the
citizens in absence of good governance. When the power of the state is on the hand exercised in improper
ways, the poor will suffer the most, because bad governance generates and reinforces corruption, insecurity,
arbeit loss, inflation and stagflation, and poverty. But good governance is so essential to strengthen
governance and it is a precondition for the improvement of the lives of the poor Jindal (2014). Shah (2021)
saidmany political and economic problems experienced by developing countries have increasingly been
attributed to a culture of poor governance in these countries. In this context, governance is considered the
capacity of state institutions to deliver service and other goods demanded by the public in an effective,
transparent, impartial and accountable manner. Efficiency, effectiveness, transparency, accountability and
rule of law are therefore the essentials.

Peace (Pax)
Even though peace means different things to different people, its meaning to people is coloured by their
values, perception, cultural spectacles, visions, and goals in life.
The term peace refers to freedom from war, or the time when war or conflict ends, the signing of a treaty to
live in harmony. It means tranquillity, a calm and quiet state from disturbance or noise; mental calm and
serenity, with no anxiety; freedom from conflict or disagreement among people or ethnic groups; peace
treaty agreeing to an end to hostilities between two warring parties; it refers to law and order; the absence of
violence or other disturbances within a state; when there is an interjection. From the Anglo-Norman pes, and
Latin pax (to be) at peace, was first used in the 12th century. It is from Latin that we have PaxRomanna,
meaning the Roman Peace and Pax Britannica, meaning the British Peace, which was enforced in the
colonies of Great Britain by the RWAFF (Royal West African Frontier Force).
Peace is to be at concord, amity, harmony, reconciliation, armistice, accord, stillness, and tranquillity, or in a
state of friendship and freedom from conflict in a state of calmness and serenity by bringing a disagreement
or war to an end; to make peace with somebody that is to resolve a disagreement with someone. Peace is lack
of noise, commotion, uproar, disturbance, disagreement, warfare, or chaos, as in peace and quiet, making
peace, not war and not a breach of peace. According to Elaigwu (2017):
Peace is not the absence of conflicts or war. There shall always be conflicts where more than one-
person lives. Interests of people often clash, thus resulting in conflicts. It is not the conflicts but how
they are managed that is important. Peace is about how conflicts are managed to ensure relative
stability, law, or order, or even completely resolved to enable human beings carry out their daily
activities. Peace is a societal condition, which ensures relative social stability and order, through the
dispensation of justice, fairness, and opportunities for accommodation by formal and informal
institutions, practices and norms.
Violence
Violence or threat of violence is a universal phenomenon associated with destructive tendencies. Violence
has been used by groups seeking, holding or losing power of any sort; political, economic, religious and
social. Violence has been pursued in the defence of order by the privileged, in the name of justice by the
oppressed and in fear of displacement by the threatened as in Anifowose (1982). Political theorists
recognize violence and threat of violence as a dimension of both national and international politics,
prompting Smith (1968) to observe:
Violence has always been part of the political process…protest activities of one form or another, efforts
to dramatize grievances in a fashion that will attract attention and ultimately the destruction or
threatened destruction of life and property appear as expression of political grievances even in stable,
consensual societies…the Ultima-ratio of political action is force.
Political or any other activity below the threshold of force is normally carried on with the knowledge that an
issue may be escalated into overt violence if a party feels sufficiently aggrieved Banjo (1997). “Collective
violence has flowed from the political process… men seeking to seize, hold or realign the levers of power
have continually engaged in collective violence as part of their struggle” Anifowose (1982).
Bienen (1968) said the term violence is descriptive of all variety of protest, militancy, coercion, destruction,
mayhem and/or muscle flexing, which a given observer happens to fear or condemn. Violence “carries
overtones of violability and we use often violence to refer to 'illegitimate Force'…but the State according to
Marx Weber is the exclusivist source of the right to use violence, all other individuals or associations may
use it only to the degree permitted by the authorities”. While, Banjo (1997) defines 'Political Violence' as:

The use of threat of physical act carried out by an individual or people with the intent to cause injury or
death to persons and for damage or destruction to property and whose its objectives, choice of targets,
victims, surrounding circumstances, implementation and effects have a political significance, that is,
tend to modify the behaviour of others in the existing arrangement of power structure that has some
consequences for the political system.
More frequently, violence elicits the intervention of the authorities, particularly, the respective forces
because they find their interests or those of their allies threatened by the actions of dissident groups. In most
cases of civil violence, there is always a rather heavy involvement of the police and soldiers. From the
Nigerian experience, it is the armed forces (the police and soldiers) that are “the most consistent initiators
and performers of collective violence… repressive forces do the largest part of killing and wounding, while
the groups they are seeking to control do most of the damage to property” albeit to human life.
Accountable Organizations and the Actions they ought to take

Contemporary Political Science discourse regards accountability as the conceptual basis that encompasses
and gives meaning to other concepts. It is used as a synonym for other political definitions such as
transparency, justice, democracy, efficiency, responsiveness, responsibility, and integrity Khotami (2017).
Thus, public and private institutions and organizations need to:
Figure 1: Stylized Time-Line of Accountability
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4
Transfer of A acts using P requests information A adheres P sanctions or Not

decision-making discretionary and justification from P or not
from P to A power
Source: Lindberg (2009:11)
· Establish relevant internal governance, structures, policies and processes

· Identify the needs and expectations of relevant stakeholders as part of their
decision-making
· Develop a strategy based on a comprehensive and balanced understanding of and response to
material sustainability topics and stakeholder concerns
· Establish goals against which the organization's strategy and associated performance
can be measured, evaluated, managed and monitored
· Disclose credible and verifiable information about strategy, goals, standards and performance to
those stakeholders who partly or wholly base their decisions and actions on this information
Benefits of Accountability
Accountability is results and benefit oriented. It promotes operational excellence, safeguards
company/government resources, yields more accurate information and results and it builds external
investor trust. Accountability strives to promote a high level of work, promote honesty, encourage
dependability, and garner trust from members around you. It promotes peace

Character of Accountability
In the administration of government, accountability cannot be known by the people without the government
notify him in connection with information related to the collection of resources and sources of public funds
and their use. Accountability seen from a functional perspective is a level with five different stages starting
from a stage that requires more objective measures at a stage that requires a subjective measure. The stages
are:
· Probability and legality accountability that is the accountability of the use of funds in accordance
with the approved budget and in accordance with applicable legislation
· Process accountability that is accountability that uses processes, procedures, and measures in
carrying out the specified activities
· Performance accountability is to see whether the activities performed are efficient
· Accountability program that highlights the determination and achievement of goals that have been
set.
· Policy accountability is the stage of selection of various policies that will be applied or not.
Most countries that adhere to democracy, true sovereignty is in the hands of the people. Government as an
institution that is given legitimacy in running and regulating people's lives through the rules and taking and
using the source of the fund from the people, must give responsibility to all its activities to society. If seen in
the implementation of the community curiosity is not only limited to information related to finance but more
than that, people want to know more whether the government has worked in an economical, effective and
efficient.
Dimensions of Accountability
Hopwood and Tomkins (1984) and Elwood 1993) gave the dimensions of accountability that must be met by
public institutions to include:
· Law and Honesty Accountability: Legal and honest accountability is the accountability of public
institutions to behave honestly in their work and to comply with applicable legal provisions. Legal
accountability demands law enforcement, whereas honest accountability demands healthy
organizational practices, and malpractices.
· Process Accountability: Accountability processes associated with procedures used in performing
tasks are good enough in terms of adequacy of accounting information systems, management
information systems, and administrative procedures.
· Program Accountability: The program's accountability is concerned with whether the objectives set
out are achievable or not and whether the organization has considered alternative programs that
provide optimal results for a minimal cost.
· Policy Accountability: Policy accountability relates to public institutions' accountability for the
policies adopted. Public institutions should be able to account for established policies taking into
account future impacts.
Accountability in Good Governance and Democracy

Even though the initial claim of Schmitter and Karl (1991) that accountability was the central key to most
definitions of democracy met with overwhelming indifference and occasional expressions of hostility cf.
Schmitter, (2004), a decade and a half later, it became fashionable to associate 'accountability' with
'democracy' or 'democratization' Lindberg, (2009).
I agree with Waldron (2014)that agent-accountability is better related to democracy and good governance,
even though there is nothing inherently democratic or even political about agency (except in the very broad
sense that “politics” can cover any human relation that is freighted with power). Agent-accountability is the
key to our understanding of democracy even when it is not essentially ademocratic idea. Moreover, agent-
accountability operates in a variety of contexts, including non-political ones. Even though in its political
uses, agent-accountability need not be associated with democracy, democracy on the other hand cannot do
without it. This exists in the form of relationship between P and A.

Good Governance, Democracy and Peace

Transparency and accountability initiatives (TAIs) have had an impact on increased access to data by
citizens and the accountability of the political settlement between state and society. A few studies have
started to identify key factors that affect transparency and accountability outcomes. The factors affecting the
link between more and better data and increasing citizens' access to that data include: Data quality, Citizens'
capabilities and needs discrimination and inequality, information and communication technologies (ICTs)
and info-mediaries (such as the media, technology innovators, CSOs and international platforms. All these
play a vital role in bridging the gap between data and citizensas seen in Carter(2014).
Eight key principles of accountability are effectiveness, efficiency, transparency and the rule of law,
participation and responsiveness, consensus and equality/inclusiveness have in recent years become nearly
universal features of the policy statements and programs of international development organizations
Carothers and Brechenmacher, (2014)
USAID's recent strategy on democracy, human rights, and governance frames “greater citizen participation
and inclusion, and more accountable institutions and leaders” as its primary high-level objectives, arguing
that this framework will help “empower reformers and citizens from the bottom up” (USAID, 2013).
Transparency, in a business or governance context, that is transacted in honesty and openness. Thus
transparency and accountability resonate with each other in their operational paradigms.
Monitoring and Evaluation for Accountability in Governance

Khotami (2017) stated that accountability is especially related to policy-making. It provides an image of
transparency and trust for those who run it. So, accountability can be interpreted as a monitoring and
evaluation (M&E) activity of the implementation process of organizational performance to be accountable
so that it becomes a feedback for organizational leadership in the future. Accountability is often used in a
rather broad sense, for example, often equated with the concept of evaluation, but the essence of
accountability is a concept that can be synchronized with responsiveness, responsibility, and effectiveness.
Therefore, monitoring and evaluation should be used for accountability. Social development is concerned
about the primary purpose of monitoring and evaluation. Most people agree that M&E should be used as a
tool for accountability. Of course, different CSOs have different needs, and therefore different views on the
relative importance of learning and accountability. Much depends on how a CSO is set up, and what it is
trying to accomplish. For example, CSOs engaged in innovative or experimental work may devote more
time and resources to M&E for learning than CSOs who are primarily agencies contracted to deliver
services dictated by donors or governments. The latter may prefer to concentrate more on M&E for
accountability purposes Simister and Scholz, (2020) cf. Smit, (2007), Simister, (2019), Ross, (2015) and

Adams, (2007).
Accountability as a Tool for Galvanizing Peace and Development

Development is actually a function of proper accountability at the individual, organizational and national
level Thomas (1998; Ninalowo (2003); Agbaet. al. (2008); and Richardson (2008). Furthermore,
development in any nation is a function of a leadership that subscribes to the principles of accountability in
government at various levels Ninalowo (2003); Agweda (2007); Otinche (2007) and Richardson (2008).
There is a positive corollary relationship between effective leadership, and proper accountability in the
handling of public affairs in a nation's quest for development and peaceful coexistence Edoho (2007);
Kuada (2010). Since, wastages are inevitable in a government that poorly manages public resources
Richardson (2008), corruption sets in spiraling and triggering hunger, poverty, ethnic conflicts and general
insecurity. In such situations of stagflation, economic decline, souring inflation, stagflation,
unemployment, educational decay and political tyranny, it is easy for insecurity, terrorism, ethnic violence,
extreme institutionalized corrupt practices and thuggery to fester and spread as a cankerworm.
Accountability is therefore vital to good governance in checkmating to root causes of conflict, violence and
insecurity of any sort. Accountable governance is thus essential for good governance in as much as good
governance “seeks to improve the capacity of the state, encompassing a variety of strategies to increase
efficiency and effectiveness of government performance” Omona (2010). A government is accountable
when its leaders are responsive, and have respect for the rule of law, in which citizens can seek redress in the
courts for acts of omission and commission by the government and its officials Adamolekun (2005).
Accountability arrangements “are intended to ensure both the constitutionally appropriate use of elective
political power itself, and the coordinated, systematic and planned bureaucratic implementation of the
policy purposes defined through the exercise of that power” Gregory (2007).
As already stated above, accountability and accountable governance builds confidence in the system
concerning the wielding and utilization of power and authority in an organization, thus settling, dispelling
and diffusing disagreements, conflicts, fear of sanctions and any other type of fear/suspicions that may exist
in the minds of citizens, employees and/or agents working under a principal.
In fact, it is the failure of successive governments in Nigeria since independence, to embrace and entrench
the kultur of proper management of public resources and accountability that has bred the factors that have
been militating against initiatives for development. This has resulted in general underdevelopment with its
consequential paradigms of poverty, hunger, illiteracy, and general lack of civil society among the people
and aggressive political, social, ethnic, and economic instability and personal insecurity being experienced
in the country today (Gberevbie, Shodipo and Oviasogie, (2013); Onah(2005); Agweda (2007);
Gberevbie(2011).It is a fundamental requirement for proper management of resources towards the
galvanization of development in any society Richardson (2008).
In fact, underdevelopment in Nigeria is a function of poor leadership at various levels of government

(federal, state and local) that fails to subscribe to proper accountability in the management of public
resources Gberevbie, Shodipo and Oviasogie, (2013). This has resulted in many levels in the failure of
governance and government, especially at the Local Government, State and the federal levels, with the
legislative houses at all level being used merely as appendages for sharing government funds with impunity.
Conclusion
From the foregoing, the following conclusions can be comfortably reached with certainty:
· There is a resonance between accountability and governance as both must operate in tandem to yield
any positive dividends of spurring and stimulating development
· Similarly, there is a symbiotic relationship existing between accountability and the entrenchment of

democratic values and the continuity of strong principles of democracy

· Where good governance exists, it births dynamic and accountable governments in institutions and
organizations all over the world
· Accountability carries with it a responsibility that promotes fairness, equity and transparency at all
levels. This alone has the capacity to successfully tackle and banish hunger, unemployment (arbeit
loss), poverty, disease, squalid and ghetto living.
· Accountable governance is the remedy for dealing with the emergence and sustenance of insecurity,
which has become a business of some sorts in Nigeria. If the culture of accountability becomes
common place in Nigeria, institutional and all other types of corruption,including kidnapping for
ransom [money], rape, and herdsmen attacks, ethno-religious crises, EJKs, general insecurity, other
such vices and sundry lack of peace will decline drastically. This is because there will be much
resources to fund government programs that will stimulate economic growth.
· Thorough accountability implies the continues subjection of all institutions, units and sectors of
government, private sector, CBOs, FBOs and NGOs periodically to strategic planning and M&E as
is the habit of JPMR
· There is no doubt that Nigeria will develop radically through all the indices of development that have
been designed for its measurement, whether you decide to use the vertical [top-bottom, or bottom-
top] or the horizontal approach if the proper principles of accountability are embraced and are
nurtured into a national ethos and kultur.
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Messianic Concept in the Bible: Its Development Through the Ages
MESSIANIC CONCEPT IN THE BIBLE: ITS DEVELOPMENT

THROUGH THE AGES
Daniel James Tali (Ph.D)

08063321302, 08154828937 (talidaniel@ymail.com)
A Lecturer With Gindiri Theological Seminary, Plateau State
Abstract
The concept of the messiah in the Bible has developed over the years which is worth studying. The goal of
this research is to find out the meaning of the “messiah” to investigate the development of the concept of the
messiah through the ages and to examine some of the mission of the messiah. The data for this research were
collected from books, journals, dictionaries and encyclopedias, among others which were sourced from the
internet and libraries. The data were analyzed through the discussion, descriptive and historical methods.
The research found out that the concept of the messiah has really developed over the age. During the early
times, messiah denotes a relationship between God and the Israelites, it later develop to mean a human
deliverer, which is fulfilled in Jesus. The mission of the Jesus as the messiah is primarily deliverance from
sin and bondage of the devil. The research recommended that since Jesus is believed to be the messiah, all
those that have the need of deliverance from sin and the bondage of the devil should come to him.
Introduction
Messianic concept is a concept that is found both in the religious and the secular or political cycles. This
concept is found in many religions of the world including Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism,
Buddhism, Taoism, Zoroastrianism, Babism, among others. In Christianity, the expected Messiah is
“Christ”, in Islam, the expected Messiah is “Mahdi and Christ”, in Judaiism, the expected Messiah is
“Messiah or Mashiach”, in Hinduism, the expected Messiah is “Kalki”,in Buddhism, the expected Messiah
is “Maitreya”, in Taoism, the expected Messiah is “Li Hong”, in Zoroastrianism, the expected Messiah is
“Saoshyant” and in Babism, the expected Messiah is “He whom the Lord shall make manifest” (Haymond
1-2). Similarly, in the secular and political arena, many are also considered to be “messiahs”. For example,
Adolf Hitler, the former German head of state was considered by some to a “messiah” who was sent to save
Germany, Donald Trump was also considered by himself and others to be a “messiah” or the chosen one who
was sent to save America and Elon Musk, a technology guru is also considered by some to be a “messiah”
who is sent to save the mankind from the destruction of the planet (Haymond 2). This implies that the
messianic concept is common to religions, especially Christianity which is the main focus of this research.
Conceptual Clarification Of The Term “messiah”

A messiah is someone who is anointed with the hope of coming to redeem Israel and/or the church either
from her physical or spiritual bondage (Evans and Porter 698). Longman Dictionary of contemporary
English adds that a messiah is a great religious leader who, according to the Jewish believe, will be sent by
God to save the world (Summers 1034). Still yet, Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary says, a messiah is
Jesus Christ who was sent into the world to save people from evil and sin (Wehmeier 739). Evans and Porter
Opine that “The appearance of this anointed figure is usually understood to be part of a larger eschatological
drama whereby human activities on earth is appreciably altered” (698). It is believed that when the messiah
appears, he will make the will of God tangibly and perhaps permanently experience. Usually under the
rubbic “kingdom of God”. The anointed figure is usually believed to be the climax of human history and he
will subsequently be succeeded by other anointed figures (Evans and Porter 698).
The English word “messiah” is gotten from the Greek word Messias (cf.Jn.1:41; 4:25). This Greek word
messias is actually a transliteration of the Hebrew word masiah (2Sam.22:51; 23:1). Masiah means
someone who is “smeared” or “anointed” (with oil). The word masiah occurs 38 times in the Old Testament.

The Greek equivalent Christos occurs 529 times in the New Testament (cf. Lxxx 2Sam.22:51; 23:1). About
half of the usage of this word Christos in the New Testament was by Paul, the apostle. In fact, it will be more
than half if the whole Pastoral Epistles is considered. The noun or nominal form of the Hebrew masiah is
derived from the verb form masah, this can also be applicable to the Greek. When the Hebrew form masiah
is used in its definite sense hammasiah it means “The messiah”, and also when the Greek definite form
christos is used hochristos it means “The Christ” (Evans and Porter 698-699; Lockyer 1-2).
Theetimology Of The Root M-s-h

There are basically two words that are derived from the root msh: They are: masah (verb form) and masiah
(noun form). Masah, especially in the west Semitic languages has the basic meaning “rub or anoint”. In
some other cases, it carries the meaning or denotes the semantic domain of “measuring”, especially when
used in homonymous sense. This is equivalent to the Akkadianmasahu(m) which means “measure, measure
out, or flare up” and Namsu(m) which means “a leather container for unguent?”. The Akkadian verb
pasasu(m) means “anoint or rub in”; passum means “anointed”; pissatu means “anointing oil”; pisisu(m)
means “anointed one”(priest) (Botterweck, Ringgren and Fabry 43; McClintock and Strong 1-2; Easton 1;
Piper 1-5).
The Amorite masihaan and masuhurun can be derived from qatil form of the verb masah. In ugaritic
language, the root verb msh rarely carries the meaning of “anoint”(Botterweck, Ringgren and fabry 44).
While the root msht means “anointing” and (sm)nmshtktpm means “anointing oil or the enchanters”. Still
yet, there are other texts with the root msh in the sense of shatter, strike down or the like which remain
unexplained (Botterweck, Ringgren and Fabry 13; McClintock and Strong 1-2; Easton 1; Piper 1-5).
In Aramaic, especially from the old Aramaic, the root msh carries the meaning of “measure”. The nominal
form of the root msh include messah, and misha both mean “anointing oil”. The Arabic verb masaha clearly
covers the full range of meanings “rub, or wipe”; “measure out”; “rob of”; “deprive of”. This may possibly
be in the case of moving one's hand over something. This usage suggests an original meaning “rub”,
developing such senses as “anoint”, “measure”, “take”, “extinguish” etc., as well as derivation from an
onomatopoeic bilateral m/ps or sh/h echoing the sound of rubbing; nevertheless this theory remains a
speculation (Botterweck, Ringgren and Fabry 13; McClintock and Strong 1-2; Easton 1; Piper 1-5)
Usage of Masiah (messiah)

The noun masiah which is a qatil formation has a passive meaning; this is in contrast to the form masuah
with a punctiliar meaning. Botterweck, Ringgren and Fabry suggest that masiah probably conveys
customary meaning, “permanently endowed with a status” (49). They add that this word masiah appears in
the Old Testament mostly in exclusive syntagmatic association with Yahweh (49). However, this word is
used in some late text to refer to the high priest (Dan.9:25f). But it should be noted that it was originally used
in syntagmatic association with Yahweh. As a way of comparison, masiah was used as a passive participle
modifying the shield of Saul, “anointed with oil no more” after his death. Thus, this usage suggests that the
noun was as flexible as the verb (Isa.21:5). On the contrary, 2 Samuel 3:39 use the passive participle to
modify melek which may probably be a textual error. This is because, to date, no ancient Near Eastern
parallel has been found to refer to messiahYahweh as a title of theological provenience (Botterweck,
Ringgren and Fabry49; McClintock and Strong 1-2; Easton 1; Piper 1-5).
The Old Testament Concept of the Messiah

The concept of the messiah in the Old Testament can be traced to the anointed priests, kings and prophets.
However, these persons are never understood to be the eschatological figures of deliverance. Nevertheless,
this concept takes on an eschatological nuance in the third and second century B.C. This eschatological
figure that is hoped for is a new Davidic king who will come to deliver his people from their enemies. What
fuelled this expectation were the oppression of Greek and Roman rule; the usurpation of the high priesthood
on the part of the Hasmoneans and their successors; and the later usurpation of Israel's throne by Herod and
his successors (Evans and Porter 699; McClintock and Strong 1-2; Easton 1; Piper 1-5).

Persons Anointed for special responsibilities in the Old Testament

In the Old Testament period, various persons were anointed with oil and set apart to fulfill some divine
responsibilities in their theocratic era. The persons that were anointed are: the Priests, Kings and Prophets
(Lev.4:3; 6:22, 1Sam.24:10, 2Sam.19:21; 23:1, Lam.4:20, 1Kg.19:16). This anointing indicated divine
appointment to the theocratic office concerned and therefore indicate that by virtue of the unction the
anointed persons belonged to a special circle of the servants of God and that their persons were sacred and
inviolable (1Chron.16:22). These persons anointed were always regarded as participating in the holiness of
their office (1Sam.24:6; 26:9, 2Sam.1:14) (Ladd 134; McClintock and Strong 1-2; Easton 1; Piper 1-5).
The first person anointed in this list is the priest, especially the high priest. Israel's tradition of anointing the
priest is ancient, and of special interest was the high priest anointed with holy oil (Ex.28:41;30:30;40:13-
15,Lev.7:35;16:32, Num.3:3;35:25) (698). It is recorded that Moses anointed and ordained Aaron with holy
oil. This fact is supported by the early rabbinic writing which gave preference to the priestly messiah more
than the royal messiah (cf.Hor.2:1, 2, 3, 6, 7; 3:1, Zebah4:3, Sota9:15) (498) (Evans and Porter 498;
McClintock and Strong 1-2; Easton 1; Piper 1-5).
The second person anointed in this list is the king; this anointing was to help him function effectively in
discharging his royal responsibilities. In most cases it is not God who performs the actual rite of the
anointing, but sends his servants to do it. The kings of Judah and Israel were “anointed” usually by prophet,
as well as by priests. This can be seen when Samuel anointed Saul to be the first king of Israel, and
subsequently David to be the second king (1Sam. 9:9, 15, 16; 10:1; 15:1, 17; 16:1-3, 12-13, 2Sam. 12:7). It
was also recorded that Nathan, the prophet and Zadok, the priest anointed Solomon as king after David;
Elijah was also commanded to anoint Hazael to be king over Syria, and Jehu to be king over Israel (1kg.
1:34, 39, 45, 2kg. 9:1-3, 6, 12). It should be noted that even in the time of judges, there was the tradition of
anointing kings (Judges 9:8, 15) (698)(Evans and Porter 698; McClintock and Strong 1-2; Easton 1; Piper 1-
5).
The last person anointed in this list is the prophet. The reason for this anointing was to equally help him
function well in discharging his prophetic responsibility. This can be seen when Elijah was asked by God to
anoint Elisha his successor (i.e. in order to take over from him) (1kg. 19:15-16); however, the deed of the
anointing was not recorded (i.e. whether Elijah used oil or not in the anointing). Elijah anointing Elisha
seems to be the only record of prophetic anointing in the Old Testament. However, in Isaiah 61 there was
mentioned of somebody being anointed to preach, and this is related to Jesus (Lk. 4:18-27). This passage
from Isaiah with the ministries of Elijah and Elisha is probably not accidental but reflect the tradition of the
anointed prophet” (Evans and Porter 698; McClintock and Strong 1-2; Easton 1; Piper 1-5).
The possibility of being anointed without oil in the Old Testament

God called some certain persons “his Anointed” even-though they were not formally anointed with oil. This
may possibly be because God has already consecrated and set them apart for his divine responsibility for
them; thus, Cyrus, the Persian is called “his (The Lord's) anointed (Isa. 45:1), the patriarchs were also called
“My anointed” (Ps. 105:15), and Israel is also called “God's anointed” (Hab. 3:13). Evans and Porter add
that when kings were anointed with oil they were called “the Lord's Anointed” (1Sam. 16:6; 24:6, 10; 26:9,
11, 16, 23) (698). Moreover, in the case of Elijah and Elisha there was no mention of using oil for the
anointing, therefore it may be possible that Elisha was anointed without oil.
Some Old Testament Scriptures on the Concept of the Messiah

It may be surprising to discover that throughout the whole Old Testament the title “the Messiah” does occur
even once. However, it occurs in different forms like “the Messiah of Jehovah” or “my Messiah”. Some
scholars argue that there is no place in the old testament where the term “Messiah” refers to an
eschatological figure (Ladd 134). However, this conclusion is highly debatable.

Psalm 2:2 is one of the outstanding scriptures that uses the term “Messiah” in its rightful sense; it refers to the
messianic king. This king is both God's son and the anointed one who will rule the whole earth on behalf of
God. Some scholars argue that Daniel 9:26 is also messianic in nature speaking of a coming “Anointed one”
or “son of man” who is mostly referred to as Christ especially by conservative scholars; while liberal
scholars insist that that was a reference to Onias iii who was a high priest in the time of the maccabean
uprising; still yet, others see it as other unknown leaders in maccabean times (135).
Ladd argues that “the earliest used of the term “messiah” in a messianic context is that found in the song of
Hannah (1Sm. 2:10) when she prays “The Lord will judge the ends of the earth; he will give strength to his
king, and exalt the power of his anointed”” (135). This prophetic prayer is beyond its immediate fulfillment
in the time of David, and Solomon his son, but to its eschatological fulfillment in the greater messianic king,
the son of David. It must be noted that in most of the prophecies which are looking forward to the final
Davidic king (i.e. the Messiah) is not always referring to David himself but rather a greater son of David.
The prophecy in 2Samuel 7:12ff says, David's kingdom will last forever. Meanwhile, history seems to deny
the fulfillment of this prophecy in David himself, this is because David finally died; however it must be
noted that the fulfillment of this prophecy is in the greater son of David, an eschatological figure (Ladd 135;
McClintock and Strong 1-2; Easton 1; Piper 1-5).
The Concept of The Messiah In Later Judaism

The most outstanding Old Testament prophecies which influence later Judaism are found in Isaiah 9 and 11.
Although in this passages, the messiah is not actually called “the messiah”, but rather called the king of
David's line who will be supernaturally empowered to “smite the earth with the rod of his mouth, and with
the breath of his lips he will slay the wicked” (Isa. 11:4). This same idea is also found in some prophetic
books (e.g. Psalms, Jeremiah, Ezekiel e.t.c.) that this king will purge the earth of wickedness, gather faithful
Israel, and reign for ever from the throne of David over a transformed earth. In Zachariah, the king is seen as
the one who secured victory and won peace for the children of Jerusalem. He is seen as the one who will
enter Jerusalem riding upon an ass triumphantly and victoriously, he will banish war, bring peace to the
nations and rule over all the earth (Zech. 9:9-10). Ladd opines that “The fact that he rides upon an ass instead
of a horse or chariot (Jer. 22:4) suggests that he has won the victory and returns to Jerusalem in peace”.
The Concept of the Messiah in Dead Sea Scrolls

The Qumran community or people were expecting two kinds of anointed persons: anointed priests (of
Aaron), and anointed king (of Israel) (136). This may probably being derived from the idea in Zechariah
4:14 that the function of the anointed one would be divided into a royal and a (high) priestly office. The two
messiahs will be God's instruments in the end-time. The coming of this two messiahs will be on the basis of
the covenant God made with the priestly line of Phinehas (Num.25:12ff), and the royal line of David
(2Sam.7:11-16). These messiahs are both subordinate to God. The expectation of the messiah is primarily
associated with God, and to the time of the salvation which he will inaugurate at the appointed date, when
righteousness will reign and there will be no more evil (Friedrich 519). It is believed in this community that
in the future the true and legitimate priesthood and monarchy will be restored according to the promise of
God. And because the Qumran sectarians were of priestly extraction and always exalting the priestly office,
they gave preference to the priestly messiah at the expense of the kingly messiah. Nevertheless, the
expatiation of Davidic king is very much important to them; they recognize David to be the branch through
which this messiah will come.
The Concept of the Messiah in Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha

4Ezra7:28-29 states that “For my son the messiah shall be revealed with those who are with him, and those
who remain shall rejoice four hundred years. And after these years my son the messiah shall die, and all who
draw human breath”. This shows that the Jews at this time were expecting a messiah. And their view of the
death of the messiah is similar to the death of Jesus Christ in Christianity. 4Ezra12:32 speak of the “Lion”
this is following a vision in 4Ezra11:1-12:3. The “Lion” in this context is identified as “the messiah whom
the most high has kept until the end of days, which will arise from the posterity of David” (this may possibly

be linked with Isaiah11:1 and Genesis49:9).
The Apocalypse of Abraham (Apc. Abr.31) speaks of a redeemer, and this redeemer is called “mine elect”
(cf. Eth. En.49:2; 55:4 also see Isa.42:1; 49:7). The coming of this elect one is an important and essential part
of God's future and final action (Friedrich 517).
The Syrian Baruch and 4Esdras were written in the first A.D and composed after 70A.D. The term “the
anointed” is used here to refer to a royal figure of the end-time. In this time, distinction is made between the
period in which the anointed is connected (i.e. the period of salvation), and a more important period where
he plays no role at all. That a time of war, earthquake, fire, hunger and confusion shall come, and that those
nations that oppressed Israel will be destroyed; and when this is done the messiah shall reign in peace (S.
Bar.53; 72-74; 72:2; 73:1). That this “messiah” or “Anointed one” is of the seed of David. He will judge and
destroy his foes; however, he will deliver the remnant of the people of Israel and cause them to live in joy to
the Day of Judgment. In addition, when the invisible city and the hidden land appear, then the messiah with
his companions will be manifested to grant joy for a period to those who remain, after which “the messiah”
and all who breath will die (4Esr.12:32;7:28f) (Friedrich 515). Psalms of Solomon was written by an
unknown author and shortly circulated amount the Pharisees after when Pompey brought Palestine under
the rule of Roman Empire in 63B.C. There was a prayer in this book for the coming of God's kingdom (17:4),
through the promise king, the son of David (17:5, 23). This king will be a king who was anointed by the Lord
(17:6). Who when he comes, he will smite the earth with the word of his mouth, he will purge the earth from
sin, he will crush the heathen nations and deliver Jerusalem, gather the tribes of Israel and then reign as king
forever. The expected kingdom is here on earth, and political in nature (Ladd 136; McClintock and Strong 1-
2; Piper 1-5).
The view in the book of Enoch is similar to the “son of man” found in the book of Daniel. Ladd says, “Enoch
views this messiah as “a pre-existent, heavenly, supernatural son of man (as it is) in Daniel7:13”” (136).
Even though some scholars see a difference between the Davidic king and the son of man, however, the book
of Enoch refers to this “son of man” as the messiah.
The Concept of the Messiah in Rabbinic Writings

th
The concept of the messiah is very much discussed in rabbinic writings. For example, in the 14 benediction
of the palestinian recession of the prayer of eighteen benedictions which is derived from shemuel the less,
these petitions were made unto God “in thy great mercy O Yahweh our God, have pity on Israel thy people,
and on Jerusalem thy city, and on Zion the habitation of thy glory, and on the temple, and on thy dwelling,
and on the monarchy of the house of David, the messiah of the righteousness” (Friedrich 521). It should be
noted that this prayer relates more to the Davidic dynasty and to a messiah. There was however no consensus
as to the date of this writing among scholars. Prayers like “Let the shoot of David sprout quickly and raise up
his horn with thy help. Blessed be thou, Yahweh, that thou dost cause a horn of help to grow”(Friedrich 521).
These among many prayers were said showing the need for a messiah. There was also prayer to God for the
redemption of his people and the coming of his messiah. Friedrich says, “All these prayers adopt
expectations expressed…, but they are primarily governed by the hope of a new independent
state”(Friedrich 521). This seems to give the popular view held by Jews in Jesus' time about their kind of
expectation of the messiah (Acts 1:6).
Even though there was no single mention of the messiah on the part of Tannaitic scholars from the period
prior to the destruction of the temple in 70 A.D., however Friedrich argues that the mishnah incidentally
mentions the name of the messiah once in Sota. 9, 15; that there will be collapse of order, the dissolution of
norms and rules, war, pestilence and famine, all of these are expected directly before the coming of the
messiah (522). It was argued that the reason why there was no reference to the messiah in the earliest
Tannaitic writings was probably because of the rejection of zealots intrigues, opposition to the imminent
eschatological expectation of some apocalyptic groups at the time, political considerations, the bad
experiences suffered under the rule of the Hasmoneans, and it could also be that the leading rabbis at that

time were concerned about the exposition and observance of the law (522). The view that the expectation of
messianic king died along with the ancient prophets and their prophecies, and was only revived in the New
Testament times cannot hold water because of what we have seen above.
In the Targrum, the Messiah is a prophet and teacher of the law as well as king. He makes a living and new
reality or covenant between God and the people (Isa. 42:6). He is led by the fear God and does not transgress
the command of the law (Isa. 11:3; 9:5). The Holy Spirit rest on him with prophecy gifts, he has the task of
establishing right, hence causes all to hearken to the law, and sinners will be hurled by him into Gehenna
(Isa. 11:2, 42:1, 4). Friedrich argues that apart from the incidental reference (Isa. 42:6); there is nothing said
about the messiah enlightening the Gentiles. The Messiah rules thus, in a clean land, there is peace and
prosperity, in his rule all unrighteousness will cease, and he will rule righteously, he will rebuild the temple,
in his days there will be resurrection and other miracles, men will live long (Zech. 6:13, Hos. 14:8, Hab.
3:18, Isa. 53:10) (Friedrich 522).
The view in Talmudic literature and Midrashin is almost the same with that of the Targrum. However, there
th
are some little additions from other traditions. For example, in the 4 century, according to a tradition, Rabbi
Hillel thought that Messiah had come in the days of Hezekiah, there is however later agreement that he
belongs to the future(Friedrich 524). According to this view, the name of the Messiah was created before the
world began; this creation was along with the Torah, conversion, the Garden of Eden, Gehenna, the throne of
grace and the temple. That before the Messiah comes to the earth, there will be severe distress and
tribulation; this is characterize by war, famine, pestilence, bad crops, apostasy, the overthrown of moral
ordinances and even the breakdown of natural laws (Friedrich 524). There is disagreement among rabbis as
to the actual name of the messiah and the details of his appearance. However, some equated him with David;
nevertheless most of them agree that he is David's son. His names are: Shiloh, b Sanh, Yinnon, Chaninah,
Menachemb Hezekiah, David, the leper of the house of instruction e.t.c. (Friedrich 524). The coming of this
messiah will be prepared by conversion and obedience to the law, since it was sin that delayed his coming.
One view holds that God will send the messiah when there are many traitors in Israel and few pupils in the
house of instruction. Another tradition holds that the coming of the messiah will first be found among lepers
and other sick people in Rome that once they hear his coming they will assemble under leadership of the
Roman Empire to fight against Jerusalem. Then the messiah will either be thrown into prison by hostile
Israelites and Gentiles or he will flee to the wilderness with his followers, and after 40 days, he will destroy
his enemies with the breath of his mouth. Yet, another view has it that the messiah will blunt the teeth of all
opposing people, however, only the nation that enslave Israel will remain alive (Friedrich 524 – 525).
Examples of Messianic Figures in the Rabbinic Writings

During this time, many heroes were hailed as messiahs. Simon bar koseba, leader of the second war of the
Jewish independence was considered to be a messiah. Rabbi Akiba hailed him (simon bar koseba) as the
promised messiah on the basis of John 24:17. Rabbi shim'onbyochai said, “Akiba my teacher publicly
stated; A star…has arisen out of Jacob, (meaning that) koseba has come forth out of Jacob. When my teacher
Akiba saw koseba he said…This is the king, the messiah …” (Friedrich 523). At this early period of simon
bar koseba's war, the high priest was El'azar. Contrary to the Qumran community, the king instead of the
high priest takes precedence here. The problem was that even though, Koseba was not a descent from David
nd
but was called the messiah. However, Koseba incident confirms that even in the 2 century A.D messianic
expectation was not yet fixed, especially of the expectation of the messianic kingdom (of the redeemer) and
not vice versa (Friedrich 523).
There are two kinds of messiahs who were believed to come and perform different functions, these are:
messiah bDavid and messiah bJoseph. Messiah bDavid is anointed for kingly rule, while messiah bJoseph is
anointed for military action. One tradition holds; that Messiah bJoseph is the son of the widow of Zarephath
who Elijah raised again. That he will be manifested and lead his armies from upper Galilee to Jerusalem
where he will rebuild the temple and defeat the people surrounding Israel. After 40 years he will be killed in
battle against his enemies as Gog. And the people will lament for him (Zech. 12:10). Messiah bDavid whose

coming is contemporary with messiah bJoseph will finally defeat the enemies of Israel. The death of
Messiah bJoseph has no expiatory significance; however, the death of Messiah bDavid has it. It is actually
difficult to trace the origin of Messiah bJoseph. Nevertheless, it may be traced back to the older Messianic
concept which the synagogue held. This is perhaps a proof that Messianic ideas were much more
complicated in the time of Jesus than before him(Friedrich 527).
The Nature of Messianic Expectation in Later Judaism

It is generally believed that not only few Jewish people were expecting a messiah, but the whole Jewish
nation. The nature of the messiah was “… as a man born of men”. For him Christians should accept a second
God alongside the creator of the world. And that their final hope should not only be in God, but in a man, the
messiah. That the messiah, might be there already without him knowing it, however in the fullness of time
Elijah will manifest him, and then appear in glory. He will distinguish himself with the perfect observance of
the law, and vindicate himself as the messiah. Part of Trypho's view of the messiah coincidently fit into the
messiahship of Christ. Nevertheless, Trypho reference to the suffering of the messiah rejects crucifixion, as
contrary to the law(Trypho524).
The Concept of The Messiah In The New Testament

The New Testament, especially the gospels is an important source for the study of how the Jewish people
expected the messiah. This could be similar to the view found in psalms of Solomon. It is very clear and
explicit that the people in the New Testament expected the appearance of a messiah (Jn.1:20, 41; 4:29; 7:31,
Lk.3:15). He was to be a son of David (Mt. 21:9; 22:42). While it was recorded that he will be born in
Bethlehem (Jn. 7:40-42, Mt. 2:5), there was also tradition that he would suddenly appear among the people
from an obscure origin (Jn.12:34). Ladd argues that “The most important element in this expectation is that
the messiah would be the Davidic King. The wise men from the east came seeking the one who was born
king of the Jews. The scribes understood the significance of the question of the wise men about such a king
and directed them to Bethlehem where the promised ruler would be born” (137).
Davidic Descent of the Messiah (Jesus)

The Davidic descent of Jesus is confirmed in the New Testament as rooted from the gospel story itself. Blind
Bartimaeus calls Jesus “Son of David” (Mk. 10:49, 48). The request for the healing from Jesus presupposes
his healing ministry. When Jesus entered Jerusalem there was a shout about the “kingdom of our father
David that is coming” (Mk. 11:10). It should however be noted that when Jesus questioned the Jews for
referring to the Messiah as the son of David (Mk. 12:35-37), should not be taken as either Jesus rejecting the
Davidic descent or Davidic lineage, but should rather be seen as Jesus dealing with the adequacy of the
epithet itself. This is so because the messiah is greater than David and not the opposite. The Davidic descent
of Jesus was strongly affirmed by Paul when he refers to Jesus as God's son who was descent from David
according to the flesh (Rom.1:3). He also says, remember Jesus Christ, who was raised from the dead,
descended from David, as preached in my gospel (2Tim.2:8). The Davidic descend of Jesus can also be seen
in the genealogies of both Matthew and Luke and these genealogies is given base on their individual
tradition (Mt.1:1, 20; 15:22; 21:9, 15, Lk.1:32, Acts 15:16). The writer of revelation also attested to the
Davidic descendant of Jesus when he says, “Jesus … am the root and the offspring of David” (Rev. 22:16;
3:7; 5:5) (Ladd 137; Smith 1).
The Misunderstanding of the Messianic Mission of Jesus

Many people didn't understand the messianic mission of Jesus Christ, especially when it was prophesied that
a king shall be born to the Jews. Herod, the great misunderstood this prophecy to mean an earthly and a
political king who is coming to dethrone him from his throne. He therefore sought to kill the born new king
by all means (Mt.2:1-18). In the same way, the Pharisees and the priests misunderstood the ministry of Jesus
and thought it has a messianic element with political implication. They thought that his ministry popularity
would stir up a movement that the Romans would misinterpret it as rebellion and would intervene to destroy
both the movement and the nation as a whole (Jn. 11:47-48) (Ladd 138; Smith 1).
The people were actually expecting a mighty leader who would over thrown the Roman rule, and in

turn liberate then from its grip. This was earlier seen when Jesus fed the 5,000, the crowd enjoined the food
and wanted to take Jesus by force and make him king over them (Jn. 6:15). This action was in a sense to spur
Jesus to used his mighty power to over thrown the Roman government and inaugurate a new kingdom of
God. The fact that the Jews were expecting a political messiah must be appreciated looking at the various
revolts against the Roman rule at that time. The people would have wholly supported Jesus even to the point
of death, if only he had proven to be a political messiah. However, when Jesus clearly showed to them that
his mission was a different one; that he didn't come for an earthly kingdom but spiritual one, in which the
people were to eat his body and drink his blood, the people turned away from him and even against him, and
his popularity warned (Jn.6:66). The Jews were expecting a messiah who would deliver them from the bond
and yoke of Rome, and not merely someone who would deliver them from sin (Mt.1:21) (Ladd 138; Smith
1).
It must be noted that Jesus did not publicly declared himself to be the messiah. Ladd says “Had Jesus
publicly proclaimed himself to be the messiah, that proclamation would have been received by the people as
a rallying call for rebellion against Rome” (138). If this was actually the fear of the Jews, then their fear may
be right (Jn.11:47-48). This would possibly be the reason why the title “messiah” was not used until after the
resurrection of Jesus, when the people had understood his messianic mission (138; Smith 1).
In the early church, there was a pronouncement on the day of Pentecost “God has made him both Lord and
Christ; this Jesus whom you crucified (Acts 2:36). This pronouncement is actually important because in a
sense it is able to link the Lordship of Jesus with his messiahship suggesting that one title is not considered
sufficient in describing the present status of Jesus. Ladd argues that even though, Jesus didn't publicly
declared himself as the messiah, but he must have made himself know to his disciples as the messiah
otherwise, how would it have spread widely that Jesus was the messiah. Therefore, the words of Acts 2:36
must mean that since the death and resurrection of Jesus, God has exalted him and declared him to be not
only a messiah but a messiah-Lord (i.e. an enthroned messiah contrasted with a suffering messiah). Peter
with boldness made this clear without any fear of contradiction from his audience of referring to a political
messiah, because a crucified Christ wouldn't be considered a potential political messiah. There is also
difficulty in interpreting Acts 3:20. Which says, “That he (The lord) may send the Christ appointed for you,
Jesus”? Does this refer to the future (return from heaven) or the past? When this passage is superficially
considered it may refer to (the future) meaning that Jesus will only become the Messiah in the future
(Probably after resurrection). This view supports the adoptions' view. However, this passage could rightly
be interpreted as the coming in future of the one who is already appointed the messiah prokecheirsmenon.
And this would probably be the correct interpretation (Ladd 138-139; Smith 1).
The Messianic Mission of Jesus

In The New Testament, the messianic mission of Jesus is best described in three ways: Jesus being the Priest,
the king and the prophet. As a Priest, he offered himself as the final sacrifice for the sinful humanity. Guthrie
affirms this by saying that the messiahship of Jesus is related to the high priest. Taking into consideration the
function of the high priest both in the Old Testament and the intertestamental period. This usage links the
messianic function with the mediatorial work. The peculiar figure Melchizedek also gives some support to
the idea of a priestly messiah. As a king, he is to rule all of God's creatures. As a Prophet, he is to speak forth
the word of God, make the will of God known and give direction to the people(Guthrie 250; Smith 1).
Paul argues that the Messianic mission of Jesus Christ has been accomplished. He therefore develops his
reflections on the new concept of the messiah which is fulfilled in the rising Christ, who ushers in a new and
spiritual kingdom, 2Corinthians 15:16 says, “from now on, therefore, we regard no one from a human point
of view, (Kata Sarka); even though we once regarded Christ from human point of view, we thus regard him
no more”. This does not mean that Paul is over emphasizing the spirituality of Jesus at the expense of his
humanity (historical), but he is just drawing a distinction between the historical Jesus KataSarka and
Kerygmatic Christ KataPneuma(Guthrie 250; Smith 1).

Conclusion
It must be noted that when the title “messiah” is used; it first of all denotes an exclusive relationship with
Yahweh. Nevertheless, the understanding of this term “messiah” was later developed to mean a human
deliverer, especially a king from David's line or a priestly messiah. Still yet, this term “messiah” continued
its development to mean someone specially chosen by God to deliver the whole human race from the grip of
evil and sin, and to establish the kingdom of God which is visibly seen through the church.Jesus is believed
to be the fulfillment of the long awaited hope of a deliverer. He is the one specially sent by God to deliver
humanity from sin and the bondage of the devil. This implies that Jesus did not come for a political mission.
Recommendations
1. Knowledge should be sought for because it will help people to have a comprehensive understanding
of the development of the messianic concept through the ages.
2. Jesus is popularly hailed as the messiah, especially by Christians. In view of this, anybody that wants
to enjoy deliverance from sin and the bondage of the devil must personally identify with him.
3. Since Jesus is believed to be the messiah, identifying with him in Nigeria can help deliver Nigeria
from sin and the bondage of the devil which are the root causes of the Nigerian predicaments.
Works Cited
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Testament volume 9. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdman Publishing Company, 1998.
Easton, M. G. Illustrated Bible Dictionary. PC Study Bible Formulated Electronic Database, Bible soft Inc.,
2006.
Evans, Craig A. and Stanley E. Porter.Dictionary of the New Testament Background. Downer Grove: inter-
Varsity press, 2000.
Friedrich, Gerhard. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 1974.
Guthrie, Donald. New Testament Theology. Leicester: Intervarsity press, 1987.
Haymond, Bryce. The Mystical “Messiah” in the World Traditions. https://www.thymindoman.com.
Accessed 6th June, 2023.
Kaiser, Walter C. TheChristian and the “Old” Testament. Pasadena: William Carey Library,1998.
Ladd, George Eldon. AT heology of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans publishing
company, 2000.
Lapide, Pinchas and Ulrich Luz. Jesusintwo Perspectives “A Jeswish-Christian Dialog”. Minneapolis:
Augsburg publishing house, 1985.
Lockyer, Herbert. “Messiah”.Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary. PC Study Bible Formulated Electronic
Database, Biblesoft Inc., 2006.
McClintock, John and Strong, James.“Messiah”.McClintock and Strong Encyclopedia.PC Study Bible
Formulated Electronic Database, Bible soft Inc., 2006.
Piper, O. A. “Messiah”.The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (Fully Revised and Illustrated).PC
Study Bible Formulated Electronic Database, Biblesoft Inc., 2006.Electronic.
Porter, Stanley E. The Messiah in the New and Old Testament. GrandRapids: William B. Eerdmans
Publishing Company, No Year.
Smith, William. “Messiah”.A Dictionary of The Bible. PC Study Bible Formulated Electronic Database,
Biblesoft Inc., 2006.
Summers, Della.Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English.Harlow: Pearson Education
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University press, 2000.

Effect of Job Stress on Counterproductive Work Behaviour Among Academic Staff of Kaduna Polytechnic
EFFECT OF JOB STRESS ON COUNTERPRODUCTIVE WORK

BEHAVIOUR AMONG ACADEMIC STAFF OF KADUNA
POLYTECHNIC
1
Micah AdamuGumus, (Ph.D)
2
Wurie Ogazinum
&
3
Okodeje Enonche Patricia
1,2&3
Department of Management Studies, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna State.
Corresponding author's contact: adamumicah203@gmail.com.
Abstract
Counterproductive work behaviour of employees and the factors that course changes in work behaviour of
employees are major areas of interest to employers across the globe. Hence, there is a need to look at some
factors that necessitated changes in employees' counterproductive work behaviour. The aim of the study is
to determine the combined effect of job stress dimensions on counterproductive work behaviour of
academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic. The study employs the survey research design and uses cross-
sectional approach of data collection. Krejcie and Morgan (1970) table for sample size determination was
used to obtain a sample of three hundred and twenty (320) academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic. Simple
random sampling technique was used in selecting the sample size based on the nature of the population. A
total of 320 copies of the questionnaire were distributed for data collection only 295 copies were retrieved
for analysis. Data collected were subsequently analysed using multiple regression analysis. Findings from
the study established that job stress dimensions have a significant and positive effect on counterproductive
work behaviour among academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic. Excess workload exerted the highest effect
while leadership problem has the lowest effect on counterproductive work behaviour however,
interpersonal problem has negative and inconsequential effect counterproductive behaviour of academic
staff. It was therefore recommended among others that; Management of Kaduna polytechnic should
intensify more effort on reducing the workload pressure on academic staff and arranging for break for the
staff while students are on holidays.
Keywords: Job stress, counterproductive work behaviour, excess workload, leadership problems.
Introduction
Counterproductive work behavior has been an issue of concern among several organizations across the
globe. Counterproductive work behaviour (CWB) refers to behaviour of employees that harms an
organization or its members (Spector & Fox, 2005) and it includes such acts as thefts, sabotage, verbal
abuse, withholding of effort, lying, refusing to cooperate and physical assault (Penney & Spector, 2005).
Organizations have been concerned on how to properly manage these CWB as they have negative impact on
organizations. Sudh and Waheeda (2013) found that counterproductive work behaviour is one of the most
serious problems faced by organizations today. Appelbaum, Deguire and Lay (2005) observed that
counterproductive work behaviour is of great concern to organizations, which organisations must take steps
to solve.
Many researchers are interested in carrying out research on workplace deviance because of its high rate of
occurrence and serious negative impact on organizations (Sulaiman & Bhatti 2013). Job stress has been
found in many organizations as one of the main factors causing counterproductive work behaviours. Various
forms of job stress include work overload, time stress, work anxiety, poor relationship with superiors and
other coworkers, lack of or narrow opportunities for growth, poor remuneration, e.t.c. contributes greatly to
its occurrence.

Job stress has become a major challenge for the management of Kaduna Polytechnique due to its immense
occurrence. To affirm this ugly situation, a recent Kadpoly chronicle publication report shows that, the
management of Kaduna polytechnic has confirmed that job stress among academic staff of polytechnic is
increasing at alarming rate hence, the management of the polytechnic has graciously agreed and declared
maximum of two weeks break for all the staff of the polytechnic every Christmas/ New Year season. This is
to reduce the workload and the time pressure on demand for submission of academic and other committee
reports expected from the academic staff.
It is a known fact to the Management of Kaduna polytechnic, as issues of counterproductive workbehaviour

such as, thefts, abuses, withdrawal, sabotage, absenteeism, and other forms of service deviance perpetrated
by some academic staff of the polytechnic, which has remained a major setback as the management of the
polytechnic strives harder in providing quality educational services to the public. Although disciplinary
actions have been taken on some of these staff found to have been involved in those counterproductive work
behaviours, yet the situation has not improved. This has remained a major issue to management of Kaduna
polytechnic hence, there is the need to carry out an investigation to determine whether job stress such as
excess workload, poor working condition, poor leadership, and inadequate facilities within the polytechnic
could be responsible for counterproductive work behaviour among academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic.
Several studies have been conducted globally to determine the effect of job stress on counterproductive
work behaviour thus, in Nigeria, only few studies considered counterproductive work behaviour in schools
and tertiary institutions which include the research carried out by Oluwakemi and Olanrewaju, (2014)they
conducted research to determine the effect of stress on counterproductive workplace behaviour among 360
secondary school teachers. In addition, Onyishi and Onunkwo (2014) also conducted similar research
among 223 secondary school teachers. Also, Alibi, Murtala and Lawal (2012) examined effects of stress on
counterproductive work behaviour among 191 Kwara state university lecturers. The majority of these
studies were targeted on secondary schools and Universities while, this study focused on Polytechnic, with
reference to Kaduna Polytechnic. To the best of the researcher knowledge, no research has been conducted
in Nigeria, particularly in Kaduna polytechnic using the same job stressdimensions.
As a result of this gap, this study attempts to add to body of knowledge by conducting research to determine
the effect of job stress on counterproductive work behaviour among academic staff of kaduna polytechnic.
This study is unique as it provides empirical evidence on job stress and its effects on counterproductive work
behaviour among academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic. The study used excess workload, interpersonal
problems, leadership problems and inadequate facilities as proxies of job stress. Therefore, the main
objective of this study is to examine the effect of job stress on counterproductive work behaviour among
academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic.
Literature Review
To shed light and to guide the readers of this study towards understanding the major variables and proxies
used in this study, the need for conceptual clarification of these concepts becomes necessary.
Counterproductive Work Behaviour

The term Counter-productive Work Behaviour (CWB) has been defined by Chand and Chand (2014) as any
deliberate or unintentional activity on the part of an individual which can hamper the performance of self,
others, or organization. Counterproductive Work Behaviour may also be understood as the behaviour which
can harm or intended to harm self, people, and organizational resources. Counterproductive Work
Behaviour is an act which may be directed towards both the organization and individuals. As a result of
CWB's harmful impact, every organization strives to limit these harmful behavioursto increase or maintain
the organization's level of productivity (Abdullah, Huang, Sarfraz, Naseer, & Sadiq, 2021; Penny &
Spector, 2005; Sypniewska, 2020; Yang & Diefendorff, 2009). According to Spector (2005), CWBs can
occur at both the organizational (CWB-O) and interpersonal (CWB-I) levels. Behaviours that affect the
smooth running of the organization are termed CBWs at the organizational level. They include, but are not
limited to, absenteeism and misuse of organizational assets. Counterproductive work behaviours at the

interpersonal (CWB-I) level are behaviours that negatively affect the employees within the organization and
include acts such as favouritism, gossip, and harassment etc. Similarly, Spector, Fox, Penney, Brursema,
Goh, and Kessler (2006)classified CWBs into five main dimensions they include theft, abuse, productive
deviance, sabotage, and withdrawal while, according to penny and spectors (2005) considered theft,
sabotage, verbal abuse withdrawal of effort, lying, refusing to cooperate and physical assault as the
dimensions of CWB.
Job Stress
According to Salami (2010), job stress can be defined as the experience of unpleasant, negative emotions,
such as tension, anxiety, frustration, anger, and depression. In the view of Selye, (2019), stress is not
necessarily something bad, but it all depends on how an individual takes it. The stress of exhilarating,
creative successful work is beneficial, while that of failure, humiliation or infection is detrimental.”
(Sanvee, 2009).
Job stress is defined as a psychological state perceived by a person when dealing with imperative but
uncertain outcomes (Sager, 1991). The definition indicated that job stress might occur due to a lack of work-
related solutions and unpredicted problems. Such psychological states might appear as the inability to cope
with job demand either caused by insufficient capabilities and resources or inadequate motivation and
direction. On the other hand, Selye, (2019) argued that job stress depends on individual traits and stressor
stimuli. A person might engage in stress caused by problems while the other might not. As stressors caused
strains on an individual, they can decrease general health conditions (Desa et al., 2014; Lechat& Torres,
2016). Stress at work could be manifested through fear (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), anxiety or nervousness
(Desa et al., 2014). Also, Stress has been viewed as an environmental stimulus to an individual; it is as an
individual's reaction to environmental forces that had effects on individual performance. Because job stress
can threaten individual performance and family functions, which is quite dangerous.
The effect of job stress at the workplace may be positive or negative. Negative stress might interfere with the
ability on employees' productivity. It can lead to increased absenteeism, employee turnover, cost to
organisation and health hazards. Halkos and Bousinakis (2008) revealed that increased stress leads to
reduced productivity of an employee. Ali & Abid (2015) also revealed that job stress is one of the main
reasons for counterproductive work behaviour.
Job Stress and Counterproductive Work Behavior

Work stress refers to the process of creating a series of physiological, psychological, and behavioral
responses under the influence of personality and coping behavior when the stressors of personal goals are
threatened in a long-term and continuous manner in the work environment (Xu, 1999). Existing research
often uses a stress-emotional model to explain the negative consequences of work stress. According to the
stress-emotional model, individuals will perceive certain special environmental events as events that
threaten happiness, that is, work stressors.These stressors which includes work overload, time stress, work
anxiety, poor relationship with superiors and other coworkers, lack of or narrow opportunities for growth,
poor remuneration etc,can cause stress perception in the individual's psychological, physiological, or
behavioral aspects, leading to corresponding behaviour responses (Spector & Fox, 2005). The theory also
emphasizes that individual emotions play a vital role in the relationship between stress and the CWB (Ma &
Li, 2019).
Most scholars agree that job stress is an essential predictor of job CWB. Researchers found that job stress
can lead to CWB (Alexopoulos, Palatsidi, Tigani&Darviri, 2014; Khamisa, Peltzer, Ilic & Oldenburg, 2017;
Yaþlýoðlu, Karagülle&Baran, 2013). It also caused burnout (Khamisa et al., 2017), low quality of life
(Alexopoulos et al., 2014), and misconduct behavior (Penney & Spector, 2005). Many factors causing job
stress include unclear job requirements, overload, poor leadership, and lack of autonomy (Desa et al., 2014;
Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Desa et al. (2014) also found that personal characteristics of neuroticism and
lying were predictors for job stress. Empirical evidence also supported that person-fit is associated with

stress level at work (Deniz, Noyan&Ertosun, 2015).
According to stress pulse survey report (2019), 42% lose 15 – 30 minutes per day in counterproductive due
to stress, 35% lose 1hour or more per day in counterproductive due to stress while 24% reported that
counterproductive is unaffected by stress (Johan & Yusuf, 2022).
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework (Figure 2.1) of the study is developed based on the literature review and
researchers' observation. In this framework, stress is considered as independent variables which are
important stressors such as, over workload pressure, excessive responsibility, poor relationship, meet
deadline and harassmentat workplace which, is assumed will predict on the dependent variables
counterproductive work behaviour.
Figure 2.1
Conceptual framework
Independent Variables
Dependent Variable
Job Stress
Excess workload Counterproductive
Interpersonal Problem Work Behaviour
Leadership Problems
Inadequate Facilities
Source: Researchers
Research Methodology
This study adopted a survey research design based on the nature of the data collection procedure and the
instrument used for data collection (questionnaires). The study was carried out in Kaduna polytechnic,
kaduna State, Nigeria. The population of the study constitutes one thousand nine hundred and thirty-four
(1934) academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic. The figure of the population was obtained from the office of
the registrar of the polytechnic.
The statistical table devised by Krejcier and Morgan (1970) was employed to obtain a sample size of 320 for
this study. Data were sourced from both primary and secondary sources. A self-administered questionnaire
was the major instrument used for data collection. The questionnaire used was divided into two parts. The
first part gathers information about the demographic detail of the respondents. While the second part
consists of thirty items that measured the variables: excess workload, interpersonal problem, leadership
problem and inadequate facilities. (EWLD, IPPM, LPPM, IAFS, JBSS).
The items were developed by adapting the measurement scale of occupational stress questionnaire (OSQ).
The OSQ scale is a 20-item questionnaire developed by Salami, (2003) which the study used to measure the
stressor factors; excess workload, interpersonal problem, leadership problem and inadequate facilities
while, CWB is measured using 15-item questionnaire adapted from the work of Spector et al, (2006). All the
items are responded to on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree 1 to strongly agree 5.
Although the validity and reliability of the item have been tested and confirmed by the authors in their
various countries, there is need to test the reliability of the instrument since is being used in Nigeria and
Kaduna in particular. Thus,a reliability test of the instrument was carried out and the result of the test is
shown in table 3.1 below. Table 3.1

Reliability Test for Job Stress and Counterproductive WorkBehaviour

Scale Dimension No of Items Cronbach’s Alpha
JBSS Job Stress 15 0.812
EWLDExcess Workload 5 0.80
IPPM Interpersonal Problem 5 0.885
LPPMLeadership Problem 5 0.846
IAFS Inadequate Facilities 5 0.809
Overall Reliability Scale 350.894
Source: SPSS Output, 2023
Table 3.1 outlines the reliability result of all the job stress andCWB, which also contains the individual item
reliability test. Appreciably, all items are reliable and were used to investigate all the job stress dimensions
and counterproductive work behaviour of academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic, Nigeria. The extent of the
relationshipbetween job stress and counterproductive work behaviour shows a reliability coefficient greater
than 0.70. According to Ghozali (2013), the indicators are well thought-out as reliable to represent the
variables when the value of Cronbach's Alpha is higher than 0.7.
Table 3.2
Reliability Test for Job Stress and Counterproductive WorkBehaviour
Variable Min Max Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis
WKLD 9.00 16.00 13.0847 1.75692 -0.160 -0.465
IPPM 4.00 16.00 11.0678 2.31210 -0.616 0.830
LPPM 4.00 16.00 10.3559 2.52687 0.152 -0.254
IAFS 9.00 16.00 14.0339 1.77799 -0.887 0.412
JBSS 6.00 16.00 12.7288 2.04505 -0.211 -0173
Source: SPSS Output,2023
Table 3.2 reveals that among the job stressdimensions, inadequate facilities reported the highest mean score
of 14.034 compared with workload, interpersonal problem, and leadership problem with mean scores of
13.085, 11.068 and 10.356 respectively. This implies that inadequate facility is more rated than other job
stress dimension while the least rated is leadership problem. The standard deviations of 1.75692, 2.31210,
2.52687, 1.77799,and 2.04505 were obtained for workload, interpersonal problems, leadership problems,
inadequate facility, and job stress respectively. The skewness values were all negative except for leadership
problem with skewness of 0.152 meaning that the scores decreased more than it decreased for all the
variables except forleadership problem. The kurtoses were all less than 1 indicating a platykurtic series.
Out of the three hundred and twenty (320) questionnaires administered to academic staff of Kaduna
polytechnic, two hundred and ninety-five (295) questionnaires representing 91.5% were returned and found
useful for analysis.
The study employed Multiple Regression Analysis (MRA) method to determine the effect of job stress on
counterproductive work behaviour and four (4) hypotheses were developed as null hypotheses and tested @
5% (0.05) level of significance.
The regression model is represented as: Y = á + â1X1 + â2X2 + â3X3 + â3X3 + ânXn+ ?
Where: Y = Counterproductive work behaviour (CWB)
á = Constant Term
â= Beta coefficients
X1= Excess workload (EWLD)

X2= Interpersonal Problem(IPPM)

X3= Leadership Problem(LPPM)
X4= Inadequate Facilities(IAFS)
? = Error Term
Result Analysis and Discussion
Table 4.1:Model Summary of the Predictors and Criterion

Model R R. Square Adjusted R-Square Standard error of the Durbin
estimate Watson
1 .789 .623 .613 .27389 1.321

The regression coefficient denoted by 'R' in table 4.1 above indicates that there is a 0.789 or 78 percent
relationship between the independent variables (job stress dimensions) and the dependent variable
(counterproductive work behaviour). The coefficient determination is also represented by 'R2,' which is
0.623, indicating that the independent variables can predict 62.3 percent of the changes in
counterproductive work behaviour of academic staff of Kaduna Polytechnic. While other factors outside the
model account for the remaining 37.3 percent of changes in counterproductive work behaviour. The Durbin
Watson value of 1.321 implies that there is no evidence of autocorrelation. This is because the Durbin
Watson value of 1.321 is greater than 1 but less than 3.00 which indicates that the error terms are not
correlated as suggested by Field (Field, 2009).
Table 4.2 ANOVA of the Predictors and Criterion

Model Sum of Square Df Mean Square F-cal P-val F-crit
1 Regression 89.064 9 18.266 7.402 0.0136.213
Residual 354.331 286 1.817
Total 423.395 295
The regression equation is represented by a set of regression coefficients that are statistically significant
from zero, as shown in table 4.2, with an F-cal of 7.402 greater than F-crit 6.213 at 0.05 level of significances
which indicates that there is a significant relationship between the independent variable job stress and
dependent variable counterproductive work behaviour. While a P-val of value of 0.013 (p<05), indicating
the model's fitness. This indicates that the overall regression model is statistically significant, valid, and
suitable for any type of prediction. The independent variables, therefore, have a strong predictive influence
on counterproductive workbehaviour.

Table 4.3 Coefficient of the Predictors Variables
Variables Standard Standard StandardisedT- Stat P-Value Decision

Beta Error Coefficient
(Constant) 0.672 0.879 0.2210.025

Excess workload 0.945203.16 0.211 19.9252 0.001 Reject
Interpersonal prob 0.898 204.32 0.199 18.5876 0.238 Accept
Leadership prob 0.746 170.52 0.180 19.9581 0.004 Reject
Inadequate facilities 0.819 350.37 0.167 19.9472 0.002 Reject
Test of Hypothesis One

H01: Excess workload does not significantly affect counterproductive work behaviour of academic staff of
Kaduna polytechnic.
In Table 4.3 the result shows the contribution of the excess workload on counterproductive work behaviour
of academic staff as follow, (â = 0.945, t-sta = 203.16, P= 0.001, P<0.05). This result suggests that excess
workload contributes to influencing counterproductive work behaviour of academic staff of Kaduna
polytechnic. Thus, the null hypothesis which stated that excess workload does not significantly affect
counterproductive work behaviour of academic staff is rejected while the alternative hypothesis accepted.
Test of Hypothesis Two

H02: Interpersonal problems do not significantly affect counterproductive work behaviour of academic staff
of Kaduna polytechnic.
As shown in table 4.3 the result reveals as follow, (â =0.746, t-sta.= 19.9581, P= 0.004, P? 0.05).The result
implies that interpersonal problems do not significantly affect counterproductive work behaviour of
academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic. Therefore, the study accepts the null hypothesis, and rejects the
alternative hypothesis which states that interpersonal problems significantly affect counterproductive work
behaviour of academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic.
Test of Hypothesis Three

H03: Leadership problem does not significantly affect counterproductive work behaviour of academic staff
of Kaduna polytechnic.
Also, in the regression result in table 4.3, the result reveals as follow (â =0.746, t= 19.9581, P= 0.004,
P<0.05). The result indicates that leadership problems contribute to influencing counterproductive work
behaviour of academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic. Thus, the null hypothesis which stated that leadership
problems do not significantly affect counterproductive work behaviour of academic staff is rejected while,
the alternative hypothesis accepted.
Test of Hypothesis Four

H04: Inadequate facilities do not significantly affect counterproductive work behaviour of academic staff of
Kaduna polytechnic.
Similarly, in table 4.3 the contribution of inadequate facilities as it relates to counterproductive

workbehaviour is expressed as follow (â =0.819, t= 19.9472, P= 0.002, P<0.05). The implication of this
result is that inadequate facilities significantly and positively affect counterproductive behaviour of
academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic. Therefore, the study rejects the null hypothesis that states that
inadequate facility does not significantly affect counterproductive work behaviour of academic staff of
Kaduna polytechnic and accept the alternative hypothesis.
Discussion of Findings
Based on the results of the analysis, particularly the results of the test of hypotheses. The study uncovered
that excess workload has a significant impact on counterproductive work behaviour of academic staff of
Kaduna polytechnic. This implies that the burden of excess workload activities carried out by academic
staff of the polytechnic has an influence on the counterproductive work behaviour among the academic
staff. This finding is similar to the studies conducted by (Ali & Abid, 2015; Bai,Lin, & Wang, 2016)who
found that excess workload has significant effect on counterproductive work behaviour. However, the
study contradicted the results of Chraif, and Aniþei, (2011)who in their studies concluded that, excess
workload has an inconsequential effect on counterproductive work behaviour.
The study also discovered that interpersonal problems have no significant effect on counterproductive
work behaviour of academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic. This indicates that interpersonal problems are not
job stresselements that influence counterproductive work behaviour of academic staff of Kaduna
polytechnic. This result is consistent with the findings of (Astakhova, 2016; Ding, & Yu,2021) who found
that interpersonal problem has no significant effect on counterproductive work behaviour. In contrast, the
study conducted by (Dirican, &Erdil,2016;Edwards,2021) found that interpersonal problems have
significant effect on counterproductive work behaviour.
The study also uncovered that leadership problems havea significant effect on counterproductive work
behaviour of academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic. This suggests that leadership problems are a job stress
dimension that influences counter productive behaviour of academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic.
However, this result corroborates with the works of (Farooqui, & Nagendra, 2018; Grobler,2019). This
finding is contrary to the findings of (Lechat, & Torres,2016; Lauver, &Kristof-Brown, 2020) who found
that leadership problems do not influence counterproductive work behaviour.
Finally, the outcome of this study also revealed that inadequate facilities have a significant effect on
counterproductive work behavour of academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic. This result entails that
inadequate facilities are important job stress dimension that influences counterproductive work behaviour
of academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic. This finding concurs with the works of (Mayer, Salovey, &
Caruso,2018;Ogbonna, & Harris, 2012). However, it disagrees with the finding of Petrides, Pita, and
Kokkinaki, (2017)who found that inadequate facilities have insignificant effect on counterproductive work
behaviour among academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic.
Conclusion and Recommendations

In conclusion, this study aimed at identifying the effect of job stress on counter productive behaviour of
academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic, The study considered four dimensions of job stress: excess
workload, interpersonal problem, leadership problem and inadequate facilities,(independent variables) and
counterproductive work behaviour (dependent variable).
Based on the multiple regression test, job stress concurrently has significant influence on
counterproductive work behaviour. Moreover, excess workload has the most critical influence on
counterproductive work behaviour. This is followed by inadequate facilities and leadership problems.
However, interpersonal problems were found to be inconsequential in influencing counterproductive work
behaviour among academic staff. The study, therefore, concludes that job stressdimensions have
significant influence on counterproductive work behaviour of academic staff of Kaduna polytechnic.
Based on the findings of the results, the study recommends that:
i. Management of Kaduna polytechnic should intensify more effort on reducing the workload
pressure on academic staff and arranging for break for the staff while students are on holidays, that

will help to reduce the workload pressure and minimize counterproductive work behavior among
academic staff.
ii. Management should encourage interpersonal relationship among the academic staff by providing
adequate resource, and organizing interdepartmental social functionswhich could create a platform
for the staff to relate very well as one people working toward a common goal. This will help in
reducing interpersonal problems, thereby encouraging good working behaviour among the staff.
iii. Management should deliberately ensure that they provide quality leadership to the entire staff of the
polytechnic, by ensuring that they are transparent, accountable, responsible, and dependable,
strategic thinking and having a passion for good interpersonal communication with the staff. This
will help to reduce stress and encourage good working behaviour among the staff of Kaduna
polytechnic.
v. Management should ensure they provide enabled working facilities that will help the staff to
perform their duties without much challenge. A conducive working environment, working
equipment and motivational factors should be made available, as this will drastically reduce job
stress and encourage good working behaviour.
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The Role of Community Radio In The Promotion of Reproductive Health Of Rural
Women In Bauchi State, Nigeria: The Case of Toro Community Radio.
THE ROLE OF COMMUNITY RADIO IN THE PROMOTION

OF REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH OF RURAL WOMEN IN BAUCHI STATE,
NIGERIA: THE CASE OF TORO COMMUNITY RADIO.
Paul David Orude, MSc Sociology

Department of Sociology, Federal University, Gashua, Yobe State
08027089166 pauliyanaz@gmail.com
Dauda Daniel Abarshi, MSc Sociology

Department of Sociology, Bauchi State University
08030633328 daudaabarshi@gmail.com
Abstract
The study examined the role of community radio in promoting Reproductive Health of rural women in
Bauchi State, Nigeria. Various research has indicated that reproductive health information needs of rural
women include information on fertility, management of unplanned pregnancies, sexually transmitted
diseases, prenatal and postnatal care. Bauchi State Radio Corporation (BRC) FM Torostation was selected
for the study. A multi sampling technique was used to select 12 communities in Toro Local Government
Area for the study. A focus group discussion with 92 participants, eight from each community, was carried
out to collect data. The views of respondents showed that the majority agreed that women have information
about contraceptives, family planning, sexual health, ante-natal, implying that community radio has
impact in promoting reproductive health in rural communities in Toro Local Government Area. In general
community radio is very important in promoting reproductive health in rural communities in Bauchi State.
The BRC Toro FM appropriately produce specific programmes and audience engagements that promote
reproductive health. It concluded that by the role community radio plays government will also have a clear
idea of RH services that rural women need directly from them and also hear their views on reproductive
issues for appropriate intervention by stakeholders. It therefore recommends, among others, that license
fee waiver or low-cost licenses, transparency in the allocation of frequencies, among others, be given for
establishment of more community radio to further promote RH among rural women.
Key words: Community Radio, Reproductive Health, Rural Women, Maternal Health
Introduction
Community radio has become a new area of focus for researchers because of its strength to mobilise people
to participate in burning global and national issues at the grassroots level. Community radio can become a
powerful medium of low-cost communication of a country if properly utilised. Through community radio,
the culture, values, norms, and ideology of a given society are transmitted and shared to a wider audience.
Community radio serves as a veritable avenue to change human behaviour as well as to mobilise the
members of the society to realise common goals such as provision of basic amenities, initiating security
network to safeguard lives and property of members, or provision of relevant information that preserve the
general wellbeing of the society. Thus, community radio can be a useful tool for promotion of reproductive
health and well-being of vulnerable members of the community including women. The radio is a form of
community journalism that can be a source of health information and contributing factor to listeners'
intention to change health related behaviour (Smith, Menn & Mackyer, 2011). The radio can also serve as an
avenue to promote health, physical and psychosocial wellbeing by providing health-related information and
advice ((Hugelius, Adams & Romo-Murphy, 2019)

The Role of Community Radio In The Promotion of Reproductive Health of Rural
Meanwhile, Reproductive Health is a source of concern to every nation because it is crucial to the wellbeing
of every member of the society. Lack of information can negatively affect the reproductive health of
members of any given society. While most rural communities in Bauchi State demand basic amenities,
poverty and social disenfranchisement render women even more vulnerable to sexual and economic
predation (International Crisis Group, 2017, Orude, 2021). A number of sociocultural, political, legal, and
religious issues as well as harmful practices and regional differences affect reproductive health of women in
Nigeria (Omo-Aghoja, 2014; Orisaremi& Alubo,2012). While Nigeria is among countries in the world with
high maternal mortality rate, a lot of these deaths could be prevented with proper information. For instance,
lack of information about various family planning options, combined with misconceptions about the use of
contraceptives are barriers to effective family planning in Nigeria (Premium Times, 2012). Also of concern
is the high prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), HIV and unintended pregnancies associated
with unprotected sex (Envuladu & Massar& Wit, 2012). The Reproductive Health of urban and rural women
indicate a significant gap as rural women are less knowledgeable about Reproductive Health issues. Rural
women are most unlikely to take the right decisions on issues that affect their health (Kumar et al,1995).
Reproductive Health may not be given the attention it desired in a patriarchal society like Nigeria where
women are often subjugated to the background by religion and culture. Reproductive Health is a personal
subject that people often find difficult to openly talk about in Nigeria (WHO, 2020). This limitation often
becomes the reason why most of the issues related to Reproductive Health are not addressed because of
inaccurate information and inadequate services to attend the problems in many countries (WHO, 2020b).
Radio is one of the most frequently relied upon media for getting information. The researchers would like to
examine the role of community radio in promoting reproductive health. Community radio educates rural
women to understand the causes of high maternal deaths in their area and how to prevent them; the radio can
educate women to value the importance of early ante-natal during early stage of pregnancy; the radio can
enlighten pregnant women to appreciate the benefits of delivery at a health facility rather than at home; the
radio can facilitate awareness on the need for family planning and contraceptive usage.
Statement of problem
Bauchi State has a population of 6.8 million people, with women of child bearing age being 1,490,000
(NPC, 2015). The Bauchi State government has invested in the health, rural development and education and
the agricultural sector in recent years. In the 2023 budget, 15 percent or N30 billion percent was allocated to
the health sector (Daily Independent, 2023). The majority of women of child bearing age are unable to
access reproductive health information. With a maternal mortality rate of 1,549/100000, the state has
antenatal attendance of 55.8 percent, contraceptive prevalence rate of mere 6.5 percent while only 21.8
percent of the population deliver in health facility (NDHS Report, 2018). Access to reproductive health
information is one of the integral parts of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) number 3. The
Reproductive Health of women, particularly rural women lag behind because most of them belong to the
vulnerable groups in the society. According to United Nations Children Fund UNICEF (2023), Nigeria's 40
million women of childbearing age (between 15 and 49 years of age) suffer disproportionally high level of
health issues surrounding birth, family planning and sexual health. While the Reproductive Health of
Nigerian citizens is a far cry from the global expectation of a comprehensive health care, community radio
can be an avenue reverse the situation. Community radio can reach out to millions of people in the grassroots
with the right information for positive behavioral change. Thus, the wide coverage that community radio
offers to rural dwellers in Bauchi State development cannot be overemphasized. If tailored with appropriate
key messages targeted at rural women, community radio offers potentials for the delivery of reproductive
health information and support. The community radio therefore functions as a two-way communication
channel that provide a means through which the community could express itself, both within and to the
outside world (Ojomo et al, 2015). It is in the light of this that this study is concerned with the investigation
of the role of the Toro FM Radio in improving the reproductive health of women in rural areas of Toro Local
Government Area of Bauchi State.

Objectives of the study

The study specifically aims:
i. To determine the role of community radio in promoting reproductive health in rural communities of
Bauchi State
ii. To find out the role of community radio participants in promoting SRH communities in in Bauchi
State
iii. To examine the role of community radio messages in promoting SRH in rural communities
Theoretical Framework
The study is guided by the social constructivist theory which was developed by post-revolutionary soviet
psychology Lev Vygotsky who was also a cognitivist, but rejected the assumption made by cognitivist such
as Piaget and Perry that it was possible to separate learning from its social context. Vygotsky is premised on
the idea that knowledge and reality are created through social interactions that take place in a social context.
Characteristics such as sexuality and gender which are thought to be solely biological products of
interpretations are shaped by historical and cultural contexts. According to the theory, social
constructionism is anchored on the argument: Our beliefs which was developed by about reality are created
through social interactions; Social institutions and actors are created through social interactions; and Our
beliefs about reality in construction of institutions and actors. The radio is an institution which provides a
medium where social interactions tackle place among several actors such the broadcasters/announcer,
newscasters, producers. The theory is more suitable to explain the interactions between male and female
members of a given society as Reproductive health issues though biological are shaped by the perceptions of
actors within the social institutions and the meanings attached to such interactions are shaped by how each
actors construct social reality. For instance, the forms of interactions, cultural, religion and socio-economic
status influence the social construction of reality by rural women and determine their attitudes and
perception towards maternal health, family planning and sexual health. These forms of interaction influence
their attitudes towards the use non-use of contraceptives for family planning, to go for antennal or not and to
deliver in hospital or at home. The BRC Toro FM is collaborative interaction between listeners and on-air
personalities sharing background knowledge and participating in reciprocal nature in order to negotiate and
settle on shared construct meaning.
Concept of reproductive health

According to Neil & Hawkins (2007), reproductive health behaviour is beyond the individual's decision
making but is shaped by social relations, political institutions, and religious and spiritual advisors and
healers and are influenced by and the product of the wider social, political, economic and historical
processes. Problems that may arise when sexual and reproductive health issues are not well addressed
within the social relations and political and cultural contexts, include complications of pregnancy and
childbirth, unwanted pregnancies, unsafe abortions, Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs), sexual
violence and maternal mortalityetc. (WHO, 2020)
The term “reproductive health,” was first adopted at the International Conference on Population and
Development, ICPD in 1994 in Cairo, Egypt, where 179 governments adopted a Programme of Action and
called for women's reproductive health and rights to take centre stage in national and global development
efforts. According to the UNFPA (2019), the ICPD recognised that reproductive health and women's
empowerment are intertwined, and that both are necessary for the advancement of society. The ICPD
heralded a major shift in approach to population issues (WHO, 2016) and now highlights the global
consensus that reproductive health are human rights, and a precondition for securing the well-being and
prosperity of all people.
Achieving full and reproductive health by citizens is a sine qua non to the overall development of any
country. In that sense if Nigeria buys into the renewed global interest in reproductive health, promotion and
implementation of RH especially as it affects women in rural areas becomes an avenue for development of
the society. Sadly, there are inadequate reproductive health facilities in rural areas within the reach of the

rural poor while most women, particularly pregnant women, cannot access reproductive health services
(Centre for Reproductive Health, 1998). The ICPD Conference in Cairo in 1994 urged governments to make
universal access to reproductive health services for all (Fathalla, et all, 2019). The ICPD Programme of
Action recommends provision of a comprehensive reproductive health care available to the citizens as one
of the main avenues to achieving development and meeting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
(UNFPA, 2019.
There are growing concerns that reproductive health of women in rural areas in Nigeria is under severe
stress and falls short of the global expectation and call for action. The situation is exacerbated by economic
hardships in the country. Religion, culture, political instability, legal factors, poverty and regional
differences persistently serve as impediments to women exercising their RH (Omo-Aghoja, 2014;
Orisaremi & Alubo, 2012).
Concept of Community Radio

Community radio is a type of community journalism that has become a new area of focus for researchers
because of the strength of the rural community radio to mobilise people to participate in issues that bother
their community at the grassroots level. Al-hassan, Andani &Abdul-Malik (2011) defined community
radio as a type of radio service that offers a model of radio broadcasting beyond commercial and public
service. Community radio broadcasting serves geographic communities and communities' interest. The
content of broadcasting is relevant to a local specific audience. For instance the FM Toro radio broadcast in
Hausa, Fulfude, Afizere, Rebina, Polshe and Sanga languages to almost all communities in the three
districts in Toro Local Government Area namely Toro, Jamma;a and Lame. Coyer (2006) argued that there
is no single accepted definition of community radio, but it centres around not for profit, participatory and
local audience. The African Charter on Broadcasting recognises and advocates for a three-tier radio regime
in individual African countries namely public service, commercial/private and community. Although
Radio broadcasting began with the colonial administration the Nigeria Broadcasting Service (NBS) was
established in 1951, advocacy for establishment of community radio began in 2003 (Ajibade &
Alabi,2017). While the language of broadcasting in Nigeria is usually English, which is considered an
urban language, Nigeria's rural population of 47.25 (World Bank) may be excluded from enjoying
listenership. According to Ajibade & Alabi (2017), although the African Charter recognizes community
radio as the third tier, Nigeria is yet to fully implement it and government still controls much of the air
waves community radio. Findings by Walters, James & Darby (2010) revealed community radio has
brought about significant change through health promotion programmes. In 2012, Bauchi State
Government established 10 community-based FM stations in the state. Al-Saddique (2014) found out that
people in rural areas of the state now rely heavily on the community-based FM for information and
consider such information valuable and authentic. Kurpius (1999) outlines some of the major benefits of
community journalism which include increased diversity, greater depth and context of the news coverage,
and a stronger understanding of the various communities that make a particular area." Moemeka (1981),
Myers (2000), Kurpius (1999) and other experts highlighted the relevance of community media in different
spheres of human endeavor. Community journalism according to experts encourages journalists and news
managers to find ways to capture citizen priorities, concerns, and perspectives on different issues of
importance to many different communities. As part of the process of creating connections to citizens, news
managers are now finding ways to hear and understand the greatest diversity of voices and communities in
their viewing and listening areas. Practicing community journalism helps both news content and source
diversity by encouraging a discussion of citizen views and issues using a wide range of community
perspectives. The best reason for practicing community journalism is to create a stronger community
understanding by news organizations and the journalists. Inherent in this increased understanding is an
ongoing conversation between journalists, citizens and public officials on issues facing their communities.
The result of this conversation is larger file of community sources for stories and an increase in story ideas
from various communities. These connections and the resulting coverage can help strengthen societal
values (Kurpius, 1999).

Establishment of community radio in Bauchi State.

Bauchi State Government through the state-owned Bauchi Radio Corporation (BRC) established 10
community-basedradio stations in 2012 across the state to ensure that people at the grassroots are informed
about government policies and programmes (Mohammed, 2011). The community-based radio stations
which commenced transmission Aril 26, 20212, are located in Alkaleri, Kirfi, Bununu, Toro,
KafinaMadaki, Ningi, Jammare, Misau, Gamawa and Katagum. Al-Saddique (2015) found that the 10-
community radio have raised the level of awareness of rural dwellers in the state on government policies
and programmes as well as national and international issues. Al-Saddique's study of the state community-
based radio revealed that they have contributed in educating rural dwellers on development issues,
especially those that affect the vulnerable group of people in the rural areas.
Community radio and reproductive health

Seidu Al-hassan, Alhassan Andani and Abdulai Abdul-Malik (2011) in their study of the contribution of
Simli Radio to the livelihood improvement of the people in the Tolon-Kumbungu and Savelugu-Nanton
Districts of the Northern Region of Ghana in their studies found out that community radio Radio can be
used to improve awareness and knowledge of solutions to community development problems ranging from
culture, rural development, education, hygiene and sanitation, agriculture to local governance (2011). In a
similar study, Nirmala (2015) established that Community radio played an important role in the lives of
women as in a study in India, as it created awareness, provided information and education, improved
women skills and on the whole, it promotes social, cultural, political and economic development or
empowerment of women. Therefore, community radio is an instrument of power in changing the lives of
women. Lasker & Batarchaya (2021) discovered that community radio stations played a pivotal role in
engaging the community in verifying fake news through personalized storytelling, using folk and
traditional media, and engaging COVID-19 warriors from the community to authenticate the information.
From the foregoing, it implies that the Toro community radio plays a crucial role in promoting reproductive
health as the responses of participants in the study also indicate.
Maternal health refers to the health of women during pregnancy, childbirth and the post-natal period
(WHO, 2023). This period encompasses a woman's physical, mental, emotional and mental health.
Maternal health is therefore the absence of maternal morbidity and maternal mortality. Nigeria records 576
deaths per 100,000 live births (UNICEF,2022) and most of these deaths are caused by excessive blood loss,
infection, high blood pressure, unsafe abortion and obstructed labour (WHO, 2023). Religion, traditional
system, education, marital status socio-economic status and societal construction of gender are major
determinants of maternal health outcome in Nigeria (Onyejose et al,2020)
Literature gaps
Although there are studies in the reproductive health of women in Nigeria, the role of community radio in
the promotion of reproductive health of women in rural area has received little over time. There is therefore
the need to explore the role of community radio in enhancing the reproductive health of women in the rural
areas of the country. It is the hope of the researchers that the findings from our studies will be useful to
policy makers and relevant authorities to further promote the reproductive health of women in the
grassroots. Hague et al. (2015)discovered that there is a wide knowledge gap between urban and rural
women regarding their reproductive behaviors.
Methodology
The study is a qualitative one that used the focus group discussion approach to obtain data. The research
study covers the entire three districts in Toro local government area namely Toro, Lame and Jama'a.
Study Area
Toro is one of the 20 local government areas in Bauchi State created in 1976. It has a total population of
350, 404 (NPC, 2006). Toro occupies a total area of 6932 square kilometers, Language spoken include

Hausa, Fulfude, Duguza, Kwalware, Afizere. Farming is the predominant occupation of the people.The
local government has both federal and state wards in thethree districts as shown in the table below:
The participants for this research study comprised of ardent radio listeners who were recruited through two
notable radio listeners clubs in Toro namely (1) Zabin Sonka Zumunta club and (2) Radio Listeners' Club.
For the purpose of this study, a total number of participants were purposefully selected from 12 wards
namely Toro, Tilde, Ribina East, Lame, Rahama, Zaranda, Jamaa'a, Mara, Rishi, Zalau, Palama and
Wonu. The main focus was to examine the role of community radio in promoting Reproductive Health of
rural women in Bauchi State, Nigeria. The study was conducted in April, 2023, after permission was duly
obtained from the BRC headquatres in Bauchi through the Managing Director. The questions for the FGD
centered around the objectives of the study, which were namely (1) To determine the role of community
radio in promoting sexual reproductive health in rural communities of Bauchi State (2) To find out the role
of community radio participants in promoting SRH communities in in Bauchi State and (3)To examine the
role of community radio messages in promoting SRH in rural communities. The discussants were recruited
through the Chairman of ZabinSonkaZurhu and Radio Listerners' clubs and facilitated by the News Editor
of BRC Toro FM. A Health correspondent with the station was engaged as interpreter and assistant for
efficient coordination of the FGD sessions. All the FGD sessions were carried at the premises of the BRC
Toro FM after the respondents came from their various wards that were selected for the exercise. The
arrangement for their transportation was carried out by the station manager and facilitated by the Chairman
of the ZabinSonkaZurhu club which ensured that most of the active radio listeners who are members of
club participated. The focus group discussion was male adults and female adult participants draw from the
selected wards in the local government area. Data was collected from the responses of of 40 female
participants and 33 male participants respectively.
Distribution of Focus Group participants

S/N Name of ward Number of male discussants Number of female discussants Total
1 Toro 4 4 8
2 Tilde 3 2 5
3 Ribina East 3 3 6
4 Lame 4 4 8
5 Rahama 4 3 7
6 Zaranda 3 3 6
7 Jama’a 4 4 8
8 Mara 3 2 5
9 Rishi 4 2 6
10 Zalau 2 1 3
11 Palama 2 2 4
12 Wonu 4 3 7
Total 40 33 73
Source: Field Survey, May, 2023
Discussion and Findings
The main objective of the study was to examine the role that community radio play in promoting
reproductive health of rural women. The respondent acknowledged that the coming of the BRC FM Toro has
made dissemination of information easier. An elderlymale discussantrecalled that before the establishment
of BRC FM Toro, it was usually a herculean task for information to be passed to communities within Toro
local government area, but now with the community-based radio, information is relayed to thousands of
listeners at the same time. This shows the extent to which radio has become a powerful medium of
development of the rural areas (Al-Saddique, 2015). Active listeners of over one decade who have formed
an influential club and were conversant with how information being disseminated by the community radio
and the impact it has on areas of health, agriculture, community development participated in the FGD. They

were asked question based on the objectives of the study. Their responses were recorded and analyzed with
the goal of ascertaining the role radio plays in promotion of reproductive health of women in the area. The
FGD explored several issues but specifically on family planning, maternal health and sexual health. The
purpose of using the FGD design was to get the responses of discussants who have personal experience of
how the community radio promote reproductive health of women in the area. The majority of discussants
acknowledged that health progranmes such as Albishir Ku, LafiyaJari and live interviews with health
experts have led to tremendous positive behavioral change of women and men towards reproductive health
in most communities in Toro. One woman from Ribina captured the mood of virtually all female participants
when she said most women in Toro cannot do without listening to radio. The female discussant demonstrates
how powerful radio is in the area by sharing her testimony that she goes everywhere with her radio so as not
to miss the health programmeslike most women do. Another woman from Rishi said it was through the radio
that she got to know that late antenatal can lead to complications.
“I am now at advocate telling my fellow women to start their ANC early, in the first month” The majority of
discussants also admitted that the community radio in the area has created more awareness and dispel fears
about use of contraceptives. While contraceptive use by married women in Bauchi State is 6.5 percent
(NDHS, 2018) the situation has improved and community radio has been instrumental as the responses of
participants indicated. They all agreed that the programmes where live interviews are conducted with health
experts has educated women and even men on reproductive health issues and made them be knowledgeable
about many issues. “It has created huge awareness,” 75-year-old male discussants from Zaranda said.
The study also found out that the participants were not mere listeners but have actively applied the
information they receive from the BRC Toro FM over the years in promoting reproductive health of rural
women. For instance, a female discussant from Wuno said they have formed listeners club where they
engage with pregnant women on their steps to take to ensure safe delivery. The discussants agreed that they
had organized series of meetings where husbands were invited on the need to support their wives for safe
delivery and family planning. It was discovered that one of the reasons pregnant women shunned ante-natal
was due to the attitude of health workers. The female discussants said such meetings created forum for
women to share their experiences and concerted efforts were made to involve community and religious
leaders to interface with health workers. Another area where discussants acknowledged that community
radio has led to a breakthrough was creating awareness on family issues. Some male discussants said they
were unserious about family planning but through the information received from the BRC FM Toro, their
perception had changed. It was agreed by most respondents that although the Islamic Religion supported
family planning due to misconception, many initially believed that family planning, specifically child
spacing, was an agender to depopulate Nigerian, most rural dwellers received it with skepticism. They
however admitted that since the inception of the BRC FM Toro, and due to the kinds of health programmes
and content the listeners receive, that perception has changed. “Now with the right information, we have
been well educated through this radio on the advantage of child spacing,” a discussant from Toro stated. The
BRC FM Toro, as some of the responses indicated, has improved the reproductive health of rural women as
study showed.
Conclusion
The study examined the role of community radio in promoting Reproductive Health of rural women in
Bauchi State, Nigeria. The findings indicated that community radio is a powerful medium of behavioral
change that has promoted reproductive health among rural women in communities in Toro Local
Government Area. Despite the rise of the internet and other medium of communication, the study has
demonstrated that the radio will continue to remain relevant platform of educating rural populace on issues
of reproductive health that can lead to overall development of the society. Based on this finding, the authors
would like to recommend that license fee waiver or low-cost licenses, transparency in the allocation of
frequencies, among others, be given for establishment of more community radio to further promote RH
among rural women.

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THE PASTOR AND TRAUMATIC EXPERIENCE IN THE VIOLENT CONTEXT
OF NIGERIA: THE WAY FORWARD
REV. YUSUF J. LUXMAN Ph.D

Lecturer, Dean of Post Graduate Studies
Gindiri Theological Seminary (GTS)
luxmanyusuf1@gmail.com 08133159519
Abstract
In a context characterized by criminal and civil crimes, symbolic and systemic violence on the basis of
ethnic, religious, and political affiliations, Church rioting and protests, the dignity of human life is
undoubtedly often abused. Apart from the colossal loss of lives and properties, one of the effects of survivors
in such prone violent contexts is trauma. Trauma is an emotional experience which can be short and long
time, depending on the devastating effect on human dignity. Motivated by the plight of the pastor in a violent
context of Nigeria, there are attempts by individuals and concern groups to re-conceptualize the
nomenclature of the pastor and his responsibility during and aftermath violent conflicts. The expectations
and perception of the pastor during and after violent conflicts by the laity nowadays calls into question the
potency of these attempts to re-present the pastor as a person and has the propensity of being traumatized.
Taking into account the theological disposition of the office of the pastor, the paper premise on the
distinctive personality traits of the pastor and through God-giving abilities he or she can be able to manage
his or her trauma without being distracted or loss his or pastoral and missional enthusiasm. The research
objective is realized through a systematic review of literatures that have unpacked corresponding views on
the fundamental elements that constitute the subject under consideration. Though the pastor is divinely call
and saddled with the responsibility of shepherding God's flock, he or she is a person with personality traits
and is bound to be exposed to diverse traumatic experiences. While acknowledging the Church response to
the traumatic experience of the pastor, and having noticed the continues attacks on pastors, the continues
traumatic experiences in the context of Nigeria and how these have affected their ministerial endeavors, this
paper calls into question the potency of the Church's response to the traumatic experiences of the pastor in
Nigeria.
Key words: Pastor, traumatic, experiences, violent, context, Nigeria, Way forward.
Introduction
A context characterized by violent conflicts on the basis of ethnic, religious, and political affiliations, the
dignity of human life is undoubtedly often abused. Alongside the colossal loss of lives and properties, one of
the effects of such acts of dehumanization in any given human context is that survivors irrespective of their
status are bound to be traumatized. The supposition is based on the idea that every human being is a person
and is susceptible to trauma. A person's susceptibility to trauma denotes that every human person has the
propensity to be traumatized irrespective of his or her profession or any other affiliation. The paper focused
on the pastor and his or her traumatic experiences in the Nigerian violent context. Following the attempt to
understand the causative agents that have the capacity to traumatize the pastor, the paper gave attention to
the fundamental elements that constitute the context of Nigeria. The fundamental elements include,
religious, ethnic and political bigotry emanating from resentment, rancor and animosity post during and
aftermath violent conflicts due to remote and immediate causes.
The nature of the violent conflicts against human life within the context of Nigeria as captured in the paper is
a deliberate effort to affirm that the pastor as a person cannot face such abuse on human dignity and remain
emotionally sound. The traumatic experience of the pastor can best be understood through a conceptual
understanding of trauma, types of trauma, causes of trauma, effects and the various responses to trauma.
While acknowledging the Church response to the traumatic experience of the pastor, and having noticed the
continues attacks on pastors, the continues traumatic experiences in the context of Nigeria and how these
have affected their ministerial endeavors, this paper calls into question the potency of the Church's response

The Pastor and Traumatic Experience In The Violent Context of Nigeria: The Way Forward
to the traumatic experiences of the pastor in Nigeria. As a way forward, the paper concludes with a
systematic and theologically oriented response that has the capacity to ameliorate the traumatic experience
of the pastor during and aftermath violent conflict in Nigeria. The Systematic and Theologically oriented
response is entrenched in the Christological discourse on handling trauma in a context where pastors are
prone to violent attacks.
NIGERIAN CONTEXT
Nigeria is located within the Western part of Africa bordered by the Republic of Benin, Cameroon, Chad and
Niger with climatic condition that varies within the Equatorial, tropical and Arid respectively. The
complexity of Nigeria as the most populated Nation State in Africa is attributed to its multi-ethnic, multi-
lingual, multi-cultural and multi religious character. In all, it has about 390 ethnic groups. Three quarters are
from the Middle Belt and forty-four of these are from Plateau State. According to Ogunleye (2021: 5), the
pluralistic nature of Nigeria contributed greatly to the eruption of different forms of conflict experienced in
most parts of Nigeria.
According to Oyebode Nigeria's complex socio-political identities have been exploited by those who wish
to use its ethnic and religious diversity as a reason to engage in violent conflict against human life. He further
stated how Nigeria is today a context engulfed with religious and ethnic intolerance. Sometimes beginning
from a simple misunderstanding, they can metamorphose into religious, communal, and ethnic
conflagration Nigerian urban and semi urban areas have been affected most by these religious and multi
ethnic conflicts (2022: 6). During religiously incline violent attacks, religious leaders are mostly at the
receiving end. The nature of the attacks on pastors and the likes are usually brutal (Ele, 15-16).
In the light of this reality, ethno-religious conflicts in contemporary Nigeria is attributed to the contentious
environment shaped by multiplicity of religions, socio-economic instability, Political rivalry and grave
interest for amassing wealth at the expense of human dignity. Kolapo and Njoku further hold that, ethnic and
religious conflicts against human life are attributed to such ill-gotten power, superiority, wealth linked to the
religious and ethnic identities. This is contained in the discriminatory attitude of those in power. In recent
decades religious and ethnic affiliation have become major criteria for appointments to key offices, the
military, the police force, the civil service, enrolment in schools, colleges and universities the military, the
police force, the civil service, enrolment in schools, colleges and universities (2022:2-3)
In a report on Nigeria at 2050, Nigeria is rated as the most complex country in Africa. This is attributed to its
over increasing population and its multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-cultural and multi religious character.
In all, it has about 500 ethnic groups. As pointed out in this report, the pluralistic nature of Nigeria has
contributed and will greatly contribute to forms of violence and poverty due to its pluralistic nature. The
report further hold that due to the pluralistic nature of Nigeria, ethnic culture have wrongly been utilized to
breed tribalism, manipulation of religious sentiments, regionalism, religious fundamentalism, and political
tension which has left the country in a trail of destructive violence that does not only threatened the integrity
of Nigeria but also threatens human life (Ihugh, (2019:2).
This contentious situation according to Nirmalasari and Sarwono presents anatmosphere of rancor and
domination within the Nigerian community. They further argued that, violence can be triggered through
symbols because they can speakand provoke the people's emotions which mostly result into violence.
Accordingly, the violencein Nigeria does not only seek to destroy or cause physical damage to lives and
propertiesbut also has psychological and traumatic connotations that undermine human dignity (2021: 3-4).
According to Mwadkwon, Nigeria's complex socio-political identities have been exploited by those who
wish to use its religious and cultural diversity as a reason to engage in violence against others that do not
belong to their ethnic, religious or political group. According to him Nigeria can be described as one giant
tinder box of religious and ethnic intolerance. Sometimes beginning from a simple misunderstanding, they
can metamorphose into religious, communal, and ethnic conflagration. Nigerian urban and semi urban areas
have been affected most by these religious and multi ethnic conflicts. Whenever conflicts of this nature

reoccur, they erupt much more and claim many more casualties (2001:1).
In the context of Nigeria, terrorism has been translated into various forms based on the various activities of
terrorist groups in Nigeria. Among those forms is armed robbery, Fulani Headsmen, Child trafficking,
kidnapping, genocides, and gender based violence. These menaces are threats to the wellbeing of the pastor
and Church members.
The impact of terrorism on the Church is enormous and cannot be underestimated. Apart from the colossal
loss of lives and properties and the continual attacks on Church members and pastors, it has post
psychological effects on the Church. Part of what constitute the psychological effects is the traumatic
experiences of both the laity and clergy. It has been alleged that as a result of the activities of Boko Haram,
from 2002 to 2010 more than 500 hundred pastors and church members are killed while some are injured.
The killings and traumatic experiences were heterogeneous in nature. Due to the trauma inflicted by
religious conflicts, pastors cannot penetrate violent prone towns and cities with the Gospel thereby negating
the Christian mandate to reach the unreached with the Gospel (Adamson, 2018: 136).
From the forgoing, it can be argued that the inhabitants of Nigeria are exposed to threats that deny fullness of
life. In a contentious atmosphere where Church members and pastors are attacked and killed, the pastors in
Nigeria are bound to be traumatized and if life-giving measures are not explored the traumatic experiences
of the pastor can affect not only the Church but also the Pastor and his or her ministerial responsibility.
THE PASTOR
In the public discourse on the pastor and traumatic experiences, there are different understanding and views
on whether or not the pastor (God's representative) has the propensity to be traumatic. Some are of the view
that the pastor should not be traumatic, while others see it differently. Someone said, “Being a pastor is a
dangerous job, he said, “Especially in a certain evangelical circles, where you have more of a fundamental
orientation theologically, you find pastors who will reduce their depression or their negative thought
processes to strict spiritual problems” While accepting the fact that the pastor is called and equipped by God,
this paper proposed that since the pastor is a person he or she can be susceptible to trauma and if life-giving
remedies are not explored and applied can affect not only God's flock but the pastor's personality as well
(Soto, 2018: 5).
Thus, the pastor is first viewed as a person with different personality traits, otherwise known as human
?
temperaments and that the pastor as a survivor of traumatic events is bound to be traumatized. For example,
an assault on the pastor on the basis of religious, ethnic or political conflicts, within the Christian community
where he is looked upon as the leader and tender of God's flock is susceptible to trauma. In other words, since
the pastor is a person has feelings of being undermined, oppressed, assaulted, protected, attacked and
injured. The misconception on whether the pastor has the propensity to be traumatized was argued an
rejected through a research conducted by North Western University headed by LiusAmaral from 1.5
million global study in October 2018 and five (5) human personality traits were discovered by the different
psychologists (Soto, 2018: 5).. These include,
? Neuroticism personality trait: People with this trait are moody, experience feelings such as
anxiety, worry, fear Anger, frustration, envy, jealousy, guilt, depressed mood and loneliness. Such
people in people in a giving human community are pessimistic, fearful and insecure
? Extraversion personality trait: People with this personality trait are outgoing, sociable, articulate,
energetic, and confident and are mostly center of attraction within a giving community.
? Openness personality trait: These are people who are intellectual, curios, highly emotional,
intelligent, sensitive and display active imagination
? Agreeableness personality trait: There are people with a personality trait of being hot tempered,
wrong compassion and empathy, competitive or challenging other people's intelligence.
? Conscientiousness personality trait: People with this personality trait are efficient, organized,
dependable, self discipline, acts dutifully and know how to strategize (2018: 5-6).
?

In responds to the misconception on the person of the pastor, the human personality traits as highlighted
confirm the supposition that the pastor in the face of threats to human life is bound to be traumatized. Taking
into account the human temperaments, the pastor as a human person is susceptible to trauma. Thus, while
acknowledging the divine calling upon the pastor and God position in every sphere of his or her life, the
paper still presents the pastor as first a human person who can be exposed to danger, can be threatened and
dreaded by any human tragedy.
CONCEPT OF TRUAMA
Having noticed that the pastor as a human person is susceptible to trauma, the conceptual understanding of
trauma becomes necessary. Trauma comes from Greek word which means,m to damage, to “harm” Trauma
is being define as an emotional wound or shock that which often having a long –lasting effects. It is any
physical damage to the emotional being cause by violence, accident or betrayal in interpersonal
relationship. It can also be described as severe threat that is beyond human capacity (Perrotta 2019: 2).
As captured earlier, trauma can be single, occasional, repeatedly and accumulative. It becomes chronic if is
not properly handled. The category of trauma can further be described as single incident trauma. This is also
described as “one off event” (2019: 4). Another type of trauma is accumulative trauma. This is also known
as complex trauma. This category is one that starts right from childhood. (Anand, 2022:15).
It is evident that those who are traumatized express indicators or symptoms even when they are not
diagnosed. Generally, human persons that are traumatized usually are vulnerable or feeling of being
dreaded. The traumatized are injured persons who are mostly described as saddest and in the stage of
melancholy. This is mostly expressed in their responses to unfavorable atmosphere where threat to human
life is at the alarming rate (2022: 16).
Factors responsible for inflicting trauma among pastors are delineated. These factors are viewed on remote
and immediate grounds. The classification of the causes of trauma is a deliberate attempt to bring into play
the pastor as a person and the likely hood of him inflicting trauma to himself or herself. Taking into
cognizance the psychological nuance that trauma envisages, the question, how do you know a person is
traumatic, is systematically addressed as symptoms of trauma. The symptoms are viewed on the basis of
mental, behavioral and language expressions that are susceptible to the normal human personality. The
effects of trauma among pastors in Nigeria cannot be underestimated. Hannaford, a clinical Psychologist
who consults for the Southern Baptist Convention (SBC), said he believes the rate of pastors' suicides has
increased during his 30 years of practice and he expects the number will continue to rise( Rudolph 2021: 61)
THE TRAUMATIC EXPERIENCE OF THE PASTOR

The pastor is seen as a person called and consecrated to be a steward who is accountable to God. Following
an attempt to present the different understanding of trauma, this paper gives attention on the different
traumatic experiences of the pastors. According to the Christian post on 20th August 2019, a pastor in South
west Mexico was shot death and killed after a Church service on Sunday amid ongoing targeting of faith
leaders by criminal gang. According to the Baptist press Northern Nigeria (BP) Boko Haram insurgents
killed a Nigerian pastor after kidnapping him a week ago. One Pastor LawalAdmini was killed. In
September 2017, Pallcarriers carry the copse of Ogochukwu Joseph Ogbah shot by unknown Gunmen.
Another traumatic event was the killing of a pastor's wife in Kaduna State Nigeria. On September 14, Esther
IshakuKatung was kidnapped along with her husband. According to Morning Star News, one of the attacks
launched a pastor was killed and his wife abducted by a dreaded and notorious gang who held hundred of
persons hostage. The Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) condemned the killing of Kaduna pastor
Jeremiah Omolara of Living faith Church.
The traumatic experiences of the pastor in Nigeria are constituted by direct or indirect attacks launched on
him as a person, family member, and God's flocks under his care. The various faces of trauma experience by
the pastor are categorized as literal, systemic and symbolic. In view of the violent context of Nigeria and its

antecedence, trauma can be systemic if the traumatic experience of the pastor originates within a system.
Trauma is seen as symbolic if certain images, languages and scenarios are used as mediums of expression to
foster threats to human life. It can be a political system, social, and religious system. It can be a short or long
time trauma depending on the personality traits of the pastor.
Despite the rising rate of killings of pastors in the violent context of Nigeria, many people still misconstrued
the idea that the pastor is a person and is susceptible to trauma. In the midst of these traumatic events, the
pastor should go about with his or her pastoral work. The various faces of trauma experience by the pastor
can be categorized as literal, systemic and symbolic. In view of the violent context of Nigeria and its
antecedence, trauma can be systemic if the traumatic experience of the pastor originates within a system.
Trauma is seen as symbolic if certain images, languages and scenarios are used as mediums of expression to
foster threats to human life. It can be a political system, social, and religious system. It can be a short or long
time trauma depending on the personality traits of the pastor.
GOVERNMENT RESPONSE TO THE TRAUMATIZED

The various tools used either by Government and private organizations to curb traumatic experiences in
Nigeria are not far fetch. One of the instruments that seem to have helped in resuscitating the traumatized in
the violent context of Nigeria is the effort of government to establish institutional frames. The establishment
of legal frame provides short and medium measure for the plight of the traumatized. Through this institution
they are offered protection, psychological treatment and re-habilitation on trauma management.
However, the Nigerian government response to traumatic persons in the violent prone context of Nigeria is
limited to government response to internally displaced persons (IDP) through provision of relief materials,
medical services and construction of camps at various refugee camps within the country (Itumo and
Nwobashi, 2016: 33). Another response of the Nigerian Government to those who are psychologically
traumatized is through exploring the root causes of the violent conflict. Some of the causes are described as
remote and immediate. Commissions of enquiry were formed to organized dialogue between conflicting
religious, ethnic and political communities with the view to discovering missing links to building peace. In
most occasions the processes of dialoging with the conflicting communities is being interrupted by
influence peddling from either side. The influence peddling is mostly affiliated to religio-cultural and socio-
political factors (Terwase, Tarwase and Asmat-Nizam 2015:524).
While proposing alternative approach to mitigating the scourge of Psychological trauma among survivors
of violent conflicts, zoning system during electioneering is viewed as the possible approach that has the
capacity to curb Psychological trauma in Nigeria. This implies that poor leadership and governance in
Nigeria are assumed to be part of the factors that attributed to the escalation of violent conflict. (Babatunde,
2918: 50). As human person, the pastor could be found among survivors of violent conflicts and can also be
traumatized as a result of the assault on him or attack on his family members. It may be asked, how can mere
zoning during electioneering curb the Psychological trauma of the pastor? How can mere provision of social
amenities and provision food stuff alleviate the traumatic state of the pastor (Ehikioya, 2014).
Consequent to the critical examination of the approaches employed by Government to respond to survivors
of violent conflicts in Nigeria, it can be argued that the measures seem to be impotent since it lacks the
needed rudiments to mitigate the scourge of psychological trauma among victims of violent attacks.
CHURCH RESPONSE TO THE TRAUMATIZED

Following attempts to curb the adverse effect of trauma among pastors in Nigeria, the Church in Nigeria
seem to have given attention to the traumatic experiences of the pastor. While noting the multiple Church
denominations with different backgrounds and modes of understanding and responding to situations,
mention must be made about Christian bodies that have represented the prophetic voice of the Christians in
Nigeria. Example of such bodies is the Christian association of Nigeria (CAN).

According to the World Watch Monitor, the Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) intheir first meeting in
Abuja discussed the prevalence of violence in the North Easternpart of Nigeria. The CAN recommended
that the Nigerian government take seriouslyits responsibility of prosecuting perpetrators and to ensure the
safety of all lives andcalled on Christians in Nigeria, especially the youth, to overcome the scourge
ofviolence on pastors and Church members, cultivate attitudes of forgiveness and develop good
relationships with peopleof other faiths. As the name implies, the Christian Centre is located in Abuja, the
Federal Capital ofNigeria, where clergy leaders of the churches within the Christian Association ofNigeria
(CAN) hold conventional meetings to address issues that concern the welfareof the church in Nigeria
(World Watch Monitor 22nd February 2016).
As representatives of the various denominations, they seekways of addressing remote and immediate causes
of violence and its negative effect onachieving fullness of life within the country.It can be argued that the
missional response of the church in Nigeria towards violent attacks on pastors and laitytakes two
approaches. First, there is the idea of modeling Jesus' act of forgiveness; andsecond, the judicial approach
for obtaining justice from perpetrators of violence.
Taking into account the effort and contributions of the Nigerian Government and the Church towards
curbing the devastating effect of trauma upon the pastor and laity, it can be argued that the measures seem
not to be potent enough to tame the scourge of traumatic experiences of the pastor in Nigeria. The assertion is
attributed to the idea that the responses of the government and Church seems to rotate around provisions of
physical materials. The idea of rehabilitation in the Nigerian response seem not to employ medical and
psychological approaches that allow consulting experts in the field of counseling to fully participate in
rehabilitating survivors. Thus, the approaches are limited to providing relief materials that may not go a long
way to curb the plague of trauma.
THE WAY FORWARD

Following the highlightson the violent prone context of Nigeria, the nomenclature of the conceptual
disposition of the pastor as a human person and the propensity to be traumatic, the conceptual understanding
of trauma and the various approaches and responses by the Nigerian government and the seemingly
impotency of the said responses, this paper proposed an approach and response that is more Christological
in nature and also centers on the willingness to adapt the Christological principles in order to mitigate the
effect of the pastor's traumatic experiences. The Christological elements that constitute this approach take
root in a systematic analysis of the word of God.
Having established the notion on the human personality of the pastor and the tendency to be traumatized
when face with life threatening circumstance, part of what constitute the way forward hangs on Christ the
sustainer of the universe. While exploring God's promises to his people and especially the pastors who are
saddled with the responsibility of shepherding His flock. The Christological approach is rooted in one of the
greatest promises recorded in 1 Chronicles 28: 9 which states that, “God is found by those who diligently
seek him”. Other references include Isaiah 55: 6 which states that, “Seek the Lord while He may be found”.
The implication of this Old Testament provision and invitation lays the foundation for seeking Jesus Christ
who identifies with humanity in its fallen state and offers salvation to the condemned (Romans 5:8). This
was fully demonstrated in John 6: 25-27, 33, 48-51, where men and women who came seeking Jesus Christ
found help from their life threatening challenges. Those who truly came and were traumatized yet were
relieved and granted peace. Although among them were people who were deceitful in seeking the Lord, yet
God's promises remain legitimate.
Consequent to the seemingly impotence of the response of the government towards mitigating the traumatic
experiences of the pastors in Nigeria, the texts provides a life giving principle which has the capacity to
provide peace to the traumatized. Although men and women may have different reasons why they were
looking for Jesus, yet that does not change his offer. Contextually, most people who came looking for Jesus
was to provide them with food and other material need. Jesus' intention was to offer Himself. “Jesus

answered, Very truly I tell you, you are looking for me , not because you saw the signs I perform but because
you eat the loaves and had your fill. Do not work for food the spoils, but for food that endures to eternal life,
which the son of man will give you. For on Him God the Father has placed his seal of approval” (John 6: 26-
27).
From the forgoing, the pastor and his traumatic experiences within the violent context of Nigeria, may likely
be displaced or may still hang around the area where he or she is traumatized and may looking for
consolation, comfort and may look for other assistance from either the government or the Church and there
may be non life giving response. One of the claims of Jesus about himself is also recorded in John 6:34.
“Then Jesus declared, “I am the bread of life. Whoever comes to me will never go hungry, and whoever
believes in me will never be thirsty. Understanding the divine calling of the pastor makes this Christological
approach potent. This is because, prior to the pastor is called, he has accepted the Lord as his personal Lord
and savior. It becomes easier for the traumatized attend to Christ and the offer of himself as the solution of
not only his or her traumatic experiences, but offers life (John 3:16).
For example, Paul and his colleagues were traumatized by diverse persecutions that erupted during the early
Church. There were be alternative approaches to handle their trauma, yet they gave much attention to Jesus
as the best way to mitigate their traumatic condition. This is fully expressed in some of their comments
during such unfavorable atmosphere. While responding to their traumatic experiences, Paul sates as saying,
“We are hard pressed on every side, but not crushed; perplexed, but not despair; persecuted, but not
abandoned; struck down, but not destroyed. We always carry around in our body the death of Christ, so the
life of Jesus may also be revealed in our body” (2 Corinthians 4: 8-9). In their state of being traumatized, they
leveraged on Christ provision of Himself to the apostles as the source of relief and comfort to those who are
grieving and traumatized in the context persecution such as Nigeria.
This Christological principle corresponds with comments made by Tertullian during the time the Church
was traumatized by the persecution during the era of the early Church fathers. Tertullian states, “Kill us,
torture us, condemn us, grind us to dust, your injustice is a proof that we are innocent. The blood of the
Christians is a seed of the Gospel” (Mooney, 2014:24). Tertullian's submission offers a symbolic expression
entrench in the Christological principle where the traumatized focuses on the Christological provision
where Christ is believed and affirms as the best alternative to relief the pastor from traumatic experiences.
Conclusion
The Nigerian context characterized by violent conflicts constitutes an unfavorable violent atmosphere. One
of the Challenges post by this mayhem is the trauma experienced by survivors aftermath such violence.
Within the Christian cycle, the pastors in Nigeria have suffered the scourge of violence which has resulted to
their traumatic experiences. The conceptual definition of trauma further affirms the plight of the pastor in
the violent context of Nigeria. Attempts by government and Church to respond to this ugly situation seem to
be impotent. The assertion is attributed to the elements of the approaches that are centered on material or
physical provisions thereby lack the basic rudiment for ameliorating the scourge of trauma among pastors in
Nigeria. The paper conclude by proposing an alternative notion entrenched in the Christian Christological
principle which focuses or centers on Christ as a gift to the traumatized not only in Nigeria but also in any
violent human community.
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The Contributions of History and Historiography to the Development of a Nation
THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF HISTORY AND HISTORIOGRAPHY TO

THE DEVELOPMENT OF A NATION
Peter Daddock
Phone no: 07035605074 Email address: perodadd@gmail.om
Lecturer, Department Of Christian Religious Studies Faculty of Arts, Kaduna State University
Abstract
The paper explored the contributions of history and historiography to the development of a nation. The work
first gave the conceptual clarifications of the terms history, historiography, development and the nation. It
started that history talks about the knowledge of the past, present and future; historiography deals with the
discipline and methods of writing history; development simply means change in a variety aspects of the
human condition while nation denote groups of people which the members identify themselves as culturally,
ethnically or linguistically as belonging to that group.The paper pin points that, Nigeria as a nation has
suffered severe consequences as a result of overlooking the importance of history in choosing their leaders
and affirmed that any nation that want to develop, the collective spirit of the people must be well nurtured
and propagated, that is the significance of history. The paper also stipulated thatany country that is desirous
of development should always delve into its past achievements as well as those of other lands because
successful policies and programmes are borrowed from one jurisdiction to another, with that the nation will
be able to learn from the past errors, to draw inspiration from worthy past efforts, and to strategize for the
future development. The synopsis of the matter is that, for Nigeria to get it right, history must be the focus
lens of the electorates to Ex-ray the antecedent of the aspirants before voting him or her into power.
Keywords: History, historiography, nation and development.
Introduction
History is an essential part for any nation that is desirous for development in all ramifications. Consequently,
some countries has made history to be a mare academic discipline. This is why it is most pathetic that the
study of history has been relegated to the background in various schools in Nigeria. This explains why the
country remains a nominal giant. It is therefore not surprising that few care about the kind of future to be
built for both the people and the nation. Due to the fact that Nigerian statesmen lack a proper sense of history,
the politics of the belly (stomach infrastructures) and that of the moment dominate the polity. Merit is
consequently slaughtered on the slab of power profiteering. To escape from this political quagmire, there is
an urgent need to imbue Nigerians with an enduring sense of history. However, the paper examined and X-
ray the contributions of history and historiography in the development of a nation by starting with the
conceptual clarification.
Conceptual Clarification
History
The origin of the word History is associated with the Greek word 'Historia' which means 'information' or 'an
enquiry designed to elicit truth'. In the first place many definitions have been put forward at explaining the
term “History” as an academic course of study. To some people it is a branch of knowledge that deals with
the past. Furthermore, another group of people defined history as a transformation of society in time and
space. But the academic definitions differently presented by eminent scholars such as Y.B. Usman, and P.J.
Shea have both made us to understand history as a parasite and holistic course of study (as cited in
Muhammed, 2013, p. 50). For instance Usman (1979), in his scholarly work argues that history is all about
the totality of human existence overtime. Shea (1999) defines history as all about causality, effect, change,
facts and evidence. For Ifemeje (1988), saw history as a body of knowledge about the past, especially the

past of the act of man in society consists of facts ascertained through honest inquiry as well as influence,
interpretations and generalizations arrived at by the historian and are available in the form of true record on
paper or in the memory of man. The above definitions explain History as a significant records of events of
the past, a meaningful story of mankind depicting the details of what happened to man and why it happened.
Mainly it deals with the human world.
Historiography
Erim (2004) asserts that, historiography itself is a discipline dealing with the methods of writing history and
the techniques of the historical research and documentation. This makes it clear for the understanding of
history as an organized and critical study of the past happenings as had produced sufficient effects on
subsequent course of events or other human beings in the course of events. Similarly, Afigbo views
historiography “as the science of writing history” and others including Dike and Ajayi view historiography
as The discovery and critical assessments of historical sources, next is the reconstruction and description of
the past on the basis of facts available and to a large extent involved to allocate, conscientize, the society, or
even assist in influencing aspects of contemporary public opinion, action or policy and the reflection on
trends and the patterns of historical writing. In any case, it is equally important to note that historiography is
very holistic and critical in nature. Therefore, it is only a balanced historian can conveniently encompass its
aforementioned components. Development is not purely an economic
Development
The term “development” has various meanings to different people and can be explained in different
contexts. Some people saw deployment in terms of infrastructures facilities; such as constructions of roads,
dams, markets, electricity, and schools while some sees deployment in the aspect of improving the standard
of living by proving jobs opportunities, food security and social wellbeing of the humanity. So the concept
of development is complex. However, there are copious workable definitions of development by scholars:
Mahmoud (1991) opines that, development has often been confused with “economic growth as measured
solely in terms of annual increases in pre-capita income or gross national product, regardless of its
distribution and the degree of people's participation in effective growth”. While Seers (1972) asserts that
“development means the conditions for realization of the human personality, its evaluation must therefore
take into account three linked criteria: where there has been a reduction in (i) poverty, (ii) unemployment,
(iii) inequality”. According to Pearson (2000), development involves “An improvement qualitative,
quantitative or both - in the use of available resources”. He also asserts that development does not refer to
one particular perspective on social, political and economic betterment. Instead, it is a hybrid term for a
myriad of strategies adopted for socioeconomic and environment transformation from current states to
desired ones. For Rabie (2016, p. 8), Development can be perceived as improvement in the lives of a people
at the individual and societal levels. A common theme within most definitions is that 'development'
encompasses 'change' in a variety of aspects of the human condition.
Nation
There is no universally accepted de? nition of the term “nation.” Correspondingly, the de? nition of “national
minorities” has a similar fate; concurrent de? nitions and perceptions circulate in the political and academic
arenas without any consensus or compromise from the actors involved. Historically the word was used to
denote groups of which the members identify themselves as culturally, ethnically or linguistically as
belonging to that group (Toro, 2007).One of the older sociological definitions of the term “nation” was
proposed by the French thinker ErnestRenan. He characterized it as a spiritual principle created by two
phenomena: joint identification with a broad heritage of memory, and the desire to live together and form a
cohesive community. Based on the analysis of the development of various nations, sociologist. Emerson
came to the conclusion that a nation is a community of people who feel mutual solidarity in two senses: first,
they share significant elements of common heritage and a common destiny; and secondly, they share a sense
of nationhood.

According to Hobsbawm (2005), a nation is every society that is large enough and whose members see
themselves as members of one nation. For him, a nation is not a primordial and changeless social unit, but it
belongs to a definite, modern historical epoch. It can exist only in relation to the concept of nation-state.
Gellne (1983), defines a nation in the following way: (i) people belong to the same nation if they share the
same culture meaning the same system of thinking, signs, associations, behaviour and communication. By
belonging to that culture, a person belongs to that nation; (ii) people belong to the same nation if they
recognize and accept one another as members of the same nation.
The Impact of History to the National Development

Development at all levels personal or national in human society is a multi-faceted process. At the level of the
individual, it implies multiplied skill and capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline, responsibility
and material well-being. It must however be noted that the achievement of any aspect of personal
development is strong tied to the state of the society as a whole. At the national level, development will
naturally mean the pulling together of the above-stated personal virtues for the benefit and well-being of
people within such a nation. More often than not, as Rodney (1986, p. 39) once contended that, development
is used in an exclusive economic sense; the justification being that the type of economy is itself an index of
other social features. A society develops economically as its members increase jointly their capacity for
dealing with the environment, which of course depends on the extent to which they understand laws of
nature (science), on the extent to which they put that understanding into practice by devising tools
(technology), and on the manner in which work is organized. For any nation to develop, the collective spirit
of the people must be well nurtured and propagated. Here lies the significance of history. Also writing on the
intimating interaction between Nation and History, Ajayi (1980) stressed that, history interacts with the
nation. For the nation is a product of history in the sense of historical circumstances and events; and
therefore the nation cannot escape from its past. At the same time, the nation is shaped by the effort of
historians, among others, who try to establish the history of the nation, influence its group memory and seek
to define its nationality-that is, the essence of what binds its people together, what constitutes their identity,
what makes them a people distinct from other peoples. Indeed, what historical understanding does
essentially for any nation is to place its developmental predicament within rational time perspectives of
human evolution. This is the utility value of history. History also helps people not to undervalue what they
are and overvalue what they are not. It in turn provides confidence building strategy to any prostrate nation
that is striving to grapple with present problems.
Development should and must not only be conceived materially. This is because humans are not solely
materialistic in nature; they are equally spiritual, artistic and creative beings. Development is of twofold.
Firstly, it entails concerted efforts at satisfying basic/crucial human needs such as food, shelter and general
well-being through productivity. Secondly it equips citizens with enduring moral values such as, hard work,
honesty, integrity, transparency, justice, and discipline. Indeed, the two are inseparable as a nation full of
impoverished people cannot improve its material base and neither can a morally decadent society dream of
dazzling development at any level. The developmental nature of the historical discipline is further
emphasized by the fact that every discipline has its root in history. This makes it virtually impossible for any
discipline not to pay attention to its history. Thus, we have the history of science, of medicine, of banking, of
engineering, of knowledge, of development, and even the history of history. For example, no rational
medical doctor will attend to his or her patient without perusing his or her medical history. For it is within
that context that the doctor will appreciate better the patient's ailment and what medication to prescribe.
History, therefore, is a key factor in all disciplines and in the training of minds. Similarly, it is a duty for any
nation that is desirous of development to always delve into its past achievements as well as those of other
lands. With this the nation will be able to learn from the past errors, to draw inspiration from worthy past
efforts, and to strategize for the future development. History tends to produce thinking men and women who
are imbued with curiosity, who will not accept any view hook line and sinker, who through questioning and
reasoning will be able to come to their own conclusion, who have become full of knowledge, and who by
that means would be able to contribute to the development of their society. This is the outstanding link
between history and national development.

In the academic history of the United States of America no matter the type of discipline one needs to study,
he/she must include history as a subsidiary course for the understanding of the national history of America
(American Civic History) (Shea, 1999). According Dahiru as cited in Muhammed (2013), “History is
parasitical” as it depends on other disciplines for consumption, which subsequently brings about proper
construction, interpretation and analysis of events. Similarly, the contributions of historical studies to the
intellectual growth and development of other disciplines has also made Naniya (2000), to argue that in the
early part of the 17th century, there were only three academic disciplines found in operation, namely,
Geometry, history and natural sciences (modern pure sciences). The crux in the study of history is its
bondless range. The fundamental basis of the value of history is that the past has made the present and the
present alone can make the future. We cannot even understand our immediate world without knowledge of
the past and the further we delve into history the deeper and broader will be our grasp of the present and
insight into the future (Muhammed, 2013, p. 13).

The pieces of evidence could support the fact that history contributes to the making of policies and also
serves as conduit through which societal and organizational problems could be solved (Gyamfi, Brenya, &
Owusu-Ansah, 2016). Countries and jurisdictions adopt policies and programmes in others countries or
jurisdictions so as to implements them in their countries or jurisdictions. It is simply a form of knowledge or
policy transfer in which successful policies and programmes are borrowed from one jurisdiction to another.
Implicitly, adequate knowledge and facts of policies and programmes adopted in one jurisdiction or a
country is consequential to the successful transfer from one country to another and this were history and
historical writing play a key role in proving the knowledge and needed information for proper policies
transfer (Rose 2005). Rose, identified lesson drawing as the means through which government officials
learn of the policies to be adopted as public policies in a country. History also played a pivotal role in
choosing a visionary leaders that would pilot the affairs of a nation. Unfortunately, Nigeria as a nation has
suffered severe consequences as a result of overlooking the importance of history in choosing their leaders.
For us to get it right, history must be the focus lens of the electorates to Ex-ray the antecedent of the aspirants
before voting him/her into power. As it has been established earlier, all nations are products of their past and
there is no way they can move forward without taking into consideration their history and their peculiar
circumstances. This is the debt all nations that seek peace, stability, and development owe to the past. This is
because history provides the foundation on which the development of each nation is built. This explains why
most developed countries in the world ensure that the discipline of history does not suffer decline and
continues to retain its pride of place in their universities. More importantly, history has always been used to
provide political education for leadership elites in such societies. Each nation then develops its own
historiography, which is essentially nationalistic. This is true of British historiography as well as American
historiography, Chinese historiography, French historiography, Russian historiography, Japanese
historiography, and German historiography. American historiography, for instance, lauds the virtues of
American institutions in impregnating Americans with the notion that to be an American is the greatest
blessing God can confer on a human being. This aspect of history can be carried to an extreme, as it was done
by Benito Mussolini and Adolph Hitler before and during WWII and George Walker Bush in the demolition
of Iraq. The abuse of history is always a possibility especially during bitter contests among nations. It must
however be mentioned that leaders not only exploit national feeling during crises but also during peace,
especially in their collective efforts towards national development. What is clear in all this is that history is
deliberately utilized for nation building. This is the major difference between the advanced nations and
those that are still in their embryonic stage such as Nigeria.
The pieces of evidence could support the fact that history contributes to the making of policy and
also serves as conduit through which societal and organizational problems could be solved
The pieces of evidence could support the fact that history contributes to the making of policy and
also serves as conduit through which societal and organizational problems could be solved
The pieces of evidence could support the fact that history contributes
The pieces of evidence could support the fact that history contributes

The pieces of evidence could support

The pieces of evidence could support
The pieces of evidence
The pieces of evidence
Rose (2005) identifies
Rose (2005) identifies

His Samuel Adu-Gyamfi, Edward Brenya& Daniel Owusu-Ansah – History's Role in Policy Making:
Proffering Solutions and Questions for Humanity and the Ghanaian
Samuel Adu-Gyamfi, Edward Brenya& Daniel Owusu-Ansah – History's Role in Policy Making:
Proffering Solutions and Questions for Humanity and the Ghanaian
Rose, R. 2005. Learning from Comparative Public Policy: A practical
Guide. New York: Routledge
Strumpf
Rose, R. 2005. Learning from Comparative Public Policy: A practical
Guide. New York: Routledge
Strumpf
Conclusion
In conclusion, I borrowed the leave of George Hegel who said that, “What experience and history teach is
this, that nations and governments have never learned anything from history or acted upon any lessons they
might have drawn from it”. While Carr, (1961) posits that "the past which a historian studies is not a dead
past, but a past which in a sense is still living in the present." This naturally translates to the fact that for the
people to solve the present multifaceted developmental problems bedeviling the country, the past must
always be involved. He furthers added that, “if men of the future are ever to break the chains of the present,
they will have to understand the forces that forged them”. To achieve this, the people must be well endowed
with historical knowledge which is based on recollection, retrieval, and the reconstruction of their past. This
is rooted in the fact that time past is part of time present and time present is part of time future. In other words,
human society is one long continuum and to appreciate the present, one must know what happened in the
past.
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Globalisation and Language Change
GLOBALISATION AND LANGUAGE CHANGE

Mrs. Nneka Chinyere Sule
General Studies Department, Plateau State University, Bokkos.
nnekasule@yahoo.com 08034702567
ABSTRACT
The saying that the world is a global village no doubt has a lot of its makings in the strength that language has
come to bear upon the nations of the world. With globalization has come a lot of interaction and integration
among peoples, companies and governments of the world through the use of language in communicating
common interests. This study takes a look at the effect that globalization has had on language, specifically
the English Language over the years. It examines the factors responsible for language shift as well as those
that could endanger a language thereby leading to the death of such a language.
Keywords: Globalization, Speech Community, Language Shift, Language Death
Globalization and Language Defined

Globalization is defined by Meyerh off as 'the increased contact between people of different social and
linguisticback groundsacross broad swathes of geographical space. It is commonly portrayedas a
recentphenomenon and strongly associated with (and often attributed to) the new communication
technologies (e.g.,Internet, mass media,etc.)'. (245)
Steger refers to globalization as 'the interconnections of global, economic, political, cultural and
environmental processes that continually transform present conditions.' (7-8). Algeo considers language as
a system of conventional vocal signs by means of which human beings communicate. (2)Crystal states that
language is a major means of showing where we belong, and of distinguishing one social group from
another. (27)
The Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics defines language as a vehicle for the expression or
exchanging of thoughts, concepts, knowledge and information as well as the fixing and transmission of
experience and knowledge. (627)
According to Crystal:
A Language does not become a global language because of its intrinsic structural properties,
or because of the size of its vocabulary, or because it has been a vehicle of a great literature in
the past, or because it was once associated with a great culture or religion. These are all
factors which can motivate someone to learn a language, of course, but none of them alone,
or in combination, can ensure a language's world spread…A language has traditionally
become an international language for one chief reason: the power of its people – especially
their political and military power. (14)
Speech Community
Yule defines a speech community as a group of people who share a set of norms and expectations regarding
the use of language. (253). Linguists generally refer to a speech community as consisting of people who use
a language. A number of countries, particularly in the western world, are often associated with single
languages. For examples, English with England, German with Germany, French with France, Italian with
Italy. However, it is noteworthy that even in these countries where one language is said to be dominant, one

still finds different dialects of that single language which will more often than not, differ from the standard.
Language Change/Shift
Languages have been known for thousands of years to undergo changes as the users themselves also evolve,
develop and change. The reasons for this are many and varied and have been the concern and interest of
linguists for many years. According to the Ethnologue: Languages of the World, there are approximately
6,900 living languages in the world. Milroy observes that 'at anytime we care to look at a language…it is
variable and in a state of change' (2). Brightrecognises two fundamental facts of language as: (a) that it is
always changing, in all areas of structure(phonology, grammar, discourse style, semantics, and vocabulary)
and (b) that it changes in differentways at diverse places and times. (57)Algeo refers to this change as
continuous and inevitable (10).
Factors Responsible for Language Change/Shift

The changes that occur in languages can be broadly characterized into 2 – internal and external change.
Internal changes in language are those that occur mainly phonetically while external changes come about as
a result of borrowing from other languages or cultures. This happens as a result of contact among speakers of
different languages. Bright recognizes two types of influences that may be responsible for language change
as macro linguistic and micro linguistic. He explains that macrolinguistic influence involves entire
language structures, and often involve deliberate, conscious decisions,institutionally promulgated as part of
language planning programs. One such process is that ofstandardization, in which a single dialect is put
forward as the official norm for an entire multidialectalarea. He goes on to add that'when languages come
into contact on a large scale, such as Spanish and English in the US,bilingualism may become common
(sometimes with encouragement from governments and schools);this is likely to produce such typical
language contactphenomena as code-switching between Spanishand English, the introduction of loanwords
from one language into the other, and the assimilation ofgrammatical patterns toward those of the language
to which social value is attached (in this case,English).' (58)
Bright states further that 'in the area of micro linguistics, linguistic changes may be initiated by a single
individual, or by a small group, and subsequently imitated by others who attribute social value to them; in
some cases, suchinnovations may spread through an entire society.'(58)
Linguists have attempted to come up with different reasons why languages change. One of the reasons that
has been proffered for why language changes is that the needs of the speakers of the language change. As
society evolves and the needs of people equally evolve, it appears natural that language will change. One of
the new things that society has experienced is rapid technological growth and advancement. Words
associated with this new culture of technology that had never before been needed have had to be introduced
and become utilized amongst members of society. This accounts for one of the reasons why language
changes. The word, 'computer' never existed centuries ago, nor did words like, 'modem', 'flash drive',
'microchip', etc. These words have become common place in modern day society. With the advent of
technological advancement and the introduction of social media have also come new words like, 'emoji',
'Facebook', 'smiley', 'selfie', etc. Very recently, with the COVID 19 pandemic that ravaged the world, there
were new words and phrases that hitherto had not been used or had been used in a different sense than is now
the case, but which arose as a result of the pandemic. Some examples of these are words like: social
distancing, isolation centre, flattening the curve, post COVID 19.New experiences have therefore made it
mandatory to create words that can adequately capture these experiences.
Languages also change because of the interactions that take place between different members of different
age groups and classes. This is particularly common with young people who, as they interact with people of
their age group, are wont to pick up new words and phrases that aid them in their conversations and give
them a sense of belonging amongst their peers. These new words and phrases are usually different from
those used by their parents and other adults.

Contact between speakers of different varieties of a language also accounts for language shift or change. The
variety of a language when it comes in contact with another variety will have an influence on the language
and with this contact, there is bound to be borrowing as well as a mixture of the different varieties that will
ultimately lead to a change in the language.
The Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics defines Language Contact as a situation in which
two or more languages coexist within one state and where the speakers use these different languages
alternately in specific situations. (640) According to Thomason, language contact is the use of more than
onelanguage in the same place at the same time. (1) Social status has been given as a reason for language
change. Members of a group with a higher social status, for example, tend to introduce changes into a speech
community from neighboring communities which have greater status and prestige in their eyes.
There is a belief that the media has a great influence on people's speech patterns and new forms. Since people
depend greatly on the information they receive via the media, it then goes to reason that a number of
linguistic patterns are picked from them and gradually become the norm amongst the people in that
community.
Mesthrie et al state that language contact sometimes occurs when there is increased social interaction
between people from neighbouring territories who have traditionally spoken different languages. But, more
frequently, it is initiated by the spread of languages of power and prestige via conquest and colonisation.
(242)
Uriel Weinreich was the first person to use the term 'language shift' to mean the change from the 'habitual use
of one language to that of another'. (68) (1968 [1953]:68) Dressier defines Language shift as a gradual
movement from unstable bilingualism to monolingualism. (184)
Here is the opening extract from the Lord’s Prayer from differentperiods of English:
1. Old English (c.400 ad to c.1100): Fader ure, tute art on heofonum,si tin namagehalgod. To becume
tin rice. (West Saxontext, end of tenth century, in W. B. Lock wood 1972: 132)
2. Middle English (c.1100 to c.1500): Fader ouretat is I heuen. blessid bi ti name to neuen. Come to us
tikingdome. (In C. Jones1972)
3. Early Modern English (c.1500 to c.1800): Our father which art in heaven, hallowed be thy name.
Thy kingdom come. (King JamesBible)
4. Modern English (from c.1800): Our father who is in heaven, may your name be sacred. Let your
kingdom come. (A modern rendition)
Note: T is an old symbol for th.

Culled from Page 109 of Introducing Sociolinguistics by Mesthrie et al.
Yule gives the complete Lord's Prayer below:
Fæderureþuþeeart on heofonum,
siþinnamagehalgod.
Tobecumeþin rice.
Gewurþeþinwilla on eorðanswaswa on heofonum.
Urnegedæghwamlicanhlafsyle us to dæg.
And forgyf us uregyltas,
swaswa we forgyfaðurumgyltendum.
And ne gelædþu us in costnunge,
ac alys us of yfele. (262)
The variations over time in the Lord's Prayer is a typical example of the fact that language changes.
Language is not static. There have been changes in grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and spelling in the
English Language over the years.

One of the changes that has occurred in the area of pronunciation in the English Language for instance, has
to do with the /r/ sound. Trask notes that until relatively recently, all English speakers pronounced a
consonant /r/ inevery position in which words had 'r' in their spellings. So, he added, not only was /r/present
in red and cream, it was also present in far, arm, dark and bird. But then,in the seventeenth or early
eighteenth century, some people in the southeast ofEngland began to 'drop' their /r/s whenever those /r/s
were not followed by avowel. As a result, in this style of speech, /r/ was retained in red and cream, but it
disappeared from the other words like far, arm, dark and bird. (11) Trask explained further that this new style
of pronunciation arose among working-class speakers in themetropolitan London area, and for a long time it
was condemned as substandardand ignorant. However, as time went on, it became accepted as the norm to
follow this pattern of speech both amongst the educated and not so educated members of the London society.
Yule, in writing on Language Change, notes that:
Although some changes can be linked to major social changes caused by wars, invasions and
other upheavals, the most pervasivesource of change in language seems to be in the continual
process of cultural transmission. Each new generation has to find a way of using the
language of the previous generation. In this unending process whereby each individual child
has to “recreate”the language of the community, there is an unavoidable propensity to pick
up someelements exactly and others only approximately. There is also the occasional desire
tobe different. (233-234)
Meyer observes that' language change is not simplya phenomenon affecting individual languages in
isolation from one another. Change in one language can potentially have implications for many other
languages, as is the case with the rise of English as a world language.' (43) Some linguists have called the
English Language a killer language because its advent has led to the death of some other languages.
Language Death:
The Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics defines Language Death as the decline or extinction
of a language in situations where languages come in contact with each other. One of the common causes of
this, they add, is a 'gradual' language death, i.e. a language that has become obsolete is used by fewer and
fewer speakers in more and more restricted situations, until it is finally only used as an 'intimate code' in
certain formulas and idioms (e.g. greetings, proverbs, songs, jokes) as the expression of social or regional
membership in a group. (641)
Meyer refers to language death as a type of language shift. However, he adds, 'unlike bilingualism, which
involves speakers shifting from one language to another in different contexts, language death occurs when,
over time, a language loses allits speakers. The process of language death is typically slow, and involves
successive generations of speakers abandoning a language until only relatively few people remain as fluent
speakers. Once these people die, the language dies too.' (42)
Dressier states that language death occurs in unstable bilingual or multilingual speech communities as a
result of language shift from a regressive minority language to a dominant majority language. He identified
two ways that a language may be said to die as: one, a result of its having been transformed into a daughter
language like in the case of standard Latin which has been replaced by standard Spanish. The second is
where an entire speech community has died. (184)
Crystal attributes the death of a language to be caused by an ethnic group coming to be assimilated within a
more dominant society, and adopting its language. (25) Wurm notes that hundreds of languages are no
longer living languages used by speakers and speech communities in their day-to-day activities and lives.
He adds that many languages have disappeared without being known to us in any great detail while others
have disappeared without even scanty information about their nature being available to us leaving only their
names from historical records. (1-18). Wurm further posits that the disappearance of languages continues
today, and has greatly accelerated during the last two hundred years or so. (1-18).

Take the Latin language for instance. It was the language that was widely spoken in many parts of the world
and had the prestige of being an elitist language. However, it is obvious that Latin no longer exists as a
language. The speakers of Latin spread through Europe and began to speak other languages some of which
appear to be some variant of the Latin language. Latin evolved into several other languages which are known
as the Romance languages (French, Italian, and Spanish) and was no longer considered as the primary
language of any community. Thomason believes that a language dies when it ceases to be used for any
purposes of regular spoken communication within a speech community. She adds that old English and
Middle English are both dead, because no one has spoken them for centuries. (224)
Hickey states that a well-studied instance of language death is Scottish Gaelic in East Sutherland in the
north-east of Scotland. According to him,'the language was progressivelyabandoned from one generation to
the next and during this process, the grammar of the language showed clear signs of disintegration, for
example in it smorphological system.'(17)
Conclusion
It is apparent from this study that language change/shift is a naturally occurring process that happens as a
result of globalization. We have also seen from this study that language change/shift is not necessarily a bad
thing. The evolving of language cannot be avoided rather it should be further studied to see how certain
languages can be preserved, at least to some extent. The comforting thing however, is that any language that
has acquired national status and is used by the legal system, education and the media is not going to
disappear any time soon.
Works Cited
Algeo, John. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 6th Edition. Wadsworth. 2010.
Bright, William. 'Social Factors in Language Change' in Florian Coulmas' (ed.) The Handbook of
Sociolinguistics. Blackwell. 1998.
Bussman, Hadumod. The Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Routledge. 1996.
Crystal, David. English as a Global Language. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. 2003.
Dressier, Wolfgang U. 'Language Death'. In Linguistics, the Cambridge Survey: Language the Socio-
Cultural Context. Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. 1988.
Hickey, Raymond. Language and Society. PDF
Meyer, Charles F. Introducing English Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. 2009.
Meyerhoff, Miriam. Introducing Sociolinguistics. Routledge. 2006.
Mesthrie, Rajend, Joan Swann, Ana Deumert, William L. Leap. Introducing Sociolinguistics. 2nd Edition.
Edinburgh University Press. 2009.
Milroy, J. Linguistic Variation and Change. Blackwell. 1992.
Steger, M. Globalization: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. 2013.
Thomason, Sarah G. Language Contact. Edinburgh University Press. 2001.
Task, R. L. Why Do Languages Change? Cambridge University Press. 2010.
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter. 1968.
Wurm, Stephen A. Language Death and Disappearance: Causes and Circumstance. Sage Journals.
Diogenes. Volume 39. No. 153. 1991.
th
Yule, George. The Study of Language. 4 Edition. Cambridge University Press. 2010.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org

The Prosperity Gospel And Its Impact On The Catholic Church In Cross River State (1996-2019)
THE PROSPERITY GOSPEL AND ITS IMPACT ON THE CATHOLIC CHURCH IN CROSS
RIVER STATE (1996-2019)
Agi Regina Inyagbe (M.A)

Federal College Of Education Obudu,
Cross River State, Nigeria
Prof. Pauline Mark Lere

University of Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
The prosperity gospel as the brain child of Pentecostalism has been trending since the 90's.Although greeted
with so much criticism; the gospel has formed attraction for Christians, including Catholic Christians. The
work examined Catholic Church's view on the prosperity gospel and the reasons why Catholic Church
members are attracted to the gospel and have drifted some Catholic Church members to the churches that
preach the gospel in Cross River State. It finally discussed Impact of the gospel on the Catholic Church
resulting from the domestication of some practices of the prosperity gospel in the Catholic Church as a
measure to curb the drift of Catholic members to their churches. This has impacted positively and negatively
on the Catholic Church. The study concludes that the positive impact be promoted with vigour, while the
negative impact should be check mated as it is capable of destroying the Church if left unattended to.
Key Words: Prosperity gospel, Catholic Church, Impact, Domestication, Practices.
INTRODUCTION
Following the injunction or the mandate on the apostles to take the gospel to the ends of the earth, the gospel
spread from Egypt in Africa through the Coptic Christians to Europe and eventually back to other parts of
Africa .After the era of the apostles, the Roman Catholic Mission took over the preaching of the gospel.
th
Dissatisfaction based on doctrinal issues led to the Martin Luther Reformation of the 16 century. The
reformation alongside the age of reason ushered in by Renaissance and enlightenment heightened
Protestantism. In the words of Lere “the era of enlightenment also alternatively referred to as the age of
reason was a period of drastic transformation which was caused by a steady secularisation of culture since
the wind of renaissance blew across the world associated with new discoveries by science and philosophy
(21).Various schisms emerged along doctrinal lines which polarised the church even up to this moment. This
period saw the emergence of Pentecostalism that later gave birth to the prosperity gospel beginning from
America spreading to Africa and Nigeria.
The history of Christianity in Cross River State is traced to the Scottish missionary Society headed by Hope
Waddell in 1846, whose party landed Old Calabar, now Cross River State of Nigeria in 1846 from Jamaica
(Macfalan 2).The Roman Catholic Mission followed suit in 1903 with the arrival of the Prefect Apostolic
Leon Lejuene in the company of Fr. Patrick McDemot in Calabar from Onitsha (Okon 189).Also in
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1921,Fr.James Mellet and Fr. Douvry arrived Ogoja, and on the 25 of July being Pentecost Sunday
celebrated the first Mass that marked the beginning of the catholic Church in the area (Okon 213,Odey 140).
The history of the prosperity gospel on the other hand is traced to America. It's appearance in Nigeria dates
back to the 1920's with the emergence of Neo-Pentecostalism. Theprosperity gospel is therefore an off shoot
of Pentecostalism. Ojo attributed the emergence of the prosperity gospel preaching in Nigeria to the works
of Benson Idahosa in the 1970's.Influenced by the teachings of Oral Roberts on the prosperity in America,
Idahosabrought the teaching to Nigeria on his return from America. Thus, Idahosa eventually became the
transporter, a vessel to the transplantation of the prosperity teaching in Nigeria. In contemporary times,

David Oyedepo is acclaimed the chief purveyor of the gospel in Nigeria as he is said to have written and
published about 80 books on prosperity and which has earned him the title Mr. Breakthrough (Achunike
6).The advent of Neo-Pentecostalism in Cross River State in the 1980's and the 90's also ushered in
prosperity gospel.
Scholars have brought forth varied opinion on why people preach and embrace the prosperity gospel. For
Obiefuna B.A and Nwadiolor K.I, many Christians respond to the appeals of the prosperity gospel preachers
because they find in them answers to their thirst for scripture reading, singing and dancing (27).Kitause
states also that the message of hope and liberation of the Pentecostals through the prosperity gospel is
appealing to Nigerians who are living in hunger and abject poverty (3).Thus, the quest for material wealth,
coupled with the wealth and health that the gospel advocates account for the preaching and embrace of the
prosperity gospel.
The prosperity gospel in the recent past has become a subject of debate amongst scholars. Some scholars are
of the view that the prosperity gospel is a scam, a fake and a misinterpreted gospel. While some others are of
the opinion that it is a true gospel, based on the preachers and how the gospel is presented. Although the
prosperity gospel has witnessed a lot of negative criticism, it is still popular and appealing to many
Christians, the Pentecostals and the catholic Christians alike. It is worthy of note that most catholic
Christians who patronise the prosperity gospel churches attend masses on Sunday morning and fellowship
with the prosperity gospel churches in the evening. Aboveall, some practices of the prosperity gospel
churches have been domesticated in the Catholic Church.
It is on this premise that the researcher undertook a research on impact of the prosperity gospel on the
Catholic Church in cross River State from 1969 to 2019.This impact is seen in the positive and the negative.
The study attended to the following research questions; Why are Christians generally and the Catholic
Church members attracted to the gospel? How has the gospel impacted on the Catholic Church positively
and negatively?
CATHOLIC MEMBERS ATTRACTION TO THE PROSPERITY GOSPEL

Although the prosperity gospel has been greeted with much criticism by some scholars, it has become a
theme of attraction for most Christians including Catholic Christians. Certain reasons have been advanced
for this.
The Quest for Wealth and Material Things

Catholic Church members are patronising the prosperity gospel due to their preaching on material wealth.
They are comfortable hearing the prosperity message that dwell on wealth acquisition, getting rich, being
comfortable and being free from poverty. Some are attracted to the gospel because they want to become rich
and live better life. As such they get attracted to where such things are talked about (Eroh,Ugbem &
Inyama).
Poverty and Nature of the Nigerian Economy

Respondents have attributed the attraction of some catholic church members to the prosperity gospel to
poverty and the dwindling economy of the society. Ujoh posit that people are moving away from the
Catholic Church to the prosperity gospel churches due to poverty and destitution. There is poverty and
hunger in the society and as a result, people go to where their hope for better living is resuscitated. Odok
attributes it to lack and poverty, while Odey said that the gospel is appealing to people due to the economic
situation of the country. For Inyama, life is generally difficult and as such when people see signs of relief,
immediate solution to problems and a way to ease their lives burden, they key into it. So many people are
living from hand to mouth and so feel prosperity gospel has become a ray of hope that will take them out of
poverty. Those that patronise the prosperity gospel feel that by faith and action, their status will be enhanced
(oral interview).

Life Threatening Problems

There is practical life challenging problems that the prosperity gospel churches seem to pay attention to,
which is seriously lacking in the Catholic Church. These life threatening problems have formed attraction
for Catholic Church members to the prosperity gospel. The prosperity gospel churches respond promptly to
sickness and other physical challenges of their members which have become a basis attraction for some
Catholic Church members. Okwori stated that the prosperity gospel preachers always touch on the practical
life situation of members like sickness and poverty. Her husband's health challenge took her to some
prosperity gospel churches which she is still patronising (oral interview).
Amefula also posited that the prosperity gospel pastors take the issue of sickness, bewitchment, and
infliction of diseases by demons very seriously which the catholic priests see as non- existing. This has
caused huge attraction for the Catholic Church members for the prosperity gospel (oral interview).Elue
attested to this fact when he states “issues like healing and wholeness, supernatural intervention and
miracles generally, the problem of evil, its causes agents and remedies plays central roles in the daily
existence of Africans. These are the issues the prosperity gospel churches as Pentecostals try to address
which unfortunately takes the back seat in the catholic church” (81).
Worship Style of the Prosperity Gospel Preachers

Most Catholic members patronise the prosperity gospel churches because of their style of worship. The
catholic youths especially prefer the spirituality of the Pentecostals and so are attracted to their churches.
The Catholic Church being a dogmatic church, carry out her activities in line with orthodoxy which makes
some catholic church members, especially the ones that are in love with the Pentecostal spirituality
uncomfortable with such orthordoxy. They feel that mass should be a form gyration where the priest move
from one corner to another and fall under anointing. The absence of this in the Catholic Church has pushed
them to where they can experience that (Odok oral interview).
Elue corroborated the above when he state that a major attraction of the catholic church to the Pentecostal
churches is their mode of worship or service which is spontaneous and joyful, spiced with singing, clapping
of hands, dancing and moving round the church. Their worship style is participatory with total involvement
of the congregation, which the Catholic Church has down played for long especially the role of experience
(82).
The preaching of some catholic priests has also made some Catholics to leave the church for Pentecostal
churches especially those that prefer their style of preaching. Furthermore, the Catholic Church members
are ashamed of carrying the Bible and even praying in the public. Consequently, those group of persons that
are enthusiastic about what the prosperity gospel churches do in that respect move to such churches (Odo,
oral interview).Elue supported by saying that the Pentecostals give the Bible a central place in their worship,
and even encourage their members to also use the Bible (82, 83).
Sense of Belonging
Another reason why some Catholic Church members are attracted to the prosperity gospel churches is their
caring attitude towards their members. They cater for both the spiritual and material needs of their members.
They help their jobless members in the acquisition of entrepreneurial skills and to even secure white collar
jobs.
IMPACT OF THE PROSPERITY GOSPEL ON THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

From information gathered in the course of the researcher's field work, theCatholic Church has
domesticated certain practices of the prosperity gospel churches that are impacting positively and
negatively on the church.

Positive Impact
Impact on the Liturgy of the Catholic Church
Liturgically, although it is not new that Pentecostalism has influenced the mainline churches, the impact is
enormous in modern times. The prosperity gospel as a brand of Pentecostalism has impacted positively on
the Catholic Church. Though the Catholic Church has her tradition, it is open to varieties of innovations,
which does not abolish the original worship of the Catholic Church. The introduction of these practices of
the prosperity gospel churches in the Catholic Church has helped to curb the drift of members to those
churches (Agbor, oral interview).
The worship style of the prosperity churches which are not originally Catholic in nature such as singing of
choruses, clapping, dancing and jumping have been adopted in the Catholic Church. Africans are emotional
and celebrative in nature and given that, the pope has allowed for inculturation, permitting the church to
deviate from holding firm to what the church has been taught by the white missionaries and imbibing those
cherished aspects of the African culture and integrates them into worship. This has helped in the
development of the church and has also impacted hugely on the liturgy of the church. This has equally
helped to retain and reclaim those members who had strayed out of the church and those intending to leave
(Eroh, Odey& Okachi). On the mode of preaching there is also a shift from the traditional method of
preaching by the catholic priests which is staying glued to the pulpit or Lenten, to moving from one place to
another and gesticulating in order to make them free (Eroh).
Liturgically, the gospel has brought about commitment on the part of the Christians in terms of worship.
With the adoption of the prosperity gospel worship styles that form attraction for members of the Catholic
Church. People really want to express themselves in an African way and the manner in which the
Pentecostals do-singing, clapping, dancing and mode of prayer. This has helped the people to rediscover
overtime their talents and potentials, and is assisting to build those church members that prefer the
Pentecostal spirituality (Ujoh, Ogar & Achuri).
Ukpong in affirmation posited that the mainline churches have changed their attitudes towards liturgical
celebrations as a result of attention given to worship by the Pentecostals and their vibrancy of worship. The
faithful are responding to the call for active participation in liturgical functions as a result of challenge from
the Pentecostal churches. Since the guiding principles for preparing for a liturgical function amongst the
Pentecostals is built around the experience of the people, members of the mainline churches have adopted
the Pentecostal styles of worship, considering that these correspond to the African religious sentiments
(173).
In the aspect of preaching, it is opined that some Catholic priests have adopted the prosperity preachers'
method of preaching which has helped to keep those Catholic Church members who cherish the Pentecostal
method of preaching. This has impacted positively on the church as it has curtailed the serious drift that was
experienced in the 1980's and the 90's by the church. Some of these priests have also adopted the
gesticulating approach of the Pentecostal pastors to preach by moving from one end of the church to another,
making prophesy like “tomorrow you shall receive a surprise” to which the congregation yell a resounding
amen (Eneji, Ekaji, Odo & Inyama oral interview). Amefula also noted that most catholic priests try to make
their homilies dialoguing and spice it with phrases like 'Jesus loves you, turn to your neighbour and say it is
well with you. Most homilies are also punctuated with spiritual songs which usually arouse the congregation
spiritually. Ukpong corroborated the above opinion by saying that Pentecostalism has an outstanding
impact on the Catholic Church which is a general renewed interest in preaching, proclamation and teaching
(170).
Giving is part of the liturgical celebration of the Catholic Church. The prosperity gospel has also impacted
positively on this aspect when it comes to financial contribution of members to the development of the
church. It has initiated commitment on the part of the catholic Christians towards donation in the church as
against what was obtainable in the missionary era where they came as givers. The missionaries came with

the mentality of not expecting from the people they evangelised and so the Catholic Church members
imbibed that mentality. But the prosperity gospel has in a way changed such mentality in that most Catholics
have learnt to give towards the development of the church especially in this era that the church is self-
supporting, no more aids from Rome (Eroh oral interview).
On tithing, it is opined that the awareness of tithe paying is more now in the Catholic Church than before, and
is gradually becoming an official practice in the Catholic Church and is also being integrated into the
worship of the church. Tithe helps to develop the church structurally and also used to assist weak members
of the church. Although the idea of tithing is not new to the church, it has been relegated, thanks to the
prosperity gospel. Thus borrowing from the trend in the prosperity churches, the Catholic Church now laid
emphasis on the payment of tithe whereby a particular Sunday of the month is set aside for tithe collection.
On such Sunday, members are asked to come out with their tithes for prayers and blessing after which they
are dropped into the offertory box. Some priests use to ask the congregation to stand and raise up their tithes
where ever they are seated for prayers after which they come out to drop them. Today also, some priests have
designed special tithe envelope for members as it is done in the prosperity gospel churches (Abem, Ujoh,
Eroh, oral interview).
In affirmation, Achunike as cited in Kitause said that tithe payment is becoming a common place in the
Catholic Church, where some young priests, like the prosperity preachers urge church members to pay tithe
to the parish priest (93).Ukpong observed also that some Bishops in Nigeria are adopting tithing as a way of
living up to the responsibility of providing for the material needs of the church in her mission of
evangelisation. This lay faithful respond to by paying 10% of their income to support the development of the
church (178).
PASTORAL IMPACT
Pastorally, the prosperity gospel has impacted hugely on the Catholic Church. Today, there are changes in
the relationship between the priests and their lay members. Lay church members are integrated into the
worship of the practices and liturgy of the church. For instance, in the Catholic Church today, there are
lectors who are lay people in the church, a position that was ordinarily reserved for would be priests those
days. (Okachi).
In the area of church administration, lay members of the church are incorporated. There is the pastoral
council of the church that is made up of the parish priest and other lay members of the church that take charge
of the welfare and the development of the church. The parish committee is headed by the church chairman
who is a lay faithful. The aim is to make the lay members of the church have a sense of belonging and to also
make them understand that they have a stake in the affairs, development and the entire wellbeing of their
church. Just like the deacons, the elders and deaconesses in the prosperity gospel churches contribute and
partake in the decision making of their church development and other affairs, the Catholic Church has also
ceded certain roles and responsibilities to her lay members.(Okachi, Okpabi, Achuri and Odey).
Ukpong in support of the above affirmed that women are now assuming responsibility at public worship in
the mainline churches whereby functions that are not associated with ordinations are carried out by women
aside liturgical functions. This has given a unique touch to the liturgical assembly where nobody is seen as a
spectator in the worship assembly (174).
Evangelisation Strategy of the Catholic Church

Opinions abound that the prosperity gospel has impacted enormously on the evangelisation strategies of the
Catholic Church. Long before the emergence of the prosperity gospel, the church had encouraged her
ministers to use the social media as means of communication to disseminate the good news ('cf Inter
Minifica, the decree of the media or social communication, Vatican 11 document,1963')which the catholic
church refused to take seriously and treated with levity. Thus with the inundation of the mass and social
media by contemporary prosperity preachers, the ministers of the gospel in the Roman Catholic Church are
taking these strategies serious in the course of evangelisation. This is impacting on positively on church by
way of converting new members. Ukpong noted that the Catholic Church has responded to the challenge of
Pentecostal preachers by developing information centres.”Many Bishops are now regular guests on
television and radio programmes in attempt to carry the gospel beyond the pulpit” (176).As influence from
the prosperity gospel preachers, catholic priests and even lay Christians now send Christian messages
through Whatshap, acbook, insagram, twitter, blogs etc for Christians consumption generally (Abem,
Amefula Ujoh).
Catholic Church Attitude towards Members Life Challenges

Influenced by the prosperity gospel, the Catholic Church has keyed into the Pentecostal belief on the root
cause of diseases and given serious attention to it. This has curtailed members running to other churches to
seek for healing miracles. Although the Catholic Church sees sickness as divine, the issue of manmade
disease cannot be completely ruled out. There are diseases that are genetical and others caused by man's
wickedness. Some of the diseases are inflicted on man by evil spirit or demons. In recognition of this, the
church now organise counselling session to attend to such needs. Victims are advised to visit the Blessed
Sacrament, while priests who are charismatically inclined fast and pray to exorcise evil spirit from those
possessed (Eroh, oral interview).
The issue of sickness, demon possession and bewitchment were treated by the missionaries and early
African priests as non-existing, but today the church has looked inward. In some parishes for instance,
healing masses are organised to attend to in health needs. This is done in response to the prosperity gospel
emphasis on healing that attracted Catholics to their churches. Testimonies abound today where people with
spiritual sicknesses are healed by spiritual catholic priests during crusades (Amefula, Abem & Udo).
Negative Impact
Despite the positive impact of the prosperity gospel on the Catholic Church, It is discovered that the gospel
has some negative impact on Church. The prosperity gospel for Agbor is destroying the traditions of the
church liturgically, whereby church members have imbibed the jamboree and disco like practice of the
prosperity gospel churches during worship. The Catholic Church has her tradition and injection of the
prosperity tradition in the members mind is dangerous to the church as their minds will deviate from the
main focus of the church which bothers on the whole pillars of faith (Agbor,oral interview).
Most Catholic Christians are now having less regard for the catholic doctrine and the sacrament, and are
now having the Holy Ghost mentality which is making some catholic's to become preferential about their
priests. This is seen in the rating of priests by church members. Some priests are seen as those who can
preach, while some others are seen as those who cannot. Most Catholics are also no longer interested in the
rituals of worship in the Catholic Church; they now prefer to worship like the Pentecostals. Some begin their
prayers with “in Jesus name” as the Pentecostals do, instead of making the sign of the cross as is the tradition
of the church (Okachi oral interview).Odo and Linus observed that the material aspect of the gospel is
overwhelming the spiritual as most priests now emphasise tithing and seed sowing. Most of these priests
according to source do not use the tithe they collect for the welfare of the church, but for their own personal
gains.
The prosperity gospel is equally watering down the catholic liturgy especially that some priests are now
imitating the prosperity pastors in order to keep their parishioners. Preachers of the prosperity gospel are
watering down the theological content of orthodox Christianity as laid down in the catholic church and has
brought about disregard for ecclesiastical institution amongst some catholic church members. It has also
brought simony into the church whereby divine grace and blessings are exchanged for money.
Theologically also, it has distorted the understanding of God by many members of the society including
Catholic Church members (Ojong, Duke & Ujoh oral interview).

Conclusion
The prosperity gospel has been contextualised to meet the yearnings and aspirations of Christians due to the
harsh economic condition in Nigeria. Consequently, most Catholic Christians are patronising the prosperity
gospel which to them is a ray of hope. To retain their members, and to bring back those that have stayed, the
Church has domesticated certain practices of the prosperity gospel that attracts their members to the gospel
of prosperity. This has impacted positively and negatively on the church. Although the gospel seems to have
positive impact on the Catholic Church, the negative impact should not be dismissed with a wave of hand.
Works Cited
Achunike, H. C. The Challenges of Pentecostalism to the Mainline Churches in Nigeria, O n i t s h a :
Africana-First Publisher, 2004
Elue, Michael O. “The Challenges of Pentecostalism in the Nigerian Church”. The New Religious
Movement: Pentecostalism in Perspective. Nnamani Amuluche Greg.
Theological Association of Nigeria (CATHAN), 2007, pp. 71-89.
Kitause, Rimasikiwe, A History of the Prosperity Gospel Preaching in Nigeria, 1970-2014. A Theses
submitted to the Department of Cultural Studies, University of Nsukka.
Lere, Pauline, The Church in West Africa. Jos: Deka Publications, 2001.
Odey Emmanuel Ushie, Catholic Diocese of Calabar Ecclesiastical Province, Yesterday and Today, Iwoh
and Sons Ent. Nig, Ikot Ekpene, 2014.
Okon F, E. Expansiion and Consolidation: Growth in Onitsha, Calabar, Owerri, Ogoja and Onwukeme
Victor. Pentecostalism: What lessons for the Church in the New Religious Movement:
Pentecostalism in Perspective CATHAN, PI90 -211, 2007.
Obiefuna, B.A.C, Nwadiolor, K.I. and Umeanolue, I.I, Cost and Benefit of Proliferation of Christian
Denominations in Nigeria; Retrieved from http://dx.dodorg.1110.4314/ujah.v17:1.2,January 2018.
List of Interviewees
Ujoh Emmanuel
Okachi Dominic
Agbor Edmond
Eroh Emmanuel
Ekaji Simon
Achuri Lazarus
Odo Linus
Okwori Mary
Amefula Adolphus
Ugbem Theophilus
Abem Patrick
Inyama Patrick
Duke Emmanuel Orok
Elemi Lawrence
Eneji Clement
Okpabi Matilda
Odey Roseline
Ogar Joe Patrick

JOURNALISTS' PERCEPTION OF BROWN ENVELOPE ACCEPTANCE AND ITS IMPLICATION
ON JOURNALISM PRACTICE IN NIGER STATE
Onifade, Olawale Abayomi

Department Of Mass Communication,
IbrahimBadamasiBabangida University,Lapai (IBBUL), Niger State, Nigeria.
abayomi@ibbu.edu.ng, onifadeolawaleabayomi@gmail.com08038446209
Abstract
The purpose of this paper was to examine journalists' perception of brown envelope acceptance and its
implication on journalism practice in Niger state. The rationale for the paper was to identify how journalists
in Niger state perceived acceptance of brown envelope, the level of it acceptance among journalists, and the
implication of it acceptance to professional journalism practice in Niger state The study is anchored on
social responsibility theory. It adopts qualitative survey method to surveyed 200 journalists in the selected
chapels of Nigeria Union of Journalists Niger State Council. The study revealed that most Journalists in
Niger state do not perceive acceptance of brown envelope as an ethical issue rather an appreciation
journalist never begged for. It revealed that it acceptance among journalists in Niger state is very high. Also
acknowledged the unethical practice has wreckedserious havoc on journalism trust and believability in
information dissemination. It recommends: ethical orientation, workshop, conducive working
environment, good remuneration for journalists, and sanctions when necessary.
Brown Envelope,Journalists, Perception, Professionalism, Journalism Practice
INTRODUCTION
Several studies have established that the acceptance of brown envelope by many Nigerian journalists is as a
result of poor salary payment, poor remunerations, socio-economic situation, political system, journalists
self-value and needs. Large number of growing body of research has also link the unethical practice to media
ownership policies, funding challenges and survival struggle in professional journalism practice in Nigeria
(Bulus&Akhilor, 2018; Eze, 2007; Mohammed, 2006; Obateru 2017; Okoro & Onuoha, 2013; Olube, 2013;
Parajuli, &Doneys, 2017; Ukonu, 2005). The term “Brown Envelope”, originated from the practice among
Ghanaians to discreetly enclose bribe money in envelopes, not necessarily brown ones, rather than exposing
it (Adeyemi&Okorie, 2019). These scholars argued that fall out in journalists welfare, remuneration and
ownership payment polices structure has a lot to do with the survival of media organisation and the
journalist working in such organisation. This simply means that action or inactions of media proprietors, in
terms of funding or remuneration of journalists plays a fundamental role in the performance of both
journalists and the media institutions. In other word, funding, managing and welfare of journalists has great
influence on the ways journalists assume or perceive the collection of brown envelope (Okorie, 2019).Most
media organisations in Nigeria are currently in a very poor state both economically and managerially,
considering the present status of the political economy of the mass media in Nigeria (Nwanyanwu,
2019).Olube remarked that “the present state of government and private owned media in Nigeria is
deplorable and needs urgent attention to improve upon its credibility” (Olube, 2013). This implies that the
survival of journalists in Nigeria may largely depend on the media organisation decision on salary payment
policies and ownership negligence to journalists' welfare. This had aided many journalists to develop the
skill of decent begging, boot licking and compromise professional ethics. This practice further deepened the
menace of brown envelope syndrome in Nigeria journalism. This same practice has also come to stay among
journalists in Niger state. Most journalists in Niger state acclaimed that brown envelope collection is not
foul of ethical conduct of journalism profession. They painted several scenario of non-payment of salaries
of many journalists in the state and many media organisation instructing journalists to look for more
marketing plans to increase the media organisation generated revenue (Nmodu, 2023). These non-
justifiable reasons simply confirmed the increase for desperate collection of brown envelope or acceptance

of gift and request for favour based on service provided. This worrisome menace is encumbering
professional journalism practice in Niger state. It is against this background that this study examining how
journalists in Niger state perceived brown envelope syndrome and its implication on professional
journalism practice in the state. This paper therefore, discusses the issue of brown envelope collection or
brown envelope acceptance among journalists is a serious impediment to the practice of professional
journalism in Nigeria. Acceptances of brown envelope by journalists foul codify ethical code of conduct for
fair journalism practice in Nigeria.
PREVALENCE OF BROWN ENVELOPE JOURNALISM

Several body of research indicates that corruption remains an issue in the media industry in Nigeria (Bulus,
2018), particularly in the form of small cash gifts that sources give to journalists (Freedom House 2016).
According to a report by the Ethical Journalism Network in some countries, including Nigeria, brown
envelopes' and under-the-table cash payments to reporters and editors are part of the routine exercise of
journalism (EJN. 2015).Brown envelope journalism is so widespread that those who refuse to collect are
generally seen as outcasts or people acting more sanctimonious than their colleagues. The Journalists
explained that while brown envelope journalism may be regarded as corruption outside of Nigeria, within
Nigeria, it is just seen as a standard way in which journalists are paid. It is part of the status quo and not
necessarily regarded as a negative phenomenon" (Nmodu, 2023).Sources indicate that it is common for
brown envelopes containing cash to be handed out to journalists at news conferences in Nigeria (BBC, 2015
&Al Jazeera 2015). The Journalist explained that "it is common that editors of media outlets are on the
payroll of politicians" and that "there is an understanding between them: 'you are my friend, I will take care
of you, if you take care of me' (Nmodu, 2023). This indicates that it is very easy for politicians, wealthy
individual and ordinary person who can pay price tag attached to the bribe or gratification payment. Most
Journalists in Niger state exhibits same characters along the painted scenario in this review. This action is
against the tenet journalist profession: journalist should neither solicit nor accept bribe, gratification or
patronage to suppress or publish information. To demand payment for the publication of news is inimical to
the notion of news as a fair, accurate, unbiased and factual report of an event.
PRINCIPLES OF ETHICS AND PROFESSIONALISM IN JOURNALISM

Ethics is coined from the Greek word ethos meaning character, or what a good person is or does in order to
have a good character. It deals with choosing among the good or bad options that an individual faces. Stoner,
ethics as the study of peoples' rights and duties, the moral rules people apply in making decisions, and the
nature of the relationship among people (Bulus &Akhilo, 20018). It is a branch of philosophy that deals with
what is morally good or bad, right or wrong, desirability or undesirability, approval or disapproval, or
acceptability or the unacceptability of our actions and deeds (Nwabueze 2019, Ekeanyanwu & Obianigwe,
2012). From the definition above it is clear that ethics deals with the principles of good or bad conduct in a
society or organization using the societal or organizational norms and conventions as the basis for
evaluating human conduct as either acceptable or unacceptable. The criteria decisions about rights or
wrongs, it involves individual values that are morally acceptable and are used as the basis of human
behavior.
As it exist in all professions, journalists also vehemently need to work with a set rules or bench mark guiding
the conduct of their profession, using their reporting skills to fulfill a social role and to meet public
expectations. Professional Journalism practice must be hinged on principles known mostly to journalists as
a Professional Code of Ethics. These codes commonly appear in statements drafted by both professional
journalism associations and individual media organizations. This clarifies the reason for several conditions
or rule laid down for journalist to guide their working conducts. It is collective for media groups to insist on
adherence to such codes by both employed journalists and freelance journalists. The consequence for any
breaking or flaunting of these codes is might be dismissal. These codes of ethics assist journalists with
ethical dilemmas that they might encounter in their career. To this end, the Code of Ethics for Nigerian
journalist as outlined in the “Nigerian Press Council” 2016, paragraph 1 to 3 cited by Bello (2010) states in
its preamble that: Journalism entails a high degree of public trust. To earn and maintain this trust, it is

morally imperative for every journalist and news medium to observe the highest professional and ethical
standards. In the exercise of these duties, the journalist should always have healthy regard for the public
interest, conscious of the responsibilities and duties of journalists as purveyors of information, hence, the
dutyof every journalist to observe its provisions. Reward and Gratification: A journalist should neither
solicit nor accept bribe, gratification or patronage to suppress or publish information, to demand payment
for the publication of news is inimical to the nation of news as a fair, accurate, unbiased and factual report of
an event. Public interest: Journalists should strive to enhance national unity and public good. Social
responsibility: A Journalist should promote universal principles of human rights, democracy, justice, equity,
peace and international understanding. Press Freedom and Responsibility: a journalist should strive at all
times to enhance press freedom and responsibility. This indicates that a legal outline is needed to checkmate
the excesses of journalists. It is also unethical to abuse the power of the mass media which is an important
tool for disseminating ideas and information in the modern world(Bello, 2010).
The interrelationship between ethics and professionalism can be traced to their origin and conception. This
relationship is crucial to development and growth of the mass media (Odunewu, 2018). The practice of
journalism thus demands for discipline and ethically responsible behavior that will impact the quality and
performance of journalists. It should provide the journalist with a standard in which to judge his actions to be
either right, wrong, good or irresponsible (Odunewu, 2018).
Theoretical Framework
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY

Many literatures testified that the theory originated from the Hutchins Commission on Freedom of the Press,
set up in the USA in 1947 to re-examine the press freedom in the fallout of Libertarian system. Its emergence
was also influenced by the findings of the Royal commission of the Press set up in Great Britain in 1949. The
theory believes that freedom comes with attendant obligation. Therefore the press should be responsible to
the society by ensuring the discharge of their journalistic duties with high sense of journalistic standards.
McQuail (2010) avers that, the findings of the commission under the chairmanship of Robert Hutchins
named the key journalistic standards that the press should seek to maintain as thus: A responsible press
should provide a full, truthful, comprehensive and intelligent account of the day's events in a context which
gives them meaning. It should serve as the forum for the exchange of comments and criticism and be a
common carrier of public expression.
The press should give a representative picture of constituent groups in society and also present and clarify
the goals and values of society. The report criticized the sensationalism of the press and mixing of news with
editorial opinion. (2010, p. 170). With regards to brown envelope acceptance, Ekeanyanwu and Obianigwe
(2012) argue that, social responsibility theory ''explains that, the media are established to serve the intent of
the public rather than personal interests. Yet the quest for personal aggrandisement seems to have infiltrated
the practice of journalism in Nigeria and beyond'' (2012, p.524). Therefore, there is need for self-regulation
against ethical and social irresponsibility problem which the brown envelope collection has posed to
journalism noble profession. From the foregoing, the theory presupposes that the media need to operate
within the confines of all social standards and ethics.
Methodology
Qualitative methodology was used in this study to establish how journalists' perceives collection of brown
envelope and to also provide insights for the implication of brown envelope acceptance on professional
journalism practice in Niger State. It was also used to explain generating data that can be transformed into
useable statistics. According to Aliaga and Gunderson (2018) quantitative research is 'explaining
phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analysed using mathematically based methods. 200
journalists from eight chapels of Nigeria Union of Journalists Niger state council were sample in the study,
census sampling method was adopted because it allow participation of all sample size population. Since the
200 sample size for this study is a controllable size, a total of 200 copies of the questionnaire were
distributed among news staff who are members of Nigeria Union of Journalists in the selected eight chapels

from Niger State Council. A total of One hundred and ninety-three (193) were retrieved, and seven (7) were
not returned by the respondents. Therefore the response rate for this paper was 96.5% (193 copies of the
questionnaire) which were analyzed.
DATA PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

The results of findings showed that a large percentage of the respondents were male 182 (94.3%) while
female respondents were 11 (5.7%). It also showed that the respondents from the chapels of Nigeria Union
of Journalists Niger State Council sampled are mostly reporters 189 (97.9%). It also established that most
of the respondents were degree holder with majority of them having nothing less than 10 years of working
experience.
The fundamental analysis of the paper revealed that (98%) of the respondents consented to the acceptance of
brown envelope among journalists in Niger state. They argued that the unethical habit is bedeviling the
practice of journalism profession in the state. All the respondents (100%) further claimed that journalists in
Niger state sees acceptance of brown envelope as a usual phenomenon, they believe that it a normal affairs
within journalism profession. They acclaimed that journalists are not scroungers, they do not request for it,
but news makers gave it willingly. Majority of the respondents (96%) further opine that the reason for the
acceptance of brown envelope or gifts and other service or favour ranging from poor remuneration, lack of
welfare package for journalists, negligence to journalists' means of transportation, social standard, societal
expectation and economic hardship in the state and Nigeria in general. The perception of journalists in Niger
state on acceptance of brown envelope is inverse to the proponent of the social responsibility theory, the
theory presupposed that freedom comes with attendant obligation; therefore the press should be responsible
to the society by ensuring the discharge of their journalistic duties with high sense of journalistic
standards(McQuail, 2010). Theory further proposed that the media are established to serve the intent of the
public rather than personal interests. The practice of journalism demands for discipline and ethically
responsible behavior that will impact the quality and performance of the journalists (Bulus & Akhilor,
2018).The practice of journalism is founded on ethics that demand journalists to maintain a high degree of
public trust, to earn that trust; the media must operate within the highest professional and ethical standards'.
The provisions of the code of ethics, among other things includes: accuracy, fairness, respect of individual
privacy, avoidance of patronage to influence news reporting, social responsibility and decency
(Bulus&Akhilor, 2018).
Consequently, all the respondents 193 (100%) rated the level of brown envelope acceptance among
journalists in Niger state to be extremely high. One of the journalists; News Editor in Prestige 91.7 FM
Minna in a personal interaction argued that journalists most times use their stipends to mobilise themselves
to the venue of press conference or other places they have special assignments to cover, the money they
collected or service render to them to appreciate what they have done is what keeps them going. The news
editor further acknowledged that the process might not be morally right, but the reporters or journalists have
no choice, as sometimes there might not be a good provision for their welfare from the media organisation
they work for, hence, accepting the 'brown envelope' is what keeps journalists in the profession. The
Chairman of the Nigeria Union of Journalists Niger State Chapter, Comrade Abu Nmodu acknowledged
that the acceptance of brown envelope is a common habit among journalists in Niger state. Berating brown
envelope acceptance among Journalists, he said the habit is against journalism ethic code of conducts.
Journalist who collect brown envelope cannot be guaranteed to be objective due to the monetary influences
and pressure. No wonder, The Nigeria Union of Journalists most times in a workshop or union congresses
reprimand the journalists to resists threats or any persuasive attempt to inducements, or subtle words to
influence them into collecting any forms of gift,favourand other services that can distort their judgment for a
news story.
The finding also revealed that acceptance of brown envelope has posed serious threat to professional
journalism practice in Niger state. Majority of the respondents 184 (95.3%) argued that most time the
news makers or politicians seem not have respect for many of the Journalists again. Other respondent

premise their argument on what they call annoying 'gift or money' that killed conscience of many journalists
in the state to silent many issues that has to do with human development or human interest, writing in the
favour of politicians who had induced them. This indicates that brown envelope acceptance is a root for
media manipulations, subjectivity, biased reportage, and sycophancy, as well as fakery, moonlighting,
pressure, and press skepticism. In essence, the menace negates the provisions of various journalistic codes
of ethics to a greater extent. Journalists who collect bribe can hardly be an objective reporter as it will
compromise his reputation to be an independent reporter. Objectivity is a media doctrine that preaches
neutrality, fairness, balance and independence (Parajuli, &Doneys, 2017). Objective reporting is a concrete
foundation for transparent journalism which is devoid of all sorts of romanticisms or bootlicking.
The truth remains that no matter how long a disease stays in the human body, it does not make it right or
become part of the original human mechanism or system;bootlicker journalists can hardly say the truth in
their bid to establish fairness, balance and accuracy during reportage. This also negates the second provision
of Nigeria Press Council which stated that, ''the Public has a right to know. Factual, accurate, balanced and
fair reporting is the ultimate objective of good journalism and the basis of earning public trust and
confidence (NPC, 2019). This is also not in tandem with the proponents of social responsibility theory; the
theory argued that journalists are saddled with the responsibility of ensuring that they provide a full, truthful,
comprehensive and intelligent account of the day's events in a context which gives them meaning. It should
serve as the forum for the exchange of comments and criticism and be a common carrier of public expression
(McQuail, 2010). Hence, the idea of most journalists in Niger state seeing nothing is wrong in accepting
brown envelope is there for a worrisome challenge that must be addressed as quick as possible before
journalism profession in Niger state is equate to cooperate begging. Nigeria Union of Journalists Niger State
chapter must see the acceptance of brown envelope among journalists in the state as a seriously cankerworm
that can destroy the credibility, authenticity and believability of news reports and professional credence
journalism profession is known for. Hence, a need for thorough enforcement of punitive measure that can
curb the practice of brown envelope acceptance among the journalist in the state.
Conclusion
The study establishes that journalists in Niger state perceive acceptance of brown envelope as a common
and usual phenomenon among the journalists all over the world. Some of the respondents were of the
opinion that if journalists accept the induce items or gift is used to augment meager salary most media
organisations paid journalists working for them. This apparently may sound so convincingly, but journalism
professional ethical code of conducts stand on brown envelope acceptance still remain sacrosanct, it
mandated journalists to be decent (decency), and warn against reward and gratification of any kind while
performing their social responsibility of informing the general public. Since the level of brown envelope
acceptance among journalists in Niger state is adjudge so high and the practice has caused serious setback to
several move by the Nigeria Union of Journalists' effort to curb the menace in the state. To archive this huge
task, there is need for total ethical orientation among journalists in Niger state, especially against acceptance
ofbrown envelope and professional decency. Ethically oriented teaching and sensitisation of journalists in
Niger state will expose them to the inherent burdens that are associated with the acceptance of brown
envelope, the implication of it on the noble profession and the need to resist the temptation when it is offered.
Niger state government and other private own media organisation in the state must improve welfare package
of journalists to ensure professionalism journalism practice in the state.
Media regulatory bodies such as Nigeria Press Council (NPC) and Nigeria Union of Journalists should
ensure the adherence of journalists to ethics in pursuit of professionalism. Journalists should strive on their
own to resist temptation of accepting brown envelope or any other unethical gift when verit offered.
Journalists in Niger state with better pay should be satisfied with what they earn than unnecessarily
damaging their conscience to collect meager money popularly termed brown envelope or appreciation by
most journalists in Niger state.

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HEGEMONIAL STABILITY THEORY AND THE RATIONALE FOR
NIGERIA'S LEADERSHIP ROLE IN INTEGRATING WEST
AFRICAN STATES.
Arin, Solomon Jang

Department Of Political Science
Plateau State University Bokkos, Plateau State
Areen290384@gmail.com +2348039532727
&
Dawam, Samuel Naansuan
Department Of Political Science
Plateau State University Bokkos, Plateau State
Sndawam@hotmail.co.uk Mobile: +234(0)8061215657
Abstract
The objective of this paper is to discuss the rationale for Nigeria's leadership role in integrating West African
States using the Hegemonial Stability theory. Overtime, Nigeria has made immense contributions in
regional integration particularly in the West African sub region hence, being referred to as the 'Giant of
Africa'. Using documentary sources, this paper contends that Nigeria's foreign policy objectives captures
and gives impetus to the role in which Nigeria assumes as a Leader in Africa. Whereas so much has been
expended on Nigeria's neighbours and critics have pointed out that these engagements have not yielded
fruits for the country, this paper seeks to address the rationale behind Nigeria's good neighbourliness using
the Hegemonial Stability Theory. Nigeria has the blessings of geography and demography, it is prosperous,
yet surrounded by neighbours that are disproportionately endowed. This state of affairs is a trigger for
instability, as such Nigeria assumed a Hegemonic role to provide leadership and stability to West Africa.
This leadership role is underpinned by the resources it has been endowed with by nature.
Key words: Hegemonial Stability Theory (HST), rationale, leadership role, integration, West African
States
INTRODUCTION
One motive that influenced the creation of almost all the West African International Governmental
Organizations (IGOs) is the unity which has its origin in the Pan-African movements (UNECA 1983).
According to Essien (2006) efforts at regional and sub-regional integration in Africa goes back to the
immediate post-colonial period. It was seen as an extension of the liberation movements and an effort to
construct geographic entities that were economically viable and politically united. It also reflected the
prevailing European experience with its emphasis on free trade within a Common External Tariff area.
Thus, Anadi (2012) observed that, “by the 1960's when most of the West African states gained their
independence, the realities of the enormous distortions inherent in the colonial economy came to fore.
First, they were utterly left with highly fragile and structurally truncated economies based on the export of
one or two agricultural commodities with inherent price distortions in the international commodity market.
Also, the fact that none of these states' national currencies were convertible further worsened the already
destabilizing balance of payments problems in both their trade within the region and in their trade with other
regions of the world” (Anadi 2005).
The founding fathers of ECOWAS were quite aware of the huge challenges that confronted them at
independence, following the years of unbridled exploitation and utter neglect of the basic needs of the
citizens by the colonial masters; Britain, France and Portugal. Consequently, successful nation building has
remained the biggest challenge for them because their economies are small, weak and highly competitive.

Hegemonial Stability Theory and The Rationale For Nigeria's Leadership Role in Integrating West African States.
Accordingly, they were unable to exploit the complementarities of big and strong economies and are equally
incapable of competing effectively within the global economy. These realities made regional integration an
attractive option for West Africa. Undeniably, also, globalisation processes have brought home forcefully to
the region the reality that it is impossible for any country, including the most economically and politically
powerful, to go it alone. Now, more than ever before, all countries need one another to survive in a world
where states are intricately weaved together economically, politically and technologically, with significant
externalities for those that are unable to catch the globalisation train (Sesay and Omotosho 2011).
BACKGROUND TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF ECOWAS

Generally, the ECOWAS sub-regional arrangement is attributable to the idea of the United Nations
Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). The idea was an economic grouping embracing all the states
in West Africa which was set forth at UNECA's first meeting held in December 1962. The Economic
Commission of Africa's standing committee on industry, natural resources and transport decided to render
assistance to governments in promoting sub-regional co-operation in the development of industries on the
basis of international specialization, and in the harmonization where appropriate, of industrial
developmental plans through studies and field investigation. This development is the result of the
realization that all West African states are underdeveloped, that almost all of them are too small in size to
develop the broad range of complex industries that characterized a modern economy and that they have to
cooperate if they are to emerge from the situation of underdevelopment” (UNECA, 1983:16).
Furthermore, it must be noted that the imbalances caused by colonialism, particularly, the economic and
associated development problems it brought about, with a continuing food shortage, high population
growth rates, dependence on commodity exports, unfavourable terms of trade, huge balance of payments
deficit, increasing indebtedness and the ineffective development strategies adopted by the new independent
States of Africa spurred the need for a more viable development strategy for a self-reliant economy.
Therefore, the Pan-African Movements which were to come to a compromise of achieving a common
supranational platform for combating colonialism and neo-colonialism can be seen as one of the facilitating
factors to the realization of integration schemes that emerged across the African continent. Particularly, the
ideological row between the progressive Casablanca Group and the conservative Monrovia Group
subsequently saw to the triumph of the Brazzaville – Monrovia Group and the eventual creation of the
Organization of African Unity (OAU) on May 25, 1963. Nigeria belonged to the conservative group. The
rationale for this compromise was to gain a common ground for the struggle against colonialism and
imperialism and resolve the crises of underdevelopment which as Kwame Nkrumah put it, meant “seeking
first the political kingdom”. Regional integration was to follow via Pan-Africanism because of the need for
economic development, it was realized that independence didn't mean the end to Africa's problems.
After the establishment of the OAU, it became apparent that the African States needed another platform at
the sub-regional level to promote African development. Indeed, the African Economic Community (AEC)
was designed to enhance Regional Economic Communities (REC) as a means of achieving economic
development by proffering regional economic integration as a development strategy. Therefore, AEC's
objective was to attain integration at the continental level by way of consolidating existing Regional
Economic Communities (RECs) and creating new ones where none existed. Other such platforms as the
United Nation's 6th and 7th special sessions of the General Assembly which aimed at the establishment of a
New International Economic Order (NIEO), had in its set of resolutions which it desired to achieve, one of
which is 'an economic order which urges closer economic ties among developing regions and States. It
stresses the possibilities of increased trade, technical and economic cooperation. It also laid emphasis on
effective control by developing countries over their natural resources and on the harmonization of policies
for the exploitation, conservation, transformation and marketing of these resources on the ground that they
are indispensable for economic and social progress of the countries concerned. This proposition called for
action among developing countries at the national, sub-regional, regional or inter-regional levels (Adedeji,
1984:4). As such, it can be argued that ECOWAS was established following the propositions of the UN
General Assembly in itsagitations for a New International Economic Order (NIEO) and strengthened

through the African Economic Community (AEC) instruments of the AU.

Carstens acknowledged the efforts and dogged determination of Adebayo Adedeji, erstwhile Executive
Secretary of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) to the formation of ECOWAS.
He was convinced that Africa would not be able to compete with the rest of the world unless it is united
economically and politically; and that such a process should start at the much smaller regional level (Sesay
and Omotosho; 2011).
In the view of Audu, “the idea of some form of economic co-operation among member states of the West
African sub region was born in the early sixties immediately after the granting of independence to most West
Africa countries. It was felt then that each of the constituent states of West Africa on its own, except perhaps
Nigeria was too small to realize its economic potential. Also, it was felt that despite the similarities of the
constituent states, there was room for specialization both in the agricultural and industrial sectors which
could not be developed purely on a national basis. The main economic argument for the establishment of an
economic community in West Africa is the creation of a large market” (Audu1986: 347). Corroborating this
view is the position of LoletteKritzinger-van Niekerk (2011) who pointed out that the argument is equally
made with respect to the size of the national markets in the region. Except for Nigeria, the markets of other
ECOWAS states are small, making them uncompetitive and unattractive to the outside world. Successful
regional integration was believed, would increase the size of the market; enhance competition and efficient
production due to economies of scale. All things being equal then, it was much easier for the enlarged West
African market to attract foreign investment that will benefit the region provided the investors do not engage
in tariff-jumping (Sesay and Omotosho; 2011).
Consequently, the efforts of Nigeria in the establishment of ECOWAS have been tremendous and
noteworthy. ThusAjayi (1983) observed that
it was the initiative of Nigeria and Togo that revived the idea of an all-encompassing West African
grouping in April 1972 for a process of achieving a West African-wide economic co-operation. On
14 December 1973, a ministerial meeting was held in Lome, Togo, attended by fifteen West African
States which agreed in principle to establish an Economic Community of West African States. The
meeting called on Nigeria to draw up detailed proposals for the future shape of the community. In
May 28, 1975, the heads and representatives of the fifteen states finally assembled in Lagos and
signed the Treaty establishing the ECOWAS (Ajayi,1983:145).
Also, the country's participation in spearheading the creation of ECOWAS is informed by the power
structure in the West African sub-region with Nigeria being the dominant power within the bloc. As the
leader of the bloc in the region it naturally became the “hegemon” because of its military superiority, large
population compared to the others, diverse and enormous economic resources and a relatively stable
political environment. Therefore, the conduct of Nigeria's internal and external relations has had an effect on
its neighbours and this is for the safeguarding of its national interest. This posture upholds the truism as
observed by Alli, that;
the key interest of states in the international arena which determines the content of foreign policy
include achievement of security, socio-economic welfare and power. The use of national interest as a
cornerstone of foreign policy is the key element of the road more travelled in world politics
(Alli2010:221).
It can be recalled that in the early 1960s, Britain and the Commonwealth dominated Nigeria's foreign policy.
However, Nigeria had bilateral relations with its immediate neighbours but was totally indifferent to the
internal political struggles in the countries of its neighbours (Nwolise, 1989:194). As a result, the conflict
that eventually characterized the Nigerian Civil War saw some West African States and some African States
supporting the Biafran secession, notably, Coted'Ivoire, Gabon, Tanzania and also Zambia. However, the
Organization of African Unity (OAU) as a body denounced the secession and called for the recognition of

the unity and territorial integrity of the Nigerian state. Hence, Pham observed that the Nigerian
government's initiative in the formation of ECOWAS in 1975 underlined the importance of the sub-region in
Nigeria's security and diplomacy especially those that emanated from its immediate environment,
particularly its neighbours. Nigeria, therefore, after the war, embarked on a vigorous policy of uniting
African countries (Pham, 2007:6).
The survival of the Nigerian nation was due in part to the diplomatic support it received from the majority of
OAU states. Nigeria became convinced that it could achieve more with the united will of Africa, regionally
or as a whole. Nigeria, therefore, took the initiative to spearhead the establishment of ECOWAS (Audu,
1986:352). Also observed by Gambari(1986) is the fact that, “at the end of the country's Civil war, Nigeria's
Head of State, General Gowon, also worked hard to repair the country's relations with neighbouring and
other African states. He restored relations with these countries that recognized “Biafra” and played an active
role in the affairs of the OAU. General Gowon was the prime mover of the diplomatic efforts that led to the
establishment of the ECOWAS. Hence, his successors, Murtala and Obasanjo consciously concretized the
“African Centrepiece Concept” in Nigeria's foreign policy. It was coined and expressed in the Adedeji
Report on Foreign Relations during the regime(Gambari, 1986:75).Consequently, successive regimes
adopted this policy maxim. It is not the first time however, that Africa has been taken into account in
Nigeria's policy considerations but it became more progressive.
HEGEMONIAL STABILTY THEORY

Hegemonial Stability Theory (HST) best describes Nigeria's disposition and its role in the West African
region towards achieving the aims and ends of integration. Evans and Newnham (1998) posit that the
scholarship which was developed within the international political economy realm by scholars like
Kindleberger, Krasner, Keohane and Gilpin have taken the concept of "hegemony" as the independent
variable and sought to correlate it with the idea of "regime" as the dependent variable. The hypothesis being
that, stable regimes, particularly, in international economic relations depend upon a "hegemon" establishing
norms and rules and then superintending their functioning by enlightened use of power requires the
hegemon to use positive sanctions to create a structure of incentives for those further down the hierarchy to
benefit and therefore stay in the system.
In other words, HST supposes that the stability of the international system requires a single dominant state to
articulate and enforce the rules of interaction among the most important members of the system this
presupposes a leadership whom is the "centre of gravity" i.e. the core area (Brown and Ainley 2010). It is in
this regard that Gilpin and Krasner examined in varying degree the emphasis of "role" referred to as
hegemonic leadership" exercised by a single state as a basis for sustaining strong "liberal regimes" in the
international system. This view which stresses the role of capability i.e. an endowed state sufficiently
motivated to pursue, support or provide these desirable outcomes through the construction of structures
which in this case centres around stability, security and development using elements of national power in a
benign or non-self-preserving way. This, they purport that, with a hegemon it is possible for certain states to
be engaged in cooperation beneficial to even those whose contributions to it is minimal or none at all
(Dallaji, 2004).
A vital instrument in this theory is the existence or creation of regimes as a basis for legitimizing hegemony.
A regime can be found where there are clearly understood principles, norms, rules and decision making
procedures around which decision makers expectations converge in a given area of international relations
(Brown and Ainley, 2010;37). The hegemon exists to guide behaviours of actors within the purview of
established regimes dealing with an issue-area. Such a position filled in by the hegemon prescribes certain
attributes for a state to qualify. Firstly, the capability to enforce the rules; the will to do so; and a commitment
to the system which is perceived as mutually beneficial to the majority of states. Consequently, though, the
hegemon is faced with a system plagued with a "free-rider" syndrome, this is because the system is a
collective good and the gains of cooperation are shared disproportionately. Thus, the hegemon must induce
or coerce states to support the system by virtue of its character, possessing a large growing economy;

dominance in a leading technological or economic sector; political power backed up by projective military
power.
The theory further buttresses that the overwhelming dominance of one country was necessary for the
existence of an open and stable world economy. Such a hegemon served to coordinate and discipline other
countries so that they could feel secure enough to open its markets and avoid beggar-thy-neighbour policies
(Helen 1998).
The Hegemonial Stability Theory (HST) is derived because it explains the need to provide sanity to a system
fraught with "free-riders" or "cheats". Though neo-realists see cheating as a non-problem, because states
will only cooperate when they expect gains they will receive which will be greater than or at least equal to
the gains of all other relevant parties. However, neoliberals posit that, it is not difficult to see why states
cooperate it is in their (absolute) interest to do so. In other words, states cooperate because there are absolute
gains to be had from cooperation. Thus, the point of convergence between the two schools is the realization
that there are gains to be acquired from cooperation; however, free-rider states which took gains of
cooperation without contributing to the costs will always be a problem. This difficulty arises from the
unreliability on the promises of cooperation due to circumstances where enforcement was impossible and
cheating imminent. Thus, states will continually be placed in a situation where it is in their interests that
cooperation takes place; but even more in their interests that the costs of cooperation are carried out by
others. However, if international regimes could be established within which information could be
exchanged and commitments formalized, the possibilities for cooperation would be enhanced. Therefore, to
overcome the difficulties in establishing the regimes, a Hegemonic power is necessary, hence, the most
influential explanation for the creation, maintenance and persistence of regimes is the theory of hegemonic
stability (Brown and Ainley, 2010:47 and 131). Hegemony, they contend, should be backed by capacity;
will and legitimacy. This view is upheld by Dallaji who observed that, one of the central propositions of HST
is the position that international economic structures functions better when strong resource endowed states,
"capable" and "willing" to assume responsibility for the construction and sustenance of structures of
international cooperation engage in a set of attitude in which is ordered, creating and security-maintenance
which has become prominent values regarded as essential for post-war prosperity of global, economic and
political system. Citing Calleo, he contends that, stable peace and prosperity requires a "benevolent"
hegemonic power that is a dominant state managing the world system in the general cosmopolitan interest.
Far from being predatory and self-serving, it is possible that dominant states could be motivated to employ
their capability that shores up the possibilities of integration and international cooperation (Dallaji,
2004:16). Furthermore, he observed that in classical HST, regional economic integration undermines the
basis of survival in the long run. It is a property that characterizes hegemony defined by self-exhausting
implications of its behaviour of benevolence in foreign policy. Successful functioning of hegemony is a
result of four conditions, viz: first, it can developed as a response to the existence or potential hegemonic
power (balance of power); secondly, regionalism can emerge as an attempt to restrict the free exercise of
hegemonic power through the creation of regional institutions (collective security); third, weak states might
seek regional accommodation with the local hegemon in the hope of expecting a reward; fourth, a hegemon
itself may seek to become actively involved in the construction of regional institutions (Dallaji, 2004:114).
Arguably, HST is a theory that focuses on hegemony as its primary concept but its exercise is given legality
in the context of regimes which requires institutionalism. Thus, the roles performed by a hegemon can only
have legitimacy if formalized in regimes which shores up consent and the informed use of its power to
influence other actors. Also, it is observed by Junghurt (2006) that the success of regimes depends not only
on its performance by exercise of hegemony but also on its interactions with other arrangements that have
overlapping jurisdictions. (e.g. CEAO and ECOWAS, AU, NEPAD). Interaction can reinforce the
effectiveness of the institutions involved or it can lead to disruptions in the achievement of internationally
agreed objectives, diminishing or even offsetting gains from cooperation. In both cases, institutional
coordination is necessary to consolidate rules and reduce conflict or to exploit synergies in implementation
(Junghurt 2006:2).

Nigeria's hegemony is not self-imposed and not overriding. Contrary to the negativity attached to the notion
as connoting domination to cast Nigeria's efforts during the formative stage of the ECOWAS, Nigeria still
used its privilege position to garner consensus and persuasion over force. Nigeria, in its bilateral relations
and in the sustenance of international organizations, particularly, the ECOWAS, has pre-eminently been
marked by benevolence, even though such benevolence has not made much economic sense to its national
interest and was in most cases unpopular and against the grain of domestic public opinion. However, it can
be adduced that Nigeria's role in West Africa is that of providing sanity and stability when events and
antecedents are taken into account. Nigeria has never had any expansionist policies hence; its leadership has
been that of benevolence bearing in mind that nature has endowed it with the attributes that confers
hegemony. Within the framework of the HST, Nigeria's hegemony and roles in West Africa is historic,
enlightened and informed and thus, HST adequately explains its actions in the sub-region.
RATIONALE OF NIGERIA'S LEADERSHIP ROLE IN WEST AFRICA

Generally, the ECOWAS regional integration was established as a response to colonialism; to tackle the
problem of small markets by grouping the markets of the states in the sub-region and increase the living
standards of the peoples of the region; Nigeria's hegemonic presence served as a rallying point for its West
African neighbours in general and in her national interest the creation of ECOWAS was necessary to pursue
her foreign policy and preserve the country's unity. Also, the success of the European development models
became worthy of emulation considering its achievements. Achieving the goals of integration will bring
about a self-reliant and self-sufficient economy which will bolster the economies of the States involved in
the integration scheme. It will enhance specialization through the principles of comparative advantage, that
is, the division of labour, industrialization and the wider markets created will bring about growth and
development.
Nonetheless, particularly, Nigeria's Hegemonic role is informed by several factors; amongst which are
moulded by lessons of history, psychological and image perception by its leaders.Commentators,
academicians, even integrationists of both domestic and international repute have lent credence to this fact.
Importantly, what is characteristic about Nigeria is its physical and national attributes which have
sharpened its position in history and put it at centre stage of international affairs and as a frontline state. This
informed the orientation from inception of Nigerian leaders who have formulated the national objectives
and foreign policy bearing in mind the leadership potential of this colossal asset. One of such prominent
commentators in the person of Kofi Anan, former UN secretary general, pointed that,
Africans naturally look to Nigeria for leadership. After all, Nigeria is the most populous
country on the continent, with abundant natural resources and a strong military. It has a
large pool of educated and able citizens and its society reflects the diversity of Africa itself.
Nigerians themselves also expect their country to lead, given their clear interest in the
promotion of development and democratization at home and abroad, in an environment of
peace and stability (Akinterinwa, 2004:xxiv).
Furthermore, Nigeria's role and hegemony in the West African region is informed by its foreign policy. It is
observed that the Afrocentric preoccupation in Nigeria's foreign policy was given constitutional support and
imprimatur in section (9) of the 1979 constitution which states as follows; "the state shall promote African
unity as well as total political economic, social, cultural liberation of Africa and the people of African birth
and descent throughout the world and shall combat racial discrimination in all its manifestations (Olusanya
and Akindele, 1986:5). Thus, Nigeria as a liberator was believed to be truly independent only if African
peoples were liberated from the subjected forms of colonialism and humiliations. Nigeria, quietly
convinced that her vast human resources entitled her to natural leadership if not of the African continent,
then at least of the West African region. Furthermore, Nigeria could not remain an island of prosperity in a
turbulent sea of economic instability in West Africa. Her commitments to helping her neighbours should fit
logically with her overall commitment to create the necessary political and economic conditions for
regional economic and social development (Garba, 1987:37/40).

Admittedly, the African centrepiece policy of Nigeria was inspired by racial and historical factors which
incidentally met with Nigeria's enormous endowments. Also, geography and environment is characteristic
of states in Africa whom are contiguous. Infact, colonial divisions of Africa have put boundary lines in
between ethnically common peoples. Thus, it is observed that, given the level of ambition of Nigerian
foreign policy, the first point is to have a good defence policy. Hence, our first line of defence must be
perceived to be within the territories of contiguous states, thus, affording us a viable buffer zone. The more
we commit our trade and industrial resource in the surrounding states, the more this principle of defence and
foreign policy becomes a vital necessity. An effective foreign policy would save costs for defence by
helping to produce favourable conditions of cordiality and mutual commitment between Nigeria and our
immediate neighbours (Chime, 1987: 27-28).
This view describes the reason for Nigeria's Afrocentric foreign policy also; Nigeria's geographic position is
of relevance. Bassey observed that,
Nigeria is strategically situated at a meeting point between West and Central Africa. This
strengthens its potentiality given other factors to serve as an anchor of economic, political, cultural
and security bloc in the region. Also, a substantial proportion of its populations is highly politically
mobilized with a keen perception of their country's cultural leadership in black Africa. This
naturally bears a hegemonic duty for Nigeria (1981:232).
According to Otubanjo (1989) Nigeria, by virtue of its size, population and rich endowment of natural
resources has always been expected to play a leading role in Africa's politics and Africa's relationship with
the outside world. This broad consensus about her "manifest destiny" has changed over the years from a
mere expectation of a frontline position to positive description of a leadership role in Africa. Today no one
expects Nigeria to be merely a leading voice in Africa. All expect her to be "the" leading voice. This is
spurred by the oil wealth which strengthened the opportunity for positive non-alignment and provided the
impetus for a more expansive role in Africa an active presence in world politics and indeed a radical role in
regional economic relations and the search for distributive justice in the international system (Otubanjo,
1989;1/5).It has been supported that both the outgoing military regime and its civilian successor intended
Nigeria to play a positive part in African affairs, perhaps in world affairs too. It made its way onto the
Security Council in 1976 against the candidature of a fellow African state nominated by the OAU. Nigeria
also put a lot of energy and money into the 1976 Festival of Arts and Culture in Lagos. It so dominated the
ECOWAS that the organization would have been boneless without Nigeria. Lagos became a port-of-call for
British, American and other politicians trying to resolve the Rhodesian crises. As a member of the OAU, the
commonwealth and OPEC as well as UN, Nigeria became active in a unique sample of organizations
(Calvocoressi, 2009:546).
One apt perspective that captures the hegemonic leadership of Nigeria and rationale behind its role is
observed by Alli (2012) pointing that,
Nigeria's approach is largely influenced by the national roleconceived for it by its leaders in
international relations.This role conception has become the defining paradigm for foreign policy
engagement. According to this paradigm, Nigeria is the "natural leader" of Africa with a "manifest
destiny" and even with a responsibility to promote and protect the interests of Africa and black
people everywhere in all ramifications. They also believe that the country's security is tied to that of
other African States because of transnational security issues which are defined by the way in which
the security of a nation is affected by what happens in contiguous countries around its
neighbourhood... (Alli; 2012:7 /73).
Therefore, the situation speaks for itself; Nigeria's role is a product of history, geography and psychological
image perception. Its resource endowments inevitably put powers and responsibilities on it. This status and
the role it has continuously taken has made its fellow African states to look up to it for assistance and

leadership, having the capability, the means and the will, Nigeria has not relented nor abdicated its roles as a
Pan-Africanist and anti-colonialist state, consolidating its solidarity to black Africa. This continuous role-
play has become a norm and therefore both domestic leaders have perceived it as a leader while the
international community has conceived it as a hegemon by virtue of its leadership. Most importantly though
is the national interest, Nigeria's survival which is unavoidably linked to the stability of other nations in the
region. Therefore, its defence policy and foreign policy objectives takes cue from issues of linkage politics
as a basis for expounding its hegemonic leadership.
The opinion of the African Peer Review Mechanism- the Country's Self-Assessment Report observed that
Nigeria is at the forefront of Pan-Africanism and the African renaissance and the country is most known for
articulating African problems on the global stage. From fighting colonialism and apartheid to numerous
investments in the development of Africa. Nigeria has been at the forefront of regional integration in the
context of ECOWAS. At the Pan-African level, the country is also prominent in the AU, NEPAD and the
APRM. Also to be noted is Nigeria's contribution to peacekeeping in Africa and the world. Nigeria's strength
in this regard is further augmented by its membership of bodies such as the AfDB, the IMF, the World Bank,
the African Partnership Forum of the G8, the G77 and OPEC, to name just a few. Collectively, these factors
contribute to the position of Nigeria as a regional and global powerhouse (CRR-FRN-APRM, 2008: 58).
This is derived from its possession of its abundant human resources and resource endowment. It is a society
with all the potentialities of greatness, namely, enormous natural and human resources, a virile and
enterprising population and a reservoir of skilled and trained man powers.
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January, 2013 by 1.00pm

MIGRANT'S IDENTITY AND RIGHTS OF POLITICAL
PARTICIPATION: AN EXAMINATION OF CONTESTATIONS OF
PAN-AFRICANIST IDEOLOGY BETWEEN NIGERIA AND SOUTH
AFRICA IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Pienswang Longmam Geoffrey (PhD)

Plateau State University Bokkos, Faculty of Arts, Department of History and
International Studies, Jos, Central Nigeria, phone: +2348106541800. Email:
pienswanggeoffrey@plasu.edu.ng or poesnaan2007@gmail.co
Abstract:
That Nigeria and South Africa are two big economies in the African continent who seek recognition as
hegemonic powers in Africa is not debatable. And that the two have always influence decision in the African
Union meetings is not also in question. However the two have not been in agreement over issues of Africa's
economic and political integration to foster Africa unity and development pursuance to the Pan-Africanist
ideology. Despite policies existence on paper regarding issues of economic integration with bilateral
agreements between the two countries implementation has always been issues that raise concerns. It is on
the basis of this concerns that this paper examine the issues of migrants identity rights, and political
contestation in driving the Pan-Africanist Ideology in the 21st century. Relying on trans-national concept
and qualitative methodology, the paper argues that although migration existed for over a century between
Nigeria and South Africa, the two countries are still engaged in frosty relationship expressed through
xenophobic violence, drug trafficking, and human rights abuses. The fundamental reason for this
xenophobic attack can be traced in South Africa's apartheid history. The paper suggests the need to
reeducate and decolonise the mind of Africans by revisiting historical relationship across the continent to
reflect African sociopolitical thoughts based on Pan-African relationship. It also reveals that identity
challenge face by both countries can be exploited to promote African Renaissance's ideals of social
cohesion and unity. Nigerian and South African governments should reawaken Pan-Africanism that the
continent is known for and to reinvigorate the African Ubuntu which seeks the welfare of an African
brotherhood.
Key Words: Migration, Identity, Integration, Political contestation and Relationship
Introduction
This is the situation that Nigeria and South Africa found itself due to economic failure in Nigeria and South
Africa on it part came out of apartheid as a develop economy in Africa. It was natural that others African
look up to South Africa for 'good living' this resulted in the reaction of South Africans who believes that
black migrants into their country are more prosperous than they are therefore the narrative of you are taking
our job. The result is the contestation which replicate itself in the form of xenophobia or Afro-Phobia or
rather Nigeriana-Phobia. The integration challenge that resulted in the identity issues is the consequences
of Africa government refusal to follow the principle of Pan-Africanist Ideology postulated bit past leaders.
After political independence which South Africa Became the last to benefit from the common struggle put
forward base on the Pan African Principle? Africa became turn apart, base on regional and ethnic principle
negating the Ubuntu Principle. It is on the basis of this concerns that this paper examine the issues of
migrants identity rights, and political contestation in driving the Pan-Africanist Ideology in the 21st century.
Relying on trans-national concept and qualitative methodology, the paper argues that although migration
existed for over a century between Nigeria and South Africa, the two countries are still engaged in frosty
relationship expressed through xenophobic violence, drug trafficking, and human rights abuses. The study
concludes with a clarion call on the Nigerian and South African governments to reawaken Pan-Africanism
which the continent is known for and to reinvigorate the African Ubuntu which seeks the welfare of an

Migrant's Identity and Rights of Political Participation: An Examination of Contestations of
Pan-africanist Ideology Between Nigeria and South Africa In The 21st Century
African brotherhood - that Africa is better together than disunited. Africa should work more on factors that
unite them rather than on what divides them. In unity, the continent's hope for integration in economic,
political and diplomatic relations will be realised, if the continent reawaken the principles of pan
Africanism and the reeducation and decolonisation of the minds of Africans by revisiting historical
relationship across the continent to reflect African sociopolitical thoughts based on Pan-African
relationship.
History of Migration between Nigeria and South Africa

Migration is the movement of people from their original habitat to a destination outside the borders of their
origin, purposely to settle and can be voluntary or forced. The consequences of migration are usually not
predetermined, due to various stages of uncertainty that may arise, to deter the motive of the migrant to
relocate.
The state of migration at present has been as a result of lack of sustainable development or lack of
access to much needed resources for development. In Africa, common drivers of migration have
been associated with conflict and the state of the economy. Many people are displaced due to
conflict, as such are forced to migrate to neighbouring countries, hence, there movement are not
usually a voluntary decision. Others migrate due to lack of opportunities or for economic reasons,
where they assume that the more developed economy will provide the opportunities they desire.
Migrants select a destination based on access to opportunities, providing a more favourable
environment, which provides better security and economic advantage over the country of origin.
Human migration is an age-old phenomenon that stretches back to the earliest periods of human history. In
the modern era, emigration and immigration continue to provide States, societies and migrants with many
opportunities. At the same time, migration has emerged in the last few years as a critical political and policy
challenge in matters such as integration, displacement, safe migration and border management.
Data on global migration flow, as reported by the International Labour Organisation (ILO), indicate that
globally, in 2013, there were 232 million transnational migrants, representing 3 % of the estimated world
population compared with 174.5 million in 2000, in 2015, there were an estimated 244 million
international migrants globally (3.3% of the world's population) —an increase from an estimated 155
million people in 2000 (2.8% of the world's population). Internal migration is even more prevalent, with
the most recent global estimate indicating that more than 740 million people had migrated within their own
country of birth. Looking at the global estimate of 150.3 million migrant workers, 112.3 million (74.7%)
were found in nations regarded as high income states; 16.9 million (11.3%) were found in middle income
countries; and 3.5 million (2.4%) in low income nations. These low income countries include Africa, Latin
America, and Asia. Due to lack of accurate data on intra-African migration, the ILO reports give no
specific figure to indicate flow of human mobility within African states, which calls for more censuses to
ascertain the current flow of migration within African countries. The reason for the inclusion of the ILO
reports is to demonstrate the migration flow in the world, and indicate the omission of the reports on the
flow of the South-South and intra African mobility. This shows that there is a need for adequate studies in
the area.
Nigeria estimated population in 2019 is 200,606, 683 The South African 2011 census found that there were
2.2 million immigrants in a country of 52 million in 2011. While it is possible that some undocumented
migrants were not counted in the 2011 Census, this was in the final figure using the weighting factor that
adjusts for possible undercount. Thus, the 2011 Census figure of 2.2 million foreign-born people in South
Africa is supposed to include both documented and undocumented foreigner.Nigeria, was declared the
largest economy in Africa in 2014, while South Africa has the infrastructural and technological advantage
over other countries in the continent. These advantages qualify both countries as centers of attraction for
migrants, even from outside the continent. There are records of Chinese, American and European migrants
in these countries. This is notwithstanding the fact that Nigerians are still the most mobile population on the

continent. This migration pattern, which is mostly driven by economic parameters, triggers different forms
of social problems such as drug trafficking, prostitution, repatriation of undocumented migrants, and
xenophobia (the hatred and/or fear of foreigners). These bedeviling migration problems are now the
dominant issues between Nigeria and South Africa.
Migration between South Africa and Nigeria started from 1907 when the white Missionaries from the
Dutch Reformed Church of South Africa came to Nigeria on the invitation of Sudan United Mission
(SUM). Although the invitation came from SUM, it was the Nigerian colonial administration that made the
covert request. It is worth noting that during the colonial period, the Dutch branch of SUM, which was made
up of South Africans, embarked on a missionary activity, thus evangelising the people around the central
Nigerian area (the Jos, Plateau), and later spread to the Benue areas. Their activities are still ongoing in the
Central Nigerian areas. These missionaries also attracted South African businessmen who explored
opportunities in the mining sector. This opened up the beginning of formal relationship between colonial
Nigeria and South Africa. Archival records reveal that white South Africans applied for positions in the
colonial administration in Nigeria. The relationship was reciprocal because Nigerians in colonial military
service were also taken to South Africa. This is clearly evidenced by the archival record reports on Corporal
Dogonyaro, a member of the First Nigeria Regiment who was buried in Durban (KwaZulu Natal) in South
Africa.
The Sharpeville massacre took place in South Africa in 1960 the same year Nigeria got its political
independent these massacre inspired Nigeria's increasing involvement in the liberation struggle not only in
South Africa but also in other African countries still under colonial rule at the time. At that time, the
international community was also up in arms against colonialism and every form of racial discrimination
and apartheid. This facilitated Nigeria's acceptance of exiled African National Congress (ANC) members
from South Africa.
Wapmuk, in an examination of the Nigerian-South African relationship, noted that the relationship started
with the independence of Nigeria when South Africa was under the obnoxious apartheid regime. Nigeria,
though far from South Africa with no common boundary, became a front-line state and stood its ground
firmly against apartheid until the liberation was accomplished consistent with its anti-apartheid posture.
Nigeria was also under a repressive dictatorial military regime which was unfriendly and became a pariah
state, characterised by gross violation of human rights. Consequently, many Nigerians immigrated to South
Africa. The inauguration of a democratic regime in 1999 in Nigeria, however, brought a new beginning in
their relationship that led to the birth of the African union (AU) and the New Partnership for Africa's
Development (NEPAD).
The migration of South Africans to other parts of the continent was influenced by economic and political
reasons resulting from the introduction of apartheid regime in 1948 which brought tremendous economic
disparities between the white minority and the black South Africans. This situation led to the emigration of
most South Africans into other parts of the world, majority of which were accepted as exiles in most African
countries including Nigeria. Adeola and Yemi stated that the push-pull theories indicated that migrations
from densely populated areas are for reasons of the search for employment, citing the examples of migration
from Nigeria to Ghana, Togo, and Cameroon. However, citing the migration of people from Cameroon to
Gabon, Central African Republic, amongst others, they stated that this theory can no longer sufficiently
explain reasons for migration on the African continent especially when it comes to the dynamics of
migration and international security. In that respect, they employ the combination of the transnational
migration theories along with the push pull theories to be able to sufficiently interpret the security
dimension of human mobility in Africa. They maintained that globalization has led to rapid improvement in
technological advancement in transport and communication network, which has made communication easy
for migrants. The immediate effect of this technology was the rapid increase in circular or temporary
migration, as a result of transnational networks maintained by migrants.

The post-apartheid period, beginning from 1994, witnessed the mass immigration of Africans into South
Africa. The repealing of the restrictive migration policies by the new government of Nelson Mandela
allowed black African's easy entry into South Africa. The economic and political crisis in Nigeria also led
many Nigerians, skilled professionals and businessmen, to migrate to South Africa. Many Nigerians
migrated for various reasons, including, but not limited to, the economic opportunities offered by the new
State.
South Africa's human mobility pattern is more complex than what can be found in other African countries.
South Africa has progressively attracted not just refugees but also skilled professionals across the
continent. This eventually culminated in suspicion and identity problem, which brings about tension,
hatred (as witnessed in the series of xenophobia crisis), diplomatic roar and animosity. Exploring the causes
of the animosity between the two countries, as well as the cause of the tension in terms of national
development is crucial. Examining the unity question as well as the nature of economic integration and its
implications on diplomatic relationship is also very important.
The Identity/Xenophobic Challenge Face By African Migrants In South Africa

Migration studies have attracted the interest of many scholars from within and outside the discipline of
history. Studies by scholars clearly demonstrate different migration patterns in Africa in their interaction
and experience with the rest of the global South and the world.
The contradiction in the current and recent government policies response in South Africa has negative
effect in harvesting the talent that this migrant came with from their country of origins, to benefits both
South Africa and their country of origin. The resilient of migrant population working in the informal sector
in South Africa especially the Nigerian migrant community across the country, the positive contribution
such migrants has made to their host communities, and the often contradictory, and shortsighted policy
response of the South African government. Many Nigerian migrants are willing to integrate with their host
communities, this is evidence in the formation of association of Nigerian and registered with the cooperate
affairs department with notification to the department of home affairs, and the often unwilling response of
the South African public to out rightly show discontent with the existence of foreign business sight by sight
with local natives has led to some of the animosity existing between Migrants and host communities in
South Africa. The diversity of experiences of Nigerian migrants engaged in the informal sector in South
Africa has often been overlook by government. Government of South Africa poor response in improving
the wellbeing of natives by way of empowering them to compete favorably with the foreign business in the
informal sector has a negative impact on migration as a development agent. The underlying reason for the
tensions surrounding migrants in South Africa including their relative economic success has led to tension
arising from ignorance and jealousy couple with innovation and migrant's hard work.
In her research Isike, evaluated the Nigerian migrants' relationship with their host in South Africa. She
examined the positive relationship that existed between South Africans and Nigerian migrants, and showed
that despite the phenomenon of xenophobia targeted at Nigerians, some migrants still had ties that bound
them in the spirit of the pan-Africanist relations. The author further argued that rather than emphasizing on
the negative aspect of migration, there were more positive values and benefits like Nigerians getting
married to South Africans and business relationships beyond xenophobia, prostitution and human
trafficking, which seems to dominate discussion around African migrants' relationships in South Africa.
The study blames apartheid as responsible for creating a people that were almost disconnected with other
fellow Africans since the apartheid regime applied restrictive and isolation policies that did not allow black
integration amongst other fellow Africans. The effect of apartheid on the black South Africans left so much
psychological trauma on the people. African leaders should have continued with programmed aim at
liberating South African blacks from the slave mantra by emphasizing on post traumatic intervention to all
black South African after 1994. However the political contestation between the two countries is the
consequences of the post apartheid effect couple with neo-colonial influence on the government and people

of South Africa.
Despite South Africa's firm believe in the Ubuntu philosophy African migrants are unable to coexist
peacefully with one another in the country. This philosophy of the African brotherhood
The solutions to migrant integration, diversity and social cohesion in Africa relies on the will power of the
governments to strengthen bilateral ties between the countries. To increase mutual benefits within the
provisions of those bilateral agreements, to avoid tribalism in leadership, nepotism in labour market and
openness in state services. The public has a right to understand the provisions of every trade benefits that
accrue to them, to enable them to expand their businesses across international borders as well as ease the
barriers to trade. This will encourage meaningful investments and expansion of indigenous industrial
growth, which translates to the creation of jobs and poverty alleviation. When people have access to means
of production, they will coexist with foreigners without conflicts. But when the means are scarce, they will
compete unfavorably with migrants, who may have financial resources to acquire property and other
resources.
The border demarcation of Africa in 1885 by colonial powers was a catalyst to establishing the sources of
recent border conflicts that distort social cohesion, thereby resulting in xenophobia and intolerance
between the host communities and the migrants. build safer communities and more responsive and
accountable public institutions.
South Africa is under domestic and international pressure to address human trafficking across its
international borders. To that end, the National Prosecuting Authority and others have proposed new
legislation and expanded regulatory authority. Despite these pressures, there is little evidence that South
Africa is a significant destination or transit point for international human trafficking. What little may exist
can be addressed through existing legislation. The greatest threat to human security comes from the cross-
border smuggling of people, which also threatens the integrity of governmental border control
mechanisms.
The South African economy is dependent on cross-border migration to address some of its skills shortages
and labour needs. Regional migration is also a critical component of regional integration and economic
growth. The challenge is to attract foreign labour while preventing further entrenchment of informal and
exploitative labour conditions and 'race to the bottom' labour competition with undocumented and
unregulated foreign workers. Contributions to local economies and employment creation by migrant
entrepreneurs can be enabled through support in accessing the banking system and inclusion in local
economic development strategies. Initiatives to create a regional labour market have largely stalled despite
repeated efforts to facilitate policy development in this area.
Rather than facilitate trade for economic integration with migrants especially African migrants, the South
African state is saddle with the xenophobic evil rather than the African Ubuntu it's known for.
A history of Pan Africanism and the Nigerian South African Relations

Pan Africanism is the brain child of the African diaspora many decades ago, the concept is attributed to the
origin of the idea which emerged from the first organised African middle class that emerged as groups of
“freed slaves” in the United States, the Caribbean, Britain and in France. Together they coalesced, by the
turn of the century, into such Pan-Africanist communities as established in the “mother Countries” of
Europe and North America, in such cities as Paris, New York and Manchester. Unlike their African
counterparts whom not even colonialism could succeed entirely in depriving them of their heritage, the
“freed slaves” will have endured more acutely the violence born out of the French revolution of 1789 and
blossomed during the subsequent century and half that was the industrial (and Capitalist) revolution For a
people so rendered homeless landless by the indignity of a cruel European and North American history, for
Africanism offered refuge, Ideologically and politically
The likes of W.E.B. du bois, Marcus Garvey, George Padmore and Henry Sylvester Williams, Pan-
Africanism reflects a profound understanding of both the nature of white racial domination and the psycho-

political means whereby to confront and defeat it. South Africa liberation and struggle towards black
liberation was a product of Pan Africanist ideology which was propagated by it leaders to liberate every part
of Africa that was under any form of colonialism and racial discrimination. This was pursued with every
available means including resources. It was in Manchester United Kingdom that in 1945, at the same year
that apartheid was adopted as an official form of government in the State of Azania (South Africa), that a
conference was held which later have revolutionary impact on the future of Africa and significantly, on
South Africa. This was the fifth Pan-African congress which took place in Manchester from 15-21 October
1945. In July 1900, the first applied use of the term Pan-African to a conference in England on Africa and/or
Black people, was at the orientation of its Trinidad and Tobago Organiser, Henry Sylvester Williams, Who,
it is narrated, earlier used and/or coined the term in a later dated November 1,1899 to one of his then African
Association members. The first specifically coined Pan-African Congress that would be convened outside
Africa, 1919 through 1945; and at its end, would call for:
…Co-operation between …three of the four then existing Black politically Independent
nation-states in the World at the time viz Ethiopia, Haiti and Liberia; advise that
…imperialistic nations …respect the integrity and independence of …these Independent
states; and call on England to concede …responsible government to her colonies in Africa
and the West Indies…as well as on France and Germany …to treat their Black subject with
impartial justice …The Congo was projected as having an incredible potential to …become
a great central Negro State of the World.
At the conclusion, a conference resolution unabashedly stated that a …a problem of the 20th Century
…would be that of … the problem of the colour line…; an observation that was and still is true, and will still
be relevant for the 21st century given the current international events, but this time with the conscious and
unconscious complicity of (our former white European-rule and the United State and Australia oppressed
colonies, countries and people in Africa, the Caribbean, Asia, Latin America and the Middle East
Padmore helped to organise the fifth Pan African Congress at Manchester in 1945 which was seen by some
historians as a single most important conference on African future ever to be held. From the conference
came forth politicians such as Nkrumah, Jomo Kenyatta and Hastins Banda who went home to their various
countries and challenge colonialism head on. These politicians became future leaders of their countries and
advance the course of Pan-Africanism. The logical conclusion of this liberation struggle which started at the
fifth Pan-African congress in 1945 ended with Nelson Mandela's Inauguration as president of South Africa,
when Africa liberation against all forms of colonialism and racial discrimination was complete giving birth
to Africa's political liberation.
A brief Historical background of the Pan African movement shows that the 1900 Pan-African conference
organise by Sylvester Williams, was the first conference and a unique achievement of Williams. But it is
often overlooked, in favour of the 1919, 1921, 1923, and 1927conferences, and especially the 1945 congress
in Manchester.
Williams formed an “African Association”. To promote and protect the interests of all subject claiming
African descent wholly or in parts, in British colonies and other places, especially Africa. It was time, he
said, for all People of African descent to begin talking directly about matters of concern to themselves. He
also influences Dr. W.E.B. Dubois to participate in the 1900 conference. P78. Sylvester Williams, Blyden,
George Padmore, (Malcolm Nurse) C.L.R James, Ras Makonen (Emperor Hailey Silise) and the unparallel
grass root organiser Markus Garvey are part of a celebrated line of international workers who in various
ways inspired the unity and liberation of Africa as a task of a the time. If we add to these the African
American pioneer like Du Bois and African of a later dates like kwame Nkrumah , the freedom for Africa
would have striking result for the status of Africa descendant in the West.
It was at the 1945 conference held under the joint Chairmanship of both Du Bois and an Afro-American
Scholar and one of the founders of the National Association of for the advancement of Colored People, and

Dr, Peter Milliard a Negro physician from British Guiana, practicing in Manchester That congress received
reports of conditions in the colonial territories and both capitalist and reformist solutions to the African
colonial problems were rejected. Instead the congress unanimously endorsed the doctrine of African
socialism based upon the tactics of positive action without violence It also endorsed the principles
enunciated in the Declaration of Human Rights and advised Africans and those of African descent wherever
they might be to organise themselves into political parties, trade Unions, cooperatives societies and farmers
organisations in support of their struggle for political freedom and economic advancement.
The congress also asserted the determination of colonial people to be free and condemned the
monopoly capitalism and the use of private wealth and industries for personal profits alone to the
detriment of the colonized people.
They made a stand for economic democracy as being the only real democracy and appealed to colonial
people everywhere –the intellectual, professional classes and the workers to awaken to their
responsibilities in freeing themselves and saving the world from the clutches of imperialism. Although this
conference was the fifth of its kind that had taken place, it was quite distinct and different in tone, outlook
and ideology from the four that had preceded it.
While the four previous conferences were both promoted and supported mainly by middle class
intellectuals and bourgeois Negro-reformist, the fifth pan African congress was attended by workers, trade
unionist, Farmers, cooperatives societies and African and other coloured students. As the preponderance of
members attending the congress were African, its Ideology became African Nationalism-a revolt by
African nationalism against colonialism, racism and imperialism in Africa-and it adopted Marxist
socialism as it philosophy.
Current Animosity and the African Ubuntu

African immigrants continued to suffer various forms of harassment and attacks on their businesses and
persons in South Africa. Nigerians are targeted on daily basis, accused of drugs and various forms of crimes
ranging from armed robbery, human trafficking, taking of South African jobs, taking of women and
businesses that never existed which were brought in as a result of the coming of the migrants into South
Africa.
Trimikliniotis et al,in their examination of xenophobia in South Africa as a contemporary trend in the
migration challenge, argued that South Africa's government response has not prioritised xenophobia as a
serious challenge. This threat to government and integration of Africans has become worrisome with
repeated occurrences in different forms. The result of his finding indicates that anti-immigrants attitude
rather than anti-immigrant violence were prevalent and it is an important element for xenophobic studies
and understanding of the challenge in Africa. The study contended that anti-immigrant sentiment is better
understood as a political discourse rather than a response to economic conditions. In his views, government
prioritisation of indigeneity and promotion of a South African expectationalism are responsible elements
towards South African anti-immigrant attitudes. The study confirmed that immigrants in South Africa
occupy a wide variety of economic spaces including teachers, doctors, construction workers, and hawkers,
who mainly reside in the townships and cities. A significant number of immigrants have applied for asylum
status in South Africa, and South Africa has become one of the countries that has been taken as an asylum
seekers choice of destination especially those within the SADC and a few from west and other African
countries
The Nigerian political independence made Nigeria become pivotal for liberation of other African countries
that were still under colonial domination. Nigeria therefore set the foreign policy on an initiative for African
unity through the liberation of all Africans from every form of colonial domination. The South African
situation was the most demanding and therefore needed the collaboration of not just African states but the
whole world. Nigeria readily offered herself and resources to that course. The researcher found that in order
to liberate South Africa from apartheid, Nigeria had to extend a hand of fellowship with all the neighbouring
countries of South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Angola, Namibia and Zimbabwe who found
themselves also in the enclave of the apartheid rule. The Nigerian government had to argue the case of South

Africa before international forum all over the world. The formation of The Organisation for African Unity
which was created in 1963 became the umbrella body that Africa would use to fight for the liberation of its
fellow blacks from colonialism. Nigeria, in conjunction with other independent countries in Africa, had to
canvass the support of the whole world; this they did through the Commonwealth of Nations and the United
Nations Organisation.
Conclusion
Nigerians feel that their role in the dismantling of apartheid was a great achievement in the spirit of pan-
Africanism. Nigerians are still very proud of their hard stance against apartheid but were surprised that post-
apartheid South Africa has not shown sufficient gratitude for the role of Nigeria in the success of the
liberation movement. This was the experience of the post-apartheid era when in 1998, elements of violent
xenophobic attacks against African migrants began to occur especially against Nigerians. Nigerians
immigrated into South Africa in the post-apartheid era and South African business capitalists also saw in it a
new opportunity for economic exploitation to move their investment to Nigeria. This means, while
Nigerians were immigrating in large numbers into South Africa, South African businesses were also
coming to Nigeria. The same era also saw the return of the black exiled and students returning home. The
study identifies religious migration into Nigeria as one of the driving forces of the Nigerian South African
relationship. South African Dutch Reformed Church was part of the colonial evangelisation of Nigeria from
1907 until 1963, when Nigeria took a decisive stand against apartheid and cut complete ties that were fused
during the colonial era. Although missionaries' activities in Nigeria were beneficial to the ethnic minorities
and helped the people in resolving their health and educational needs, it was also opening up ways for
colonial exploitation. Nonetheless, it ended up producing citizens that became useful political agents and
acted as agents that stopped the forceful threat posed on ethnic minorities of the central Nigeria area by the
intruding Jihadists. The trend changed from European evangelism to Nigerians now producing evangelists
to South Africa and the world over.
Xenophobic or Afrophobic attacks and crimes became one of the immediate challenges encountered by
African migrants in the post-apartheid South Africa. This was because apartheid South Africa left a
psychologically deranged society where people were used to brutality as a way of survival especially the
black majority. However, post-apartheid South Africa emerges as a prosperous efficient country; both
technically and economically compared to the rest of Africa and this attracted many African migrants.
South Africa's economy, just like the Nigerian economy in the post-independence era, was booming after
1994. This study discovered that economic prosperity is a source of attraction for immigration and that the
push factors for African immigrants to South Africa is the inability of the other African countries, especially
Nigeria, to manage economic prosperity after independence. Xenophobia is not new to Africa, what is new
however, is the violent dimension the South African xenophobia took which has been traced to the culture of
violence created by apartheid regime. Nigeria and South Africa is expected to work on their inability to
curtail this phenomenon at the governmental level since xenophobia is mostly in the cities among poor
blacks who are vulnerable and susceptible to being manipulated by external forces and even overzealous
politicians whose success is dependent on crisis situations .The government of South Africa needs to
address this issue while looking deeply into the causes of endemic poverty among blacks as a result of
landlessness.
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THE DIALECTICS OF CONFLICT AND TRANSGENERATIONAL TRAUMA: THE
NORTHEAST NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE
John Umaru Rikka

Ph.D. Researcher, Faculty of Religion and Theology
VrijeUniversiteit Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
jurikka1@gmail.com; j.o.h.n.rikka@vu.nl
Abstract
Human experiences of pain and suffering, and brokenness builds into traumatic experiences that can be
passed on to generations. Nigeria has experienced diverse conflicts, but North East Nigeria has experienced
and is experiencing insurgency and terrorism, which carries in its wake violent destruction and
abuses.Therefore, this article discusses the dialectics of conflict and transgenerational trauma, drawing
inferences from the Northeast Nigerian experiences of Boko Haram. This is realized through descriptive
and narrative analysis and lived religion as a means of experiencing healing.
Keywords: Dialectics, conflict, trauma, transgenerational, and religion
Introduction
Humans experience existential fragmentation, brokenness, disappointments, pain, abuse, suffering, and
loss resulting in trauma or traumatic experience. Wars and conflicts are some of the causes of this human
fragmentation, brokenness, pain, and untold suffering. The persons who have suffered and endured these
horrible events suffer unpredictable psychological harm; this harm is 'the trauma' (Herman 3).In recent
years, "Trauma experiences are often linked to striking events such as natural disasters, existential loss, or
death-threatening events" (Wulf 129). "The past three decades, Nigeria has witnessed diverse conflicts,
some of the very violent types. From political, [ethnic] to economic conflicts, Nigeria has often been
characterized by communal conflicts with ethnic and religious underpinning" (Gwamna 1). Currently,
Nigeria is experiencing insurgency and terrorism, especially in North-East Nigeria. Property, worship
places, schools, human lives, and people are entirely dislodged from their homes, now in internally
displaced camps (IDP camps). Boko Haram carries out this violence and destructionin the northeast and
other parts of Nigeria. Boko Haram is an Islamic sect that teaches that Western education is forbidden. Boko
Haram insurgency began in 2009; many people were killed, and properties and homes were destroyed
through their activities. People now resort to many means to find solace but psychologically and daily
mourn the loss of loved ones, homes, and property; thus, this paper looked at some of the experiences of
these people as they share their experiences of the event. Furthermore, how these experiences lead
to/aretransgenerational trauma.
This research used a methodology drawn from the field of Psychology and Theology, religious coping
narratives/theory. This methodology deals with how individuals or communities try to understand and deal
with their traumatic event or/and search for significance and expression in times of stress (Ganzevoort,
“Religious Coping Reconsidered: 262). Individuals or communities tell their stories as they identify with
them and find meaning in these narratives. The religious coping narrative dimension is the search for self,
basic trust, intimacy and the sacred, and meaning (Ganzevoort, “Religious Coping Reconderred Part two:
276-886). A coping narrative is important because it embodies the individual experiences and religious
experiences to make meaning of the past event—whereby a narrative is a descriptive analysis of the
phenomenon.
Conflict, Trauma, and Lived Religion

Trauma is an emotional response to a terrible or unwelcome event or an overwhelming distressing event on
an individual, resulting in the causality of feelings of helplessness. R RuardGanzevoort rightly argues that

The Dialectics of Conflict and Transgenerational Trauma: The Northeast Nigerian Experience
trauma is better described than defined; trauma can be described as the psychological wound resulting from
the confrontation with a severe event that shatters a person's integrity and induces powerlessness and
estrangement. Contrary to [the] common parlor, trauma is not the event as such, but the impact of the event
on the person" (Ganzevoort, “Scars and Stigmata: Trauma, Identity, and Theology” 19-31).
A traumatic event is ambiguous globally, impacting individuals or communities experiencing it. Thus
trauma can happen in many forms. Its impact varies based on the unique life circumstances and
environment. Trauma also dismantles the subjectivity and temporality of the one who undergoes it; it must
likewise dismantle the thought that tries to think it (Rubenstein 285). It is so overwhelming that
experiencing it in actuality can tell the ramification and complexity of its impact. A traumatic experience can
be categorized as a single trauma which is sudden and unexpected, or a complex trauma that is structural and
expected; on the types of trauma and disorder, Judith Lewis Herman argues that "There is a spectrum of
traumatic disorders, ranging from effects of a single overwhelming event to more complied effects of
prolonged and repeated abuse [event]" (Herman3).
The traumatized lived with these experiences either to embrace it or deny it, and these also are scars on the
person; the traumatized wars between the will to admit the horrible event or engage openly aloud with the
event in order for this to be a new identity for traumatized involved. "In case of trauma, human existence is
characterized by brokenness, struggle, and fragmentariness, which asks for a process of making sense of
one's traumatic experiences in light of one's own biography, identity, and religious beliefs or worldview"
(Schaap-Jonker 113). She continues to submit that "Dealing with these ultimate questions and existential
experiences is a process with highly individual character, which forms a part of 'lived religion" (Schaap-
Jonker113). As distinctively put by Ganzevoort, it interrupts the person's life course. It threatens to destroy
life as we know it, which opposes the meaning of our identity (Ganzevoort, “Scars and Stigmata: Trauma,
Identity, and Theology” 19-31). Trauma also shatters the fundamental human assumptions, also called the
theory of basic assumption. The view is that, first, the world is meaningful and coherent; second, the world is
benevolent toward us; and third, the self is worthy of love and care (Ganzevoort, “Scars and Stigmata:
Trauma, Identity, and Theology” 19-31). Therefore, this basic human assumption or worldview is shared in
the lived religion.
Religion assumes a dichotomy between the sacred and the profane, focusing on just unembodied beliefs in
stable and fixed institutions. However, religious practice[s] is not confined to pews or pulpits but
encompasses all places where humans narratively engage and interpret their experiences, such as offices,
subways, streets, and neighborhoods, where people make meanings of their world (House 19). Lived
religion is about individualized or private religious practices and articulating spiritual practices and
experiences unfolding traditions. As SrdjanSremac and R. RuardGanzevoort postulated thus, "This
includes [a] dual focus on the macro (sociocultural) and macro (individual or private) levels of lived realities
and lives of actors in concrete situations. In other words, lived religion as an empirical cultural hermeneutics
aims to understand the everyday habitus of religious actors ("religion from below") and forms of
appropriations and negotiations of the repertoire people encounter in religious and cultural tradition"
(Sremac and Ganzevoort 4-5). It occurs within concrete settings and through embodied subjects who act,
thinks, feel, see, hear, smell, touch, and experience the world around them (Sremac and Ganzevoort3).
Therefore, lived religion articulates our experiences into dialogue with our everyday experiences, through
which this dialogue forges for the person a new identity or into an "insightful source of meaning-making."
House argues that "The framework of lived religion offers a perspective that refuses to prioritize the
abstract, special or set apart as the subject of study but an insightful source of meaning-making" (House 19).
Therefore, the lived religion can provide a scenario through which the traumatized can forge a new identity
that has been shattered through an individual's overwhelming experiences (Trauma). The individual can and
will engage with his traumatic realities and accept the scar of past experiences as a mark of a new identity.
Thus, the traumatized brings his experiences within a cultural, narrative, personal history, and memory
(Sremac and Ganzevoort 4).

Concept, Consequences of Collective andTransgenerational Trauma
Collective trauma is not per se predicated on the "traumata experienced by a large group of individuals"
(Reimann and Konig 9), but when these experiences of individuals are used as a way of self-expression and
as an identity marker in public discourses, it is considered collective trauma. These identity markers are
collective narratives, collective emotions, and collective mental norms and values.
Collective narratives; involve a collective narrative of despair and loss related to the group members or
shared by the group members. The traumatized members of the group tell their stories that every member
can relate to as they tell their losses. In this scenario, victimhood becomes the focal point of reference to the
group. The traumatized presents their communities or society as a victim of violence.
While the narratives of guilt and shame, this is in the case, were not explicitly and openly discussed, the
victim feels guilty for not protecting their loved ones and properties in the case of conflict, violence, and
terrorism. Thus, collective emotions are about fear and anxiety; because of these shared emotions, it is
difficult to trust other groups, especially in the case of religious or ethnic conflict/violence. Furthermore,
collective norms and values; are shared narratives among the group members, and these collective
memories become their worldviews, "mental models/worldviews dominate in the social norms, public
discourses, the media coverage, and education"(Reimann and Konig 10).
Transgenerational trauma is traumatic experiences or traumata transmitted to the next generation of children
or generations in society, and this form consists of both individual and collective trauma. The features of
"transgenerationaltrauma are that embodied memories and the knowledge of what happened in the past are
disconnected from the current emotions of anger, fear and/or guilt and responsibility and physical reactions"
(Reimann and Konig 18-9). The Identity markers of transgenerational trauma are the same as collective
trauma, in which generational trauma is transmitted to one generation and become part of the family
memory (Reimann and Konig 19). Also, an individual of the second or third generation may not have
experienced the violent traumata but still subscribes to the collective memory of victimhood, despair, and
loss. By knowing the impact of traumata, the individuals or groups become containers of the knowledge of
1
suffering (Reimann and Konig 20).
Consequences
Transgenerational/collective traumata may feed a culture of violence and trigger existing conflict dynamics.
These are some of the consequences:
? Loss and empathy: the wounds of traumata may be open to prejudices and revenge; this is also
expressed as "protection, over-concern for self-interests and ignorance for 'the other/ the others'"
(Reimann and Konig 12).
? Defensiveness and aggressiveness: the victim of violence becomes either defensive or aggressive to
ensure the identity group's existence.
? Mindset and biases: Rigid mindsets lead to biases that distort and negate rational arguments.
? Fixation of the past: the traumata lead to a locked-in, disempowering coping mechanism.
? Mistrust: conflict and violence enhance society's lack of integration and cooperation and set enemy
profiles.
? Stigma and shame: The victim carries the stigma and shame of being driven out of his ancestral
homes and dislocated from their places of stay (Arel 49-57).
1
There is a link between epigenetics and trauma, it shows exposure to trauma can have a lasting impact on the genes.
Htt://www.pubpdf.com/pub/2635841/Epigenetic-Alterations-Associated-with-war-and-Children-Maltreatment.

Northeast Nigerian Experiences

Ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria has reached the stage that could be inferred as a war in various part of the
North, ranging from northeast and west; the Kano revolt 1980, Bulumkutu bizarre 1982, Kaduna crisis
1982, Jemita crisis 1984, Gombe revolt 1985, Katsina crisis 1999, sharia in Zamfara, Katsina, Bauchi,
Sokoto which resulted in almost a war in 1999 through 2000. Sharia reactions in Aba, Onitsha, and Owerri in
1999 in the south, the Jos crisis in 2001, 2002, and 2008, and Boko Haram in 2009, which claimed many
lives still claiming lives and billions worth of properties destroyed (UmaruRikka open access on
29/12/2021, and Gwamna 53-69).
However,theBoko Haram organization began in the 1990s in the city of Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigerian,
by its founder Mohammed Yusuf. Boko Haram means "Western form of education is forbidden," but the sect
called themselves "Jama'atulAlhulSunnahLidda'awatiWal Jihad" "people committed to the propagation of
the Prophet's teachings and jihad." James J. F. Forest argues, "As its name suggests, the group is adamantly
opposed to what it sees as a western-based incursion that threatens traditional values, beliefs, and customs
among Muslim communities in northern Nigeria" (Forest 12-5).Boko Haram claims to act in the name of
Islam and has killed tens of thousands of people in Nigeria and the neighboring countries of Niger, Chad,
and Cameroon. Many people died, and millions of properties and homes destroyed are in northeast Nigeria;
Christians, civilians, and Muslims alike have fallen to hunger and diseases, and millions in the region now
face precarity (Thurston 1-2).2 Many destructions and killings took place in northeast Nigeria, in Borno,
Adamawa, Yobe, Gombe, Bauchi, and Taraba states.
The following are some of the narratives of the experiences of a few individuals who tell their stories:
Fati:3 "My heart is full of awful images, and I can still see and hear the gunshots in my head, and still afraid
they will come again." "We were killed because of our faith, I believe." "I think God did preserve us; that is
why we are alive today." "It is difficult even for our children's children to forgive Boko Haram." "Those
children born in the IDP camps now ask us why we are here and narrative our horrible tales to them with
pain and grief in our hearts.”
Jacob: "Horrible flashbacks when I am alone or in the night." "We were killed and dislodged from our homes
because we refuse to accept the ways of Boko Haram." "God preserves us in all of these." "we live with this
shame, and it seems the life of begging in the IDP camps because you have to wait on someone to feed you
daily; it is horrible.”
Ngoyung: "These attacks have destabilized our lives in our ancestral homes, and we were living in peace,
and unexpectantly we were attacked and killed, properties and homes destroyed and millions of Naira worth
of farm produce destroyed as well." "I am always scared and full of fear of being attacked and not being able
to protect or protected by the government." "These happenings led to question whether God is still there to
protect the righteous and what is the place of God in all these conflicts?" "Our children are now not
attending schools because of the attacks on us it seems there is nothing we can do about it, and they ask us
why.”
See also Institutions tracking violence include the council on foreign relations (http://www.cfr.org/Nigeria-security-tracker/p29483), John Hopkins
University school of Advance International Studies (http://www.connectsaiafrica.org/research/Africa-studies-publications-violence-Nigeria/), and the Armed
Conflict Location and Event Data Project (http://www.crisis.acleddata.com/category/boko-haram/)
The names of this individuals has ben changed, they prefer to remain anonymous. These were interviews carried on the 10th December 2021 to 5th January
2022. One each from Adamawa, Taraba, and Borno states respectively, located all in northeast Nigeria.

The Place of Spirituality/Religion

In light of the experiences above, it is clear that those terrorized can experience an overwhelming traumatic
impact. Furthermore, there is also a need to consider how spirituality/religion might provide a resource for
resilience and healing. As Psychologist Dan Bar-On showed how to overcome personal and
transgenerational trauma by integrating biographies/stories and trauma-relevant narratives (Reimann and
Konig 12)-Jesus Christ, the Apostles, and even Prophet Mohammed (SAWS) and his persecuted followers
and had to have a hijra to Ethiopia.
Those traumatized essentially felt a sense of being persecuted for their faith, ethnicity, or religious
convictions. Jesus Christ himself was persecuted and killed by the Jews and Romans; many Apostles were
also persecuted because of their faith, and Jesus said those who follow him would experience such (Matt
10:38; 13:21; 24:9; Mark 8:34). Moreover, for those terrorized or wrongly treated because of their faith,
Jesus Christ said, "Blessed are you…." (Matt 12:10-12; cf Rev 2:10-11). Throughout history, starting from
Genesis with Cain's murder of his brother Abel, there have been those who oppose the people of God.
Apostle Paul and the other Apostles also suffered tremendous persecution (Acts 14:19-20; 13-14; John
15:18-21; 2 Tim 3:11-12). Therefore, those who are terrorized and suffer unfair treatment should solace in
Jesus Christ and His teachings and should know they are also following in the footstep of their Lord and
Master Jesus Christ.
Conclusion
Therefore, conflict leads to human suffering and pain; these experiences are translated into embodied
memories of the family and community, becoming a transgenerational trauma. Furthermore, lived
religion and religious identity can provide healing for these traumatized as they relate their narratives to
their religious framework to find expression and meaning for their experiences thereby experiencing
healing and succour.
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Religious Crisis." Master Thesis, Unpublished, Tilburg University, The Netherlands, July 2020.
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House, Kathryn. "Torture and Lived Religion: Perspective of Resistance" in Trauma and Lived Religion
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Craft, 2011.
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Stanik. "Red Flags and Religious Coping: Identifying some Religious warnings signs among People
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collective and Transgenerational Trauma, nd: 2018.
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Boynton and Peter Caperatto, New York: Fordham University Press, 2018.
Schaap-Jonker, Hanneke. "The Function of Religion in the Context of Re-Experiencing Trauma: Analyzing
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the Politics of (In)Tolerance, Edited by SrdjanSremac and R. RuardGanzevoort. Switzerland:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
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Trauma and Lived Religion Transcending the Ordinary.Edited by Srdjan Sremac and R.
RuardGanzevoort. Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
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http://www.connectsaiafrica.org/research/Africa-studies-publications-violence-Nigeria/,
http://www.crisis.acleddata.com/category/boko-haram/

PERSPECTIVES FROM AFRICAN MENTORING:
METHODOLOGIES, CHALLENGES, AND PROSPECTS
Mathias Tinat,
Abstracts
The saying 'no individual grows as an island' is a fascinating concept applicable to mentoring relationship.
Life in general is a process supported by some invincible ligaments. In fact, every living organism grows in
process from one stage of growth to another with the help of some factors. Generally, physical growth from
one level to the other is necessitated by the presence of ingredients like food, water, and shelter. Food, seen
as any consumable substance that gives energy to the body, is very essential for the physical growth of an
organism without which its system becomes weak, diseased, and eventually collapses. Water on the other
hand, as a major component of the body is so critical to body growth and sustainability that it constitutes
over 80% of the human body's elements and serves as a sustainable lubricant for human life. It also
facilitates speedily the activities of enzymes on solid intakes and converts them into useful substances for
growth. Any resting place for a living organism either beneath, underneath the earth or water, in an erected
structure for cover and protection refers to shelter. It could also be seen as an abort. Under normal
circumstances, these factors guarantee effective growth for the physical body. Similarly, for ecological or
physical environmental development to take place man needs a supportive ligament known as mentoring
relationships, which quickens development to be put in place in context and perspectives. To this end, the
article treated mentoring ideology in light of methodologies, challenges, and prospects from African
thought.
KEY WORDS: perspectives, contexts, methodology, mentoring, challenges, prospects.
CLARIFICATION OF TERMS
Most important for definitions, are terms from the topic like perspectives, mentoring, methodologies,
challenges, and prospects. We all have diverse understandings (perspectives), of every task to be executed in
different places (contexts) and in many ways (methodologies) with the help of some other capable hands
(mentoring) even in the midst of untold uncertainties (challenges) yet with great optimism for fruitful
outcomes (prospects) at the end. In other words, mentoring relationship is a relationship that exists between
two people one (mentor) loaded with experience, privileges, grace, capabilities, and to some extent
resources and the other (mentee or protégé) a novice or one suffering some incapacitations being social,
moral, economic, educational and other wise, which deals with a peculiar understanding in context and
methodologies with helping hands irrespective of obstructions yet with the hope for success
INTRODUCTION
Africa, also known as the black continent and a notorious abort of malaria breeding insects (mosquitoes) as
old as it is, takes a stunted mode in development as a result of so many factors, is a continent loaded with a lot
of resources that needs to be harnessed. This is a major quest for the birth of this article. From our
observation and study we established that for the continent to move forward mentoring must be taken most
critically. The continent is blessed with great minds and abundant of natural resources. In fact, we have all
that it takes to move forward. This dismisses the Aristotelian logic that,
All black people are dummies.

Mr. Akintola is a black man,
Therefore he is a dummy.
African mentoring is better understood contextually. Failure to view it from that point of view one hardly
sees anything mentoring in an African soil. It is obviously true that what one does is largely informed by
what his context provides. Similarly, what the African man does as it relates to mentoring is a bye product of

his context.
To this end, mentoring in African thought differs in methodologies, challenges, and prospects from other
civilizations. In fact, what is considered mentoring in terms of methodologies for instance, may mean a
different thing entirely in other thoughts. In a nutshell, the issue at stake is an attemptto explore into the
concept and practice of mentoring in African soil to unfold its methodologies, challenges, and prospects.
From the onset of this study we had sensed difficulties with the availability of written materials whether in
hard or soft copies on the subject because the concept of mentoring as perceived from a western perspective
is largely foreign on the African soil. Although the concept of mentoring has been in practice on the African
soil but in a vague, informal, and undefined form, however, we depended largely on prescriptive,
descriptive, and empirical sources for the accomplishment of the task.
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF AFRICAN DEVILS IN CONTEXT

'African devils' in this context refer to those ugly phenomena that have ravaged the stability of the continent
all through centuries past. These devils are no longer in hiding before the eyes of the whole world. They have
been obviously telescoped and televised. In fact, they are often buttressed the way rushing water erodes the
earth surface causing soil deformation. In other words, the more foreign explorers whether with social,
political, economic, religious, educational, and security, missions land on the continent, the more we are
exposed to the rest of the world. But sadly enough instead of curtailing the menace Africans promote them
on a daily basis in different ramifications.
The nature of African geographical terrains causes inaccessibility to the region and affects the continent's
development in commerce, and trade. Galahad expressed that,
Not until the last Century [19th to be precise] was there any substantial legitimate trade between
Africa and the rest of the world. As the second largest continent, with a total area of 11,700,000sq mil
(30,303,000sq km), its immense size, along with the continent's geography and inaccessibility, has
inhibited development. Except for the extreme North and South, Africa is one vast rocky mass that
has changed little in 200 million years … [in many years past]. Mining is widespread, and the
continent supplies over half of the world's output of gold, diamonds, cobalt, and columbium and is a
major producer of platinum, asbestos, and copper Galahad Books. The New College Encyclopedia.
(New York: Banner press, 1978):13
With all these widely open windows of opportunities for development though in the midst of obstructions,
the continent of Africa is still a crawling child when it comes to development compared to some other
continents of the world.
It is obvious that Africa left alone cannot contend with these invincible giants that contend with us. We must
invite helping hands and allow them to truly help. But the fear so far is being that when they helping hands
come they seemed to take a lion share of the processed wine. It's been like that in life. A nursing mother for
example, feeding her child with mussel will by no means be prevented from leaking her fingers that go in
and out of the child's mouth but it shouldn't be looting in disguise. Therefore, inviting the helping handshas
its other side of the coin. It has caused serious political, social, economic unrest in the continent. Galahad
further observed that;
By 1879 European rule had encroached on Africa in only a few places; within a single generation the
whole of the continent, except Ethiopia and Liberia, was controlled by European powers.
Colonialism occurred because Europeans sought new markets, new areas for investment, and new
[extensions] and additions to their empires. The Boers, Dutch, had already forced Bushmen and
Hottentots from their land. Increasing competition among European powers lent strong political
overtones to African expeditions. Galahad Books.The New College Encyclopedia. (New York:
Banner press, 1978):13

The partition of the African sociological stratifications was another foreign evil brought on the African
continent. A lot of African indigenous social institutions features of life that served as basic cohesive
elements of society were radically disrupted or altered at the arrival of Europeans on the African soil. The
colonial powers carved up Africa geographically, often accidentally and haphazardly ignoring tribal
boundaries and bringing together various tribes that had been antagonistic historically (Galahad Books.
The New College Encyclopedia. (New York: Banner press, 1978):13
The coming of the colonial masters brought about the promotion of slavery. Instead of helping to eradicate
from the minds of Africans the ideology of slave trade, being human right activists and its world champions,
the Europeans rather made it more concrete, in new faces.
Slavery, though practiced domestically on the West African coast, was adopted and d e v e l o p e d
more fully by European traders. Although slave trade was outlawed in Britain 1807, it still continued
mainly in West Africa until Mid-century. Europeans still came demanding land and labor, which
forced Africans either to flee or to be indentured laborers, or to live on reserves set aside for them ibid.
This is heartbreaking; imagine one coming to assist turns to extort. It is quiet unfortunate that our foreign
helping hands instead of really helping for good turned to help for bad.
As cities developed or became more populated; they were dominated by Europeans who
monopolized the better jobs and living areas. Africans who went to cities in search of work were not only
separated from important elements of tribal life, they were also usually relegated to slums on the
outskirts of town where they lived apart from the white people. Because of the general feeling of
superiority on the part of Europeans, Africans had little association with the whites, even those who had
westernized themselves through education and city living Ibid.
In view of all these foreign evils and their catastrophic effects on the continent, what have Africans learned
to help them embrace one another as brethren with equal rights and the sharing of resources together? It
appears that we are worst today than the way the Europeans met and made us.
This beautiful and lovely continent with its rich and attractive socio-cultural heritage is constantly under the
subjection of untold devils that draw it two steps backward to its previous crawling stages. These devils
range from ineffective leadership to corruption, banditry, and insecurity to mention but a few are constantly
ravaging the stability of the continent. They serve as anti-development envelops that conceal the continent,
unless we are out of them we shall remain a game reserve for preying activities.
What is really happening with us that all through the years of independence in the continent, we are still
unable to conquer these devils? Could it really be that we are unable? Could it be that we are manufacturers
of our devils? Or could it be that there is a foreign drummer who plays the drums as the devils dance on the
African soil.
In management leadership there are two major classical qualities that make effective leadership in every
organization. They are competence and character and they form components of trust. By character we mean
personality, the real person while competence deals with the power of the know-how. The application of the
latter is largely influenced by the former. In this light, no matter how much knowledge one may have without
good character to support it, its application will be faulty. The African continent had produced great evil
geniuses who were intelligent without good character. That is the story of countries like Uganda, Liberia,
Lybia, Ghana, Rwanda, and Nigeria. Any one following the political trends of these countries will admit
that they had recorded a lot of leadership pitfalls as a result of producing competent leaders with defective
characters..

METHODOLOGIES IN AFRICAN MENTORING
There are many ways of executing a particular task in various contexts. Some of the methodological
approaches to mentoring in Africa are as follows;
Apprenticeship As it is known and practiced in other thoughts, mentoring takes the form of apprenticeship
designed and directed from a singular direction and purpose at specific timeframe coverage. But
apprenticeship in African mentoring is multipurpose, and multidimensional in nature and to some larger
extent, lifelong. For instance, it is a common practice in Africa after marriage is contracted, a younger
sibling(s) either from the groom's or bride's family is often attached to the couple non-optionally. At the
beginning it is often projected as carrying a single purpose to say like health, or education related but as time
goes on other purposes begin to unfold. In fact, the lifelong implication for such a deal is that the biological
owners of the protégé do release him/her without demanding him/her back. In essence, the mentor reserves
all the right to decide for the mentee's marriage and to equally share inheritance with his biological children.
Therefore, to be able to do that, different approaches must be applied thereby making apprenticeship in
African mentoring multipurpose and multidimensional.
Coaching In coaching one most experienced takes the lead as the novice follows. It is meant to help one do
st
something better than he knew it before. In her book Managing Human Resources in the 21 century and
beyond: Context and concept, Teresa M. Nmadu (2013):191, definescoaching as a “pre-arranged agreement
between an experienced manager and his or her employee. The role of the coach is to demonstrate skills and
to give the employee guidance.” In African mentoring, coaching follows the process that the mentor
displays the skills on the job as the mentee observes. But due to the mentor's over engagement and the desire
to mature the mentee overnight for more productivity, and admission of other mentees, observation tends to
be limited to a short period of time. As a result, the mentee is quickly made a mentor with other mentees
attached under him. We should note that a tree that grows overnight has the tendency to die overnight.
Mentoring is thereby rushed in such instance.
In a situation like that, the mentee is half-baked and in turn producing other half-baked mentees leading to
ineffective labour and productivity. No wonder some of our factories in Africa are malfunctioned since in a
larger extent every person on training rushes to graduate so as to pick up a job and earn a living. At the course
of that the violation and boycotting of standards to quicken graduation is not absent.
Training Another word for training is practice-a way of preparing oneself for participating in an upcoming
task like competition. It is interesting to note that the concepts of training and coaching are interwoven in
that, in African mentoring there is time for observation and time for participation. At a time a mentee
observes as the mentor does the practice visa-vis. This provides the mentor the opportunity to correct
observable errors.
Supervision To help one performs an assigned task effectively could refer to supervision. This is done
through the visible presence of a superior or a subordinate as the situation may warrant. Every person can be
a leader but it is not every leader that makes a good supervisor. This is very true of African leadership. We are
very good at assigning responsibilities but very poor at ensuring that those tasks are accurately and
satisfactorily executed as planned. Insincere delegates do take advantage of this and divert resources for
their personal use, thwart standards, and to some extent leave the job half waydone or abandoned it. This is a
major weakness among Africans that we must admit and find a way out. In an event where a mentee is
assigned task and available resources given, the possibility that he may divert the resources and give
substandard job is great. With this kind of attitude, we must tell ourselves the truth that it affects trust and
ruins an economy. With this we can't go beyond where we are. We must learn to have the job at heart above
any other benefit that we may derive.
Discipline & punishmentTo discipline is to set standards of operation for one while punishment is to
reprimand in any way necessary when standards are abridged. A lot of considerations are often made before
administering either discipline or punishment to include the physical strength of the recipient in terms of his

health, age etc.
In African mentoring, discipline and punishment occupy an important place but in most cases it is overdone.
For that, it worsens things for us instead of making them better, and a frequent wrong application makes
mentees harden and mentors become resentful thereby making the mentoring environment more tensed and
charged for all sort of confusion. On the necessity for punishment, Norman Shields in one of his works
Christian Ethics (2020: 153) observes thus, “Human beings need a framework of law [discipline] to control
their behavior and to enable them to live together in an orderly fashion that gives them happiness and justice.
Part of that framework includes provisions for the punishment of those who cause injury, loss or damage to
other individuals or to society itself.”
CHALLENGES OF AFRICAN MENTORING

Difficulties and uncertainties manifest in every facet of human endeavors. As a result some people turn
down invitations to responsibilities in view of the untold challenges they carry with them. However, they
should equally not forget that no success is achieved devoid of challenges and failure. In African mentoring,
there are numerous challenges that threaten and even stop the process and its success. But the most joyful
thing is that after the storm there is great hope that a great light shall come out. Those challenges are very
peculiar to our context. They include;
Shortage of available resources. When available resources needed for living are in limited supply, a lot of
decisions are reversed. This is true of CoviD19 pandemic experience for instance, where in many African
societies ravaged by poverty husbands divorced their wives especially polygamous homes and fostered
children returned to their biological owners. This experience devastated African mentoring practice gravely.
African mentoring, does not take cognizance of one's level of resources as long as one is a salary earner or in
position. All that an African man is concerned with is that his son or son in-law works for a monthly pay or is
in a better position irrespective of how he/she manages to feed his family. Another important practice in
Africa is that there is no end to the long trends of relational connections. That is, every person is related to
another in seemingly different arms in that once one is promoted or an opportunity opens for him, all those
relational connections begin to trace their ways to him thereby overloading his resources. That is how we
are. In that regards, the language “I do not have yet a salary earner or in a position considered better” is not
understood in Africa. This is what is largely responsible for corruption in most corners of public and private
sectors in Africa. When the pressure from relations becomes too severe on one couple with his desire to
safeguard his status quo as a salary earner he goes extra miles to get money.
Promiscuous lifestyle. African mentoring, if not thoroughly checked, ends in a cool promiscuous lifestyle.
Imagine what happens in hiding corners between those beautiful and handsome young men and women
brought under the roof of a couple in the name of mentoring as a result of factors like insecurity, poverty, and
famine. Such young people are easily turned into agents for sexual harassment or immorality in cars, homes,
shops, offices, hotels, and farms, which sometimes end up in unplanned matrimonial life. In fact, it
sometimes involves grown up children of the couple. It also happens between superiors and staff of
organizations. This is very pathetic indeed. I am afraid at the rate at which promiscuous living is going in
Africa as if the most powerful demons of all forms of promiscuity have their Headquarters in the African
continent.
As a spirit that entraps the clergy and the laity, the young and the old it is eating up deeply into the African
soil thereby corrupting our socio-cultural orientation. In most cases it gets a cover from a loose social life
between the opposite sexes in the name of civilization, discharge of official duty and trips. It makes our
situation in the continent dually complicated-physical and spiritual in nature. Let us just assume that we are
physically poor in Africa but are we spiritually healthy or rich?
Maltreatment leading to slavery.Slavery is an aged devastating cow though considered long butchered on
the African soil yet still seen resurrecting in different new forms. African mentoring easily involves the
maltreatment of mentees on different grounds, and gradually translates into modern slavery. A lot of factors

are responsible for that includes lack of readiness from one or two parties (husband and wife) to accept a
mentee, conflict between the two parties, limited resources, greed, selfishness and mentee's rude behavior.
Since in Africa mentoring could be sought or sought for, that is, a mentee could be brought to a couple with
or without the consent of one or either spouses or they may look for one. That sometimes amounts to
accumulated tension. At times one may first initiate the move and the other may dislike it as such conflict
results. Greed forms another cause for mentees' maltreatment expressing itself in segregating between a
mentor's biological children and mentees living under him in terms of labour, resources and food sharing.
There are times that a mentee may be brought into an already tensed environment. There are also instances
where a mentee may come with his rude behavior or may develop it along the line consequently;
disrespecting either the husband or wife of his mentor. At the end of it all if the couple could no longer
tolerate it the mentee is deployed.
Embittered relationship. In Africa when mentoring relationship fails, it leaves behind ugly memories of
unsettled dust on relationship between siblings, daughters and parent in-laws, brothers and sisters' in-laws.
In fact, it plants a seed that germinates and grows roots of bitterness thereby infecting one family or the other.
In most cases however, the mentee's relations do not always pay attention to what explanation the mentor
may give as responsible for the failure. All that they hold onto is that the mentor hated the entire family and
rejected their child. This is an extreme position. If not tackled wisely may escalate to affecting many other
relationships. A most delicate cause of the embittered relationship is when mentoring relationship ended in
pregnancy and marriage between the two is denied on cultural and relational grounds and the victim's
education is interrupted and she is left stranded. The parents will live never to forget this evil done to their
daughter.
The challenge to abscond Leaving legally or illegally an important place or thing one is doing means to
abscond. A major characteristic of African mentoring we need not forget is that it is either sought or sought
for on any and every ground, sometimes without consent as earlier established. In either way, when the
going gets tough to abscond is considered a better option especially when relationship is embittered. Before
this happens, a mentor and mentee should know that the challenge to abscond is a dangerous threat to
mentoring relationship as such both should guard against it with all passion. There is need for much
patience, tolerance, and understanding from both sides having in mind the future outcome of the entire
process.
PROSPECTS OF AFRICAN MENTORING

Irrespective of all the challenges that surround African mentoring relationship there are still high chances
that it will be successful and yield fruitful results. Of a truth, life generally goes with challenges if one fears
the challenges to even move out of his bedroom will be impossible. One going into African mentoring must
have resolved that though relationship may be embittered between him and other people, one's economic
level may be affected, yet it will still be better tomorrow. To this end, below are some prospects that go with
African mentoring.
The emergence of great future manpower and leaders. Mentoring offers Africa a most suitable
opportunity to raise manpower and leaders for its consumption and beyond. However, it should be noted that
raising future leaders is not challenge free. It goes with untold crisis. When one fears the crisis he finds it
difficult to raise even a dog after him. Mentors to that end, should not forget that there will be times when
growing mentees in their “foolish thinking” will tend to see it differently from their mentor's point of view.
In such instances, mentors need to exercise high level of maturity to avoid taking it too personal so as to help
them out. In so doing they should keep their focus on the future outcome of the relationship, and they should
create room for differences of opinions so that the mentee does not grow as though in a box because
squelching such will mean driving them away.

Mentors should know that those mentees may turn to be the ones to set food at their tables tomorrow and
through them other windows of breakthrough could also come their way. There are mentees that have
excelled in life as top government officials above their mentors' biological children. When that happens, it
takes a mentor that is meek in heart and is highly considerate to further admit other mentees thinking that
why should his own children fail while others' under him succeed? Such destroys mentoring initiative. It is
very expedient to note that raising leaders is not crisis free. Oswald J. Sanders observed that the blunders
committed by whoever you are trying to raise are the inevitable price of training leaders (Spiritual
Leadership: Principles for Excellence for every Believer, 1984): 146.
Privilege for influence. Having someone under one's roof for mentoring either formally or informally on
whatever ground, is a rare privilege for influence. It is a privilege to invest one's character in another person
trusting that the person succeeds even where one failed. A lot of factors often rub many people of such
privileges but for a mentor to meaningfully influence a mentee he/she must take very seriously matters of
competence and character. (Tinat, Mathias, Biblical Models of Successional Leadership for Christian
nd
Organizations 2 edit, 2014:9).
National Building. What every nation brags about when it comes to development is manpower and good
Leadership from where great innovative ideas spring up. When African mentoring succeeds in producing
capable manpower and great leadership, the better it is for the continent.
Organizational resources are broadly classified into two. There are tangible and intangible resources. The
former is material and structurally related while the latter is invisible and comes from human beings that is,
ideas the product of critical thinking. Consequently, if the African continent must move forward it is
imperative for us to start thinking of raising highly critical thinking leaders that will give birth to innovative
ideas for classical development rather than working for just what we will eat today.This is not possible
without a gigantic socio-cultural reorientation because a larger aspect of African mentality is bent to
surviving today and living tomorrow for one that tarries.
Socio-Cultural reorientation Africa, all through the centuries of its civilization has been operating on an
adulterated culture. This is because different colonial masters have infiltrated the beautiful cultural heritage
of the continent to an extent that even what we claim to have inherited no longer exists. It is since lost in the
sand of history.
For that we need a socio-cultural reorientation on the value systems of Africa like hospitality, service,
sincerity, respect, community life, and charity, etc without which effective mentoring in Africa will be
impossible. But secularization and individualism as infested on us by the multicultural values of our
colonial masters has done a lot of harm than good on our socio-cultural heritage. What we operate on today
as African socio-cultural heritage is nothing but a redefined socio-cultural heritage with new versions
springing out on a daily basis.
Our major problem in Africa in that regards is that when the colonial masters came on the African soil we
gave up everything of ours to embrace their new foreign socio-cultural ideologies which are entirely
irrelevant and unrelated to our own thinking that we will get the best in exchange. But very unfortunately for
us it turns out to be the worst. So it shall continue for generations to come unless something urgent is done.
No matter what we do to be Europeans or Americans we can't be one. If that were possible our fellow
Africans that Westernized and Americanized, would have since been Westerners and not Africans-
Europeans or Africans-Americans as they are often addressed. What then is the point? Do we continue
fooling ourselves?
However, one basic fact about civilization that we need to note in Africa is that every civilization is an
unavoidable socio-cultural cross-breeding. But is it possible then for us to accept the cultural elements and
dividends and yet reject the social life that comes with it? That is, for instance, can we embrace western
education and reject the socio-cultural way of life that goes with it? Why not? But it is sad that the kind of
warm acceptance Africans gave to their colonial masters was extraneous and in the highest extreme. It

negates basic sociological principles like “People are cultural animals, and separating them from their social
st
moorings is impossible” (Donald Light, Jr. & Suzanne Keller. Sociology1 edit. New York Alfred A. Knopf,
1942:35). If this principle is true what then went wrong with Africans in that on our own we separated
ourselves from our cultural heritage for a foreign one? The answer is not farfetched. It is part of our African
hospitable character. For an African man to show a stranger under his roof that he accepts him
wholeheartedly he goes as far as giving his own wife for the stranger to sleep with.
It should be noted that the socio-cultural reorientation and revolution that we are agitating for from our
foregone discussion does not mean a 100% retrogressive step to the primitive age of the African culture. Our
enlightened minds should provide enough guidance on improving upon our socio-cultural value systems
that are antisocial, antiscientific, anti medical, and anti-moral in nature if not, the tendency to throw away
the dirty water with the baby is great..
CONCLUSIONS. From our foregone discussion on this important subject, we have established that
mentoring is a sure way to national freedom for the African continent from all the devils that threaten its
growth and stability. The major devils that enslave and imprison the African continent are corruption, bad
leadership, poverty, ignorance, and disease. If western education seen as liberation from poverty, ignorance,
and disease has not liberated the African continent from these devils it then shows that a very important and
indispensable element is left out-mentoring from an African perspective and context.
A contextualize mentoring relationship makes a great impact. To this end, we addressed methodologies,
challenges, and prospects from the perspectives of African mentoring. We established that African
mentoring in its methodology is multidimensional and multipurpose in nature contrary to other thoughts. It
is not a crisis free venture as whomever fears the crisis does not venture in and cannot raise someone after
him. This submission is evident in the bitterness that relationship is subjected to at the process. However, in
spite of that African mentoring is highly optimistic that great future manpower and leaders will be produced;
there shall be national building, socio-cultural reorientation, and national emancipation. To achieve all of
these we projected the under enumerated recommendations.
RECOMMENDATIONS
For the continent of Africa to move forward we must all resolve to change the ugly narrations that we are
known.To that end, we raise the following recommendations without which an article of this nature will be
incomplete. The recommendations are not only meant for the consumption of the continent of Africa but
even beyond. They are:
- Mentoring practice to be mandated and enshrined in African national policies.
? - Functional strategies should be developed for the enforcement and sustainability of mentoring
relationship as a most critical ingredient for development through the following ways;
? All National Orientation Agencies and Ministries of all African States to be vested with the
responsibilities to develop strategic plans in context to be enforced in all three tiers of governments
and all existing departments, parastatals, institutions of learning, religious institutions, economic
and financial institutions, and all other public and private sectors therein for intensive mentoring
relationship.
? Annual reviews and award for outstanding performance from lower to upper tiers of governments.
? Official peering of personnel base on specific areas of need, capabilities, and specialization.
? Formal remunerations in form of incentives to be decided for mentors.
? Redefinition of the African mentoring concept and practice from multipurpose and
multidimensional to single purpose and single dimensional.

REFERENCES
nd
Tinat, Mathias. (2014) Biblical Models of Successional Leadership for Christian Organizations 2 edition.
Jos: Gajofa press.
Light, Donald Jr. & Keller, Suzanne.(1942) Sociology1st edition. New York Alfred A. Knopf,
Oswald, Sanders J. (1984) Spiritual Leadership: Principles for Excellence for every Believer Chicago:
Moody publishers
st
Nmadu, Teresa M. (2013) Managing Human Resources in the 21 century and beyond: Context and concept
nd
2 edition. Bukuru: ACTS.
Shields, Norman.(2011) Christian Ethics.Bukuru: ACTS.
Galahad Books.(, 1978).The New College Encyclopedia. New York: Banner press

Christians in Governance in Nigeria and Social Transformation
CHRISTIANS IN GOVERNANCE IN NIGERIA AND SOCIAL

TRANSFORMATION
Jacob Ishaya
Department of General Studies
Plateau State University, Bokkos Plateau State
gyamy17sure@gmail.com
07065750527/09095203974
Abstract
The condition of Nigeria requires change and transformation and the kind of change required in Nigeria
must be comprehensive affecting all facets of life. This change must affect the five key areas which includes;
security, economy, politics, social and technological. Our lord and saviour Jesus Christ is not only the
greatest leader but also the greatest visionary, greatest team builder, greatest team motivator and the greatest
change agent of all time. Jesus Christ gives to all Christians pattern of an integrated mission that all
Christians in contemporary times should follow that can lead to spiritual rejuvenation and national
transformation. In doing this, the church must take the lead in the crusade for good governance not in terms
of individuals and parties but in terms of principles and values. In order words, it should not matter who is in
power, the government should be held to account on the same principles and values of good governance,
principles and values should form the social consensus for governance.
This paper tends to argue the need for Christians intervention in democratic governance and social
transformation.
Keywords. Christians, governance social transformation.
Introduction
Politics leads to governance and governance in contemporary world is democratic. The two major dominant
religions in Nigeria, Christianity and Islam have two opposite understanding of politics, democracy and
governance. Kukah buttresses the two views from the two faiths thus. While the non-Muslims argued that
they needed to be voted in so as to defend Christian territories from Islam control, Muslim on the other hand
sought the support of their constituencies to arrest the threats to Islam posed by non-Muslims. The above
assertion created a serious problem that does not allow proper understanding of what politics and
democratic governance means. Since the presenter chose to write on Christian's involvement in governance
and how they can contribute toward social transformation, avers that if Christians are to translate into action
their theoretical, ethical and moral teachings it will go a long way to eradicate dysfunctionality and bringing
in change that the society so need. As it obtains in other religions, there is in Christianity a code of ethics. All
Christians are expected to be loving humans and eschew moral depravity. Christianity is not a personal
matter only; it is part of Christian life in the society, it is built into the totality of his daily life. If Christians are
determined to translate into practice their theoretical code of conduct which teaches them to avoid violence,
cheating, dishonesty, greed, injustice and embrace love for God and their neighbors which is the first
commandments God gave us, honestly, we will be builders and transformation agents of a strong and a
united Nigeria which all will be proud of.
Clarification Of Key Terms

A discussion on the topic of this paper “Christians in governance in Nigeria and social transformation”
cannot be complete without a proper understanding of the major terms in the topic. It is for this reason that
the presenter feels that it is appropriate to make an attempt to define these terms.
Christian
People often use the term “Christian” as simply a category for describing someone's cultural, religious or

family heritage. Other people believe that a person is a Christian because he or she attends church or was
born and raised in a godly home. For still, the term “Christian” is more than a box to check off on an
application or survey form. So then, what is a Christian? Jesus said that His true followers are those who
have been “born again” by the spirit of God. The phrase “born again” in scripture literally means “to be born
from above”-a spiritual rebirth. To be a Christian, you must make a conscious choice to turn from your sins-
that's repentance-and by faith believe that Jesus is the son of God John 3:3-16.
Governance
Etymologically, the term “governance” derived from a Greek word which means to steer, guide or to direct.
Governance is essential to the wellbeing of people. It is a fundamental factor in securing the peaceful,
harmonious and progressive co-existence of individuals within a state. Governance according to Nanda,
denotes how people are ruled and how the affairs of a state are administered and regulated. It also refers to a
nation's system of politics and how it functions in relation to public administration and law. Oladipo sees
governance as the core processes and institutions that are relevant to the coordination of public affairs of a
society as a means of ensuring that government is effective and efficient in the performance of its functions.
Social Transformation
Social transformation implies a fundamental change in society which can be contrasted with social change
view as gradual or incremental changes over a period of time. Social transformations are such when they
sustain over time where attitudes and values are held in a completely new context based upon different
assumptions and beliefs. Social transformation encompasses a wide range of institutional and cultural
changes in society throughout history.
Governance And Social Transformation In Nigeria

Nations across the globe are confronted with the problems of governance, Nigeria is not an exception. There
is a relevant search of credible leadership not only in Nigeria but also around the globe. The world is
undergoing important social transformations driven by the impact of globalization, global environment
change, economic and financial crises resulting in growing inequalities, extreme poverty, exclusion and the
denial of basic human rights. These transformations demonstrate the urge for innovative solutions
conducive to universal values and peace, human dignity, gender equality, non-violence and non-
discrimination. Hence, the young people who are mostly affected by these changes are the frontrunners of
social transformation.
Be it as it may, the issue of social transformation in Nigeria as a result of governance to and extend would not
be achievable as expected soon because Nigeria condition had slide to worse state than it was at
independence due to the level of social vices such as dubious, deceitful, corruption, crime- prone, biases,
prejudice, discrimination. Truth, integrity, honesty, justice, kindness and humility has become a scarce
commodity in a nation that is ruled and dominated by falsehood. Nigerians are living a false life and having a
false picture about their nation, because they are rule and dominated by falsehood they are even working
against the progress and development of their nation because of the kind of information they are been fed
with (Turaki 11). For a nation Nigeria to actually reach her full potentials of good governance leading to
social transformation then, drastic measures need to put in place. Because at first, we were born and brought
up in a system that is ruled and dominated by falsehood, we were as well incorporated into the system. Our
minds and intellects don't longer think of any possible change rather than what we have grew up to see that is
why Nigeria has become a hopeless, a bleeding and a lost nation expecting who will take them out of this
endemic situation and transform this country to a golden nation where the wealth of Nigeria was the chief
attraction for the African countries and the rest of the west (Gwamna 4).
For Nigeria to attend the level of good governance and social transformation, the minds and conscious of
ordinary Nigerians must be oriented against the vices that have tainted our legacy. We must get rid of such
vices and the people that have and are still instilling such vices in the minds of the young Nigerians. Nigerian

masses have been hoping for something dramatic on the political scene, they have been hoping for an earth-
shaking change in the foundation of power structure which has been ruling their lives for an end to the
seemingly endless cycle of poverty, depression and want. Nigerians are hoping for something that will
remove their anxieties, guarantee the future of the next generation and enable them achieve their goals, for
this to take effect, we must move for a self-revolution of “Minds and Conscious cleaning orientation” of all
the vices of our society in the heart of the young people for the sake of the next generation. Today, we cannot
compare the transformational trends of Nigeria to that of Ghana, because the aftermath of the revolution
they introduced what is known as “House cleaning Exercise” which was mainly against the corrupt leaders,
in China today, once you are found with corruption charges you will be silent this has helped their economic
become very strong and it has ushered in social transformation.
After independence, in order to build a great nation, each country went to work, exhibiting the habits of
hardwork, determination, focus and sacrifice. But in Nigeria, after independence, because of our religiosity
people to pray and fast instead, of using our religious values to build our nation we turn out becoming the
most corrupt, 419ers, dubious and crime prone neglecting the place of hardwork, determination, focus and
sacrifice (Turaki 8). Kukah avers that; while Nigerians were busy praying,
Malaysia came here and took our palm seedlings and build a great factory of it, Singapore
went into investment in technology, India went into ICT, China went into massive
industrialization, UAE went into massive infrastructural advancement, Japan went into
technological development, Denmark went into education of her citizens, USA was
mounting man on the moon. After our prayers God, being a wise God decided to reward
us according to our labour. And He rewarded those who put hard work, determination,
focus and sacrifice for their nations, industrialization, technology, infrastructural
development, ICT, and education and today Nigeria is reaping the result of religion(23).
That is why today, Nigerians are competing in building the biggest churches, more prayer houses and
worship places than the advancements that social transformation brings to a nation. People rush to prayer
houses for medical and business solutions, planting church branches instead of schools and hospitals in
every street in Nigeria. That is why today in Nigeria we want our teachers to labour on earth and awaits their
reward in heaven. Instead, as a nation we focus on transforming our country, religion has taken the place of
technology, infrastructure, industrialization, ICT, education etc.
The most third world countries which attained independence almost at the same time with Nigeria, have
moved from the third world status to the first world today. Nigeria is rich in natural resources including
minerals of highest economic value but yet, it has remained poorest. Nigeria has one of the largest natural
gas reserves in the world and has enormous solar power potentials but more than half of its citizens still live
without energy. in fact, its rich resource base has become resource curse as its resources have the cause of
conflict and wars in places like bakassi peninsula in cross river, the entire Niger Delta region, the killings as
a result of the struggles for land in the middle belt by the herdsmen, propaganda by the northerner to retain
power at the detriment of the nation (Tokunboh 4). Guest has observed that “throughout the world, mineral
wealth tends to corrupt”. He further explained that, nations who depend on natural resources for most of
their income are usually venal and despotic, which Nigeria is not an exception where its citizens have
become wretched amidst plenty, they are rich but poor (63). The presenter agrees with Guest viewpoint and
avers that because of the widespread corruption among the leadership of this country and poor governance
this has post a great threat to social transformation in Nigeria. Look at Ghana, as it stands now, Nigeria
cannot compete with them when it comes to social transformation, their currency is worth a dollar,
politically they are more advance than us because they have gotten ridded of those vices and the people
injected the vices in their country, they have tactically become the new giant of Africa in practical and not in
theory like Nigeria.

Tokunboh's observations cannot be better emphasized of Nigeria today as the country remains desolate and
desperate in search or need of redemption as its people are fleeing from the decayed “garden of Eden” as
described by Mazrui and its harsh conditions of life and wars to “safe haven” in Europe and America in
search of good life. This shows that the essential mineral resources that have propelled nations towards
development, prosperity and greatness which are capable of bring social transformation are endowed in
Nigeria but incidentally, these resources are still largely untapped and where some have been tapped, have
been wasted and become a curse on Nigeria and a source of conflict, war and underdevelopment.
Igwe writes that, “today despite zero natural resources, Singapore is home to more than 7,000 multi-national
companies and has the highest percentage of millionaires in the world”. He attributes this “miracle” in
Singapore to the selfless leadership Lee provided for Singapore with exemplary lessons to Nigeria and the
entire world (102). Adeoye added to Singapore's credentials thus:
But tiny Singapore without resources at all managed to bring development to it citizens.
It has one of the best public MRT transport systems and airlines in the world and it is very
Clean city state. Their universities, healthcare, ports are among the best in the world (123).
Lee in his book from third world to first submits that, Singapore was moved from the third world to first
world due to clearly defined values of integrity, commitment, vision, patriotism, hardwork, sense of
dependence, honesty and upright conduct. He said what drives Japan, Korea, China, and Hong Kong
towards prosperity was patriotism, hardwork, competence and quest for excellence (648).
This is the opposite with Nigeria today. The truth about Nigeria today is that, there is no good governance
that can drive the entire country through social change or transformation because, whatever new institutions
and new values we might inject into the Nigeria society they cannot withstand the negative social forces
such as, ethnic militia, religious bigotry, corruption, moral decadence, indiscipline, insecurity, the raging
inter and intra party feuds. All these negative forces are by and large a reflection of ethical and cultural
foundations of the Nigerian society. it is the effectiveness of good leadership that would guarantee social
transformation, Turaki says that; good leadership and good governance are anchored upon having the right
and responsible ethical and moral values of our leaders which are indeed the norms of the society and cannot
be held in private such as justice, honesty, hard work, humaneness. A nation cannot be peaceful and
sustainable based on falsehood, as a people we have lost speaking and living the truth, truth has become a
scarce commodity in both our private and national life (8-10).
From the forgoing, what has emerged is the fact that Nigeria has not produced its own Lee Kuan Yew. As
Irikefe pointed out with reference to Nigeria,'Nigeria never had a luxury of a Lee, a Washington or a
mandela. The founding fathers, such as Obafemi Awolowo, Nnamdi Azikiwe and Ahmadu Bello were
heroes, but mostly to their ethnic groups rather than to the nation as a whole' (64). It is to be noted however,
that apart from the mention of Lee as “a devout Christian who would do God's will at all cost, fired by the
Bushido spirit,” Confucian religious values defined China's growth and prosperity. This is a significant
indication that the very least religious nations driven by non-religious values, have defined their progress
and development which challenges Nigeria despite their religious posturing and proclamation.
In nation building, good governance and social transformation process, Nigerians needs a leader who is
badly needed to take up leadership and not the one who is in dare need. The latter needs leadership for self-
aggrandizement, while the former is needed by the people to bring transformational changes and
development. Nigerians have needs of visionary, ethical and competent leadership. This is an effective
development leadership. Adei defines leadership in the following words:
The kind of effective and developmental leadership in view is one that creates an ideal, better and realizable
vision that causes a paradigm shift; one that leads in elaborating strategies, policies and programmes needed

for positive socio-cultural and economic shift in paradigm; one that influences people towards
predetermined goals which are meaningful, desirable and attainable; and one that has the character, capacity
and credibility to manage the difficult transitions associated with nation building (21). To add to this, the
presenter aver that a leader is someone who is able to manage both human and natural resources in the midst
of difficulty to nation building.
CHRISTIANS IN GOVERNANCE IN NIGERIA AND SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION

Does the presence of Christians in governance brings about any meaningful social transformation? Turaki is
of the view that if Christians want to bring about good governance and fight corruption, observe the
principles of rule of law, respect human rights and sanctity of human life, which will serve as a recipe for
social transformation in Nigeria from Christian perspective, then, we need to identify the negative values
and practices of corruption in our society and then apply Christian virtues and ethics. The devastating
situation of corruption and where it has led us to as a nation calls for collaborative effort to instill transparent
democracy for good governance rooted in the Bible (9). With the effects of these negative vices injected in
our democratic system, the need for Christians in governance will serve as a recipe for the transformation
that Nigeria needs. The Christian Bible provides some key verses which provide spiritual dimension of
nation's growth, prosperity, development and transformation as thus, Proverbs 14:34 says “righteousness
exalts a nation, but sin is a disgrace to any people.” Proverbs 11:10 “when the righteous rules the poor one
rejoices, but when the wicked rules the poor go into hiding place”. If Nigerians really need transformation,
God is still giving us a condition as a nation and He is willing to heal the land of a sinful people who come to
him in repentance and humility in II Chronicles 7:14 “if my people, who are called by my name, will humble
themselves and pray and seek my face and turn from their wicked ways, then will I hear from heaven and
forgive their sin and will heal their land”. My main aim is to find ways where Nigeria can find its soul on the
path of good governance which can lead to social transformation.This proved that Christianity is the light in
democratic processes in Nigeria. However, Jesus told His disciples and invariably Christians that they are in
the world but not of the world (Jn 17:16, 1 Jn 2:15), He described Christians as “salt of the earth” and “light
of the world” (Matt 5:16-17).Then Christians must exhibit those characteristics of salt to season the whole
system of governance in Nigeria leading to unprecedented transformation. Christians in Nigerian politics
should be driven by the need to instill the fear of God into all public office holders in order to advance and
uphold positive values, habits, norms, mores, high leadership performance, high level of productivity with a
clear enduring foundation for democracy and governance.
Early Christianity in Nigeria and Africa generally forbids Christians participation in politics. According to
Kunhiyop; pastors were forbidden to have anything to do with politics because it was deemed dirty and
worldly. Ministers who were convince to join politics were strip-off their ministerial work (46).Daudu
further buttress that, in the past, Christians seemed to have left politics in the hands of the non- Christians
and uncommitted Christians. Some of the factors that were responsible for the cold attitudes to politics in the
past were probably:
i. The assumption that politics is a dirty game and that no one may go in clean but may hardly go out
clean.
ii. The fact that early Christian missionaries seldom supported any involvement by their converts in the
political struggles for the independence of their nations from the colonial rule.
However, recent events in the political arena have witness unprecedented political participation by
Christians either as pastors or laity. The political, social and economic struggle is largely responsible for this
trend. Therefore, Christians must integrate and yet remain distinctive in all things and actively participate in
politics and governance in order to bring about transparent leadership. The Christian God is a religious,
social as well as political God, because He is the origin of political structure and governance. As presented
by Aristotle and Karl Marx, human beings are political, religious and social animals, in view of the above,
Kwasau noted that; Christian leaders in Africa must engage in deliberate effort to mobilize Christians in
their countries to come out with what he described as “Christians democratic principles” based on the word
of God and participate in partisan politics and governance. He emphasizes that justice and moral rectitude

will enhance good democratic principles that will usher in good governance for social transformation (11).
THE NEED FOR CHRISTIAN INVOLVEMENT IN GOVERNANCE

The reasons Christians should be involved in Nigerian governance is simple, if Christians are determined to
translate into practice their theoretical code of conduct which teaches them to avoid violence, cheating,
dishonesty, greed, injustice and embrace love of God and their neighbors, and embrace honesty, justice, and
being their brother's keepers, they will be agents of change and builders of a strong and united Nigeria.
Christians in governance may help to eradicate or at least mitigate the spread of corruption in the society
which has become the major hindrance towards transformation in Nigeria.Erivwo avers that, the disease of
corruption seems to be so endemic in the Nigerian society as to defy any therapy. The necessity for Christian
involvement in governance in Nigeria is hinged on the premise that Christians are enjoined to radiate the
world with kingdom values as envisaged by Jesus. In Matthew 5:16-17, Jesus reminded His disciples that
they were to be the “salt of the earth and light of the world”. And to fulfill their calling as salt, they can
penetrate society, sweeten society and preserve society from corruption. This is the Christian hope for
minimizing and ultimately eradicating corruption from the society. In other words, Christians were to be
moral catalysts and social change agents in the larger society where they found themselves. Jesus challenge
is still relevant to any Christian involvement in public service today.
Secondly, a true Christian is Christ-like. The Christian who is untied with Christ can produce good deeds
through the operation of divine grace. The Bible has declared that a sound tree cannot bear evil fruit nor can a
bad tree bear a good fruit. The spirit of Christ infuses, informs and transforms the lives of those who are
related to Him. Their transformation enables them to produce good fruits. As little Christ, they can influence
the society in their small corners.
Thirdly, the Christian involvement in governance in Nigeria is hinged on the premise that he may help bring
about meaningful social changes that may help improve the living conditions of the people in their
respective communities. Active participation in political affairs of their land seems to be the only option if
Christians hope to change the narratives of Nigeria into a better place to live in. It may interest the audience
to note that over the centuries, Christians had been the initiators of social change for the benefit of all
mankind. Like what was obtained in the ancient Jewish society, lepers were ostracized from most Nigerian
communities. To worsen their plight, there was no cure for their dreaded disease, it was Christian
missionaries in Abeokuta who started a leprosarium where they settled and provided treatment for these
unwanted elements. It is on record that a Christian lady in Rome by name Fabiola founded the first public
hospital in the 4th century A.D in order to help alleviate the sufferings of the sick who were often uncared for
(Daudu 9-10). Even Pentecostal social engagement and other Christian organizations in Nigeria through
schools, health and rural development derives from the motivation of biblical models to reach to the poor,
show love and compassion and to provide healing and hope to the distressed economic in Nigeria amidst
instabilities and wars. Reflecting on these new Pentecostal emphasis and engagement in the public space,
McCain stated as thus:
These Pentecostals are no longer satisfied just to hold evangelistic crusades to “save souls”,
They now organize government consultations to save the society. they are no longer
Satisfied just to build churches, they now want to build nations. They are no longer content
To sing, dance and speak in tongues, they now want to change the discourse of the society
(178).
Fourthly, the Christian involvement in governance in Nigeria is hinged on the premise that he may
demonstrate the attitudes of obedience and loyalty to the state at the same time with the readiness to protest
when truth and justice are denied, violated or compromised. If he must transform this nation, then he must be
ready to stand out alone. There is Christianity today because its founder, the Lord Jesus Christ was ready to
be different from the popular view. It is worthy of note that lack of courage to stand out for the truth and

justice is a sin of hypocrisy.
THE CHALLENGES OF GOVERNANCE AND SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION IN NIGERIA

The pluralistic nature of the Nigerian society makes it difficult and very complex to experience credible
governance leading to social transformation. Change can be found and analyzed in rather limited groups in
process of transformation which are of varying lengths and of varying character, it could be a short time or
long-time change. Social transformation takes place between the poles of diversity and integration, the
development of a system depends on theinteraction between diversity and integration which indicates the
particular situation of the social system.
According to Teune and Mlinarintegration is the degree of probability of a change of characteristics of a

specific system which is caused by the change of its elements (43). Diversity as a structural particularity of a
system can be deduced from the distribution of thecharacteristics of a systems' elements (38). Thus, social
development is a process that links the level of integration and diversity, the growth of these levels means the
direction of social development. However, possibilities of disintegration or stagnancy are not excluded. In
Nigeria today, cultural, ethnic, tribal and religious diversity caused by conflict and wars had hindered the
nation from economic, social, technological and political transformation which are rooted in corruption,
greed and covetousness of our leaders. Without the presence of peace, there cannot be any meaningful
development, as a nation we must set aside any differences and integrate our minds and conscious despite
our diversity to transform this country. The transformation of a system happens at the moment when the
system has attained its limits of diversity and integration. Then, a new principle of integration of a society
appears, which, at the same time, represents a transformation of the system and its characteristics structures.
In Nigeria, various scholars, organizations and institutions have documented the challenges of development
which includes; poor leadership, bad followership, poor strategy for development, lack of capable and
effective state and bureaucracy; lack of focus on sectors that will improve the condition of living of citizens
such as education, health, agriculture and the building of infrastructure, corruption, underdeveloped,
irresponsible and parasitic private sector, weak civil society, emasculated labour and student movement and
poor execution of policies and programmes.
By and large, the challenges of good governance arethe global crisis occasioned by various reasons peculiar
to each state of the African nation. It is a mark of human limitation, weakness and wickedness which we
must fight to overcome. Governance in Nigeria is still a failure and will remain like that until our mindsets
are oriented and change to view things as 21st century intellectuals. Today, there is a need for a country wide
mass mobilization of the populace whose minds are geared towards the country's goals, vision,
commitments and shared hopes towards Godly driven values of good governance than mere assemblage of
Christian elite with well-articulated issues that will end only at their backyard without any significant
impact. There is the need therefore for all Christian to aggregate their efforts towards promoting good
governance that will lead to social transformation similar to what Adelaja was able to achieved in the
“Orange Revolution” in Ukraine.
A quote from African Forum on Religion and governance said that, a Nigerian Christian Adelaja through his
Embassy of God Church, led not only the spiritual revolution in Ukraine, but influenced what is been
referred to asthe “Orange Revolution”, that is, “a political revolution” that changes Ukraine government. He
mobilized the poor and the rich, the lay and leaders to oppose annulment of elections to install a rightful
elected leader. Nigerians populace can as well mobilize themselves through what I called “Minds and
Conscious Oriented Revolution” which will make us view things as the same, uproot all the negative vices
and mindsets that tends to hindered good governance and transformation in this country. Such mindsets that
need to be uprooted and to instill good ones for effectiveness are:
i. Mediocrity to excellence, only the best is good for Nigeria.
ii. The tendency to adjust to the status qou to change leadership.

iii. Consumption to production mindset.

iv. Ignorance to knowledge of the true values of Nigerian resources.
v. Under-utilization to maximization of Nigeria resources for development.
vi. Dependence mindset to responsible interdependence.
vii. Self-serving leadership to sacrificial leadership (AFRG 2).
CONCLUSION
Nigeria's natural resources and human capacity provides enormous potentials for its growth and
development in the 21st century. This could be achieved through good governance and visionary leadership.
Christians have a prophetic role to influence good governance through Godly-Biblical values that will help
to eradicate corruption, injustices, crises, wars and other forms of wickedness and evil that have afflicted our
nation. Effective transformation might not take place until we are united in aim and focus through the
renewal of our minds and consciousness because man is the object of development. We need leaders in
Nigeria today like the Biblical Joseph whose administrative prowess and good governance saved Egypt at
the time of economic crises to prosperity and peace. We need the Biblical David who build great empire and
established Israelite kingdom to its inevitable heights, we need a biblical Daniel a man of courage and
uncompromised faith who amidst of corrupt and dictorial leaders, he exhibited courage and confronted the
kings for their excesses and abuse of power. Nigeria needs the Biblical Jesus who illustrate the life of
humility and service without lording it over people, He condemned those who deprived the poor of their
wages, promoted injustices and corruption.
WORKS CITED
Adelaja, Sunday. The Problem with Nigeria: Where Do We Go From Here? In Nation Builder: A Journal of
the AIMP Network, Vol 1 No 1, 2008.
Ademola, Adeoye. Roadmap for change.
DauduMamman. Religion and Politics for Nation Building. A Paper Presented at the Conference on the
Theme: Religious Studies; Challenges and Prospects for Nation-Building. Kaduna State University,
Kaduna, 2010.
Erivwo,S.U “Christian Understanding of Judgment”inAbubakre, R.D.(Ed), Studies in Religiuos
Understanding in Nigeria, NASR, 1993.
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Gwamna D.J. Religion and Governance in Africa in the 21 Century: A Christian Perspective. A Paper
Presented at the International Conference on “Religion and Governance in Africa in the 21st Century”.
Kwara State University, Malete 12th-15th October, 2015.
Kunhiyop,S African Christian Ethics: Foundations of of Contemporary African Ethics, 2008.
Kukah, M, Hassan.Future of Religion in Nigeria's Politics: At the Conference held under the Theme: The
Muslim Agenda for Nigeria; challenges of development and good Governance, Fountain University,
Osogbo, 2015.
Turaki, Yusufu. Ethical and Cultural Foundations of Nigerian Society; National Institutes for
Policy and Strategic Studies. NIPPS, kuru,2003.
Turaki, Yusufu. Nigeria Issues and Problems of Nation Building and Politics, Fifty Years of Immense
Contributions to the Development of Nation, Golden Jubilee Celebration, KASSOBA, Kagoro,
2009.
Turaki, Yusufu. The British Colonial Legacy in Northern Nigeria: A Social Ethical Analysis Of the Colonial
and Post-Colonial Society and Politics in Nigeria , 1993.

An Evaluation of Jürgen Moltmann's New Political Theology in the Light of Nigerian Political Challenges
AN EVALUATION OF JÜRGEN MOLTMANN'S NEW POLITICAL THEOLOGY IN THE

LIGHT OF NIGERIAN POLITICAL CHALLENGES
John Umaru Rikka and Mairo Anthony1
Abstract
Political theology involves theological involvement in political discourse, theological thoughts, and
questions related to politics and public life. At this in the history of Nigeria, there is a need for religious folks
to look inward at their religious parameters and paradigm to be involved in the political and public
discourses of Nigeria. Therefore, this paper evaluates Jürgen Moltmann's ideas of political theology and
draws lessons for clerics and lay leaders within the Nigerian context. This was achieved through descriptive
and narrative (histo-narrative) and dialogical and critical evaluation of Jurgen Moltmann's political
theology.
Keywords: Political theology, theology, the Cross, and politics.
Introduction
There are contending situations with the Nigerian Church in her political theology role, including
unawareness of political theology in our theological institutions. However, the movement for public
theology among Nigerian theologians is an ongoing process, and this work contributes toward that.
This paper evaluates Jurgen Moltmann's new political theology in The Cambridge Companion to Christian
Political Theology from his article on "European Political Theology" and its relevance to the African-
Nigerian political situation. It applies a brief histo-narrative, critical analysis, and dialogical approach
within one of the Nigerian political challenges and derives relevance from Moltmann as a paradigm. Or can
Moltmann's paradigm of political theology help analyze the current Nigerian political challenges?
Brief Background, Theology, and Methodology

Jürgen Moltmann is a 21st-century German Reformed systematic theologian and university professor. He
was a civil servant with the German government; during the second world war, he swore an oath of loyalty to
the state and served in the University (Tübingen) since 1963. It is discovered that his experiences in life and
the political situation in Germany influenced his theology. One of his theology was existential theology,
influenced by experience. One of his experiences was his survival from a firestorm that killed about 40
thousand burned to death. He learned theology in dialogue and developed a theology of the Church as
connected with the Church's relationship and the state in Germany during her political challenges
(Moltmann 7, 8). A review of his contribution to systematic theology adds that his theology is a freedom
theology. This open theology entails "ambiguity, contingency, experience, the contradictions of God, and,
above all, a willingness to question the presumed agenda delivered to theology by modernity" (Douglas 95).
JürgenMoltmann'sNew Political Theology

JürgenMoltmann saw the need for a new political theology free from Christianity's passive attitude during
German political challenges; this was a freedom of the mindset that Christianity is private. Only a few
Christians came out to protest the terrorism of national socialism in Germany. The New political theology
John Umaru Rikka is a PH.D. Research/Student of the Faculty of Religion and Theology, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam.
Mairo Anthony is a PH.D. Research/Student of the Faculty of Evangelical Theology, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany.

"was born of this scandalous and shameful episode…"The Auschwitz experience in Germany is seen as the
dawn of a new beginning for the Christian faith that it is no longer a private matter and theology belongs in
the realm of the public discussion of political freedom, social justice, and the future of the earth" (Moltmann
3).The problem he discovered with Christianity was that religion is a private matter, and Christianity has
nothing to do with politics. Secondly, the two kingdom concepts of the Lutherans; separation of Church and
state (Moltmann 8-9).
He mentioned four types of political theology: 1) theological formulation of the age-old political religion, 2)
the modern conflict between anarchism and political sovereignty, and between terrorism and the politics of
safety, 3) new political theology of Christian resistance against privatization of faith and political idolatry;
and 4) engagement for social justice, just peace, and the integrity of creation. But this paper considers the
third and fourth: "...the New Political Theology of Christian resistance against privatization of faith and
political idolatry; and engagement for social justice, just peace, and the integrity of creation" (Moltmann4).
The old theology was presented etymologically and historically, connected to the Greek and Roman concept
of politics, the Constantinian political religion, Carl Schmitt's modern concept, and as such, which is not the
focus of this paper (Moltmann 5, 6). Interestingly, after Vatican II, the Roman Catholic church reviewed her
worldview on the need for the theology of the world as propounded by Johann Baptist Metz, a fundamental
Catholic theologian. He argued that the privatization of religion should be corrected, and there is a need to
construct the eschatological Christian message in modern society. Metz was influenced by Karl Rahner's
concept of the "anthropological turn"into modern Catholic theology, existential and personalistic.
Therefore, in resonance with Moltmann'stheology of hope motivated him to pursue eschatology. He
inferred that "Every eschatological theology must become a political theology which is a socio-critical
theology,"which he considered the point for German new political theology (Moltmann9).
Therefore, the difference between the old and the new political theology is connected to political religion,
while the new is towards the "church and Christian communities in society."The distinction is of great
importance because "at the center of the Christian faith stands not the divine monarchy, but the resurrection
of the Christ who died on the Roman cross" (Moltmann 9-10).
On political religion, Moltmann traces the link between political theology and political religion, arguing
that political theology was coined in pre-christianStoic philosophical thought as the genus politikos. He
submits that according to the ancient doctrine of the state, political religion is the worship of the gods of the
city, country, and empire. The prosperity and peace of the citizen are predicated on the gods. Thus, the
masses are required to provide worship (Moltmann 4). Succinctly, he said,"political religion embraced that
only human but also the natural world. . . The sovereign was responsible for peace in both the human world
and the world of nature (Moltmann5). On anarchism versus sovereignty or terror versus safety, he draws
inferences from different scholars, drawing categories from Carl Schmitt, Mikhail Bakunim, Bonald de
Maistre, and Donoso Cortes. He argues that neither God nor state stateanarchism (Moltman 6-7). The
conflict between the sovereignty of the state and anarchy is like the struggle between God and Satan or the
friend or foe relationship (Moltmann 7-8). And conclude that the power to restrain evil is the sovereign
authority of the state.
While on political theology, Moltmann begins by stating the failures of the Catholic traditions, which led to
the failure of Christians and Churches. And secondly, the Lutheran tradition of two kingdoms, where the
separation between Church and state, or spiritual and worldly powers, hampered the Christian participation
in political discourse (Moltman 8-9). He argued that old political theologies were the political religion of the
state's power or revolutionary movements, while the new is the Church and Christian communities in
society (Moltmann 9-10). On this,Moltmann went further to conclude with the theology of the Cross.

Moltmann'sTheology of the Cross
Moltmann embraces the theology of the Cross as a method of doing political theology. He began from the
biblical perspective of the Gospel's narrative of the crucifixion of Christ on the Cross by the Roman Empire.
The death of Jesus was a political one, as also found in the confession of the Christian faith. Jesus was
condemned and crucified by the emperor. Still, the sovereign Father of the Lord Jesus raised him with divine
glory and a heavenly kingdom above the Roman empire that the emperor stands as condemned by God.
Shame turned to glory, we no longer see Christ with the eyes of the one claiming political power, but we see
the divine glory of God in the resurrected Christ (Moltmann 10). "Following the crucified one is the power
of the powerless" (Moltmann11).The use of Jesus' sayings infers a distinction between the leadership of the
divine ruler and the human;this correlates with Abraham Lincoln's speech, a "government of the people, by
the people and for the people (Moltmann 11)."He adds that the "Cross is our political critics; the Cross is our
hope for a politics of freedom. The memory of the crucified Christ is our reason for political theology"
(Moltmann 11).
Moltmann'sperspective on the suffering God gives us victory and freedom is absolute; the Cross is our flag
and icon of liberty. However, other essential aspects of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ were political and
atonement, which reconcile us with God and gives us power and victory over human political injustices and
spiritual powers. Whereas Thomas a Kempis perceived the Cross to be spiritual liberation, sharing in the
suffering of Christ; it is self-denial and suffering such as injustice, and persecution are our Crosses that come
in different stages, the higher your level of spirituality, the greater the Cross (KempisBook 2 Chapter xii, 2,4,
6, 7, 9, 10). However, at this point, there will be the need for balance as building on John 10:10; Jesus came to
give us life abundantly on earth; the reason for his death on the Cross.
Moreover, Moltmann asserts that "political power is to be separated, given only limited time and must be
used according to the law and the constitution, the covenant of the citizens. Where government rule is
illegal, illegitimate, or against human rights, resistance is a duty (Moltmann 11). And the duty of a Christian
is "to repress tyrannies, to defend the oppressed as their love of neighbor…"(Moltmann 11). The Cross is the
reason for political theology, for in the Cross lay the hope for a politics of freedom, and this memory is the
reason for political theology (Moltman 11). He concludes that"Christians participate[ing] in the public
affairs of their societies and the world because they hope for the kingdom of God and anticipate the justice
and peace of the new earth as much as they can"(Moltmann 14).
Church's Responsesto New PoliticalTheology in Germany

Moltmann narrated the Church's rolein contributing to the New political theology with the Kirchenkampf
proactive step together with the Confessing Church, who protested against Nazismfrom 1934 to 1945;this
became a motivation for protestant theologians such as Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Paul Tillich, and Karl Barth to
be involved in political theology. Consequently, Bonhoeffer was executed on April 9, 1945, because he
resisted the military; Tillich moved to New York in 1933, while Barth was forcefully returned to Switzerland
in 1936. The problem raised in political theology, which becomes the same in the Nigerian context, is the
question of political preaching: "...Must the preacher avoid politics, or must he or she prophetically address
general questions? Does she or he knows more about political solutions as every informed citizen, or must
she or he address those who suffer under political power and those who are disoriented by those
powers?"(Moltmann 10).The result of the above discussion yielded the fruits of the Church in Germany
seizing to become state church, and the Lutherans revised her two-kingdom tradition towards the Church's
contribution to justice, peace, and integrity of creation (Moltmann 10).
Another interesting theologian who contributed to German new political theology, as argued by Moltmann,
was DorotheeSölle. She was a well-experienced theologian, poet, and praxis-oriented. She came with a
unique way of harmonizing mysticism and political resistance associated with Moltmann's theology of the
Cross as the "death of God"movement. She believes that "Political praxis precedes theology as much as the
experience of God."This movement was made practical by organized evening prayer, a political prayer at
Cologne between 1969-71 through Kölner Nachtgebet (Moltmann 12).Solle'smystic political theology of

praying can be considered to declare the victory that we have already over human political injustices and
spiritual powers.
Leipzig's Nikolaikirche was also a small group of praying individuals involved in the new political theology
closely related to Solle'sperspective. They met every Monday to pray for peace which eventually sparked a
more significant nonviolent peace protest in Germany, 1980 against the socialist dictatorship in East
Germany. It was said to be "the first successful revolution in Germany and a nonviolent one. Peaceful
change from dictatorship to democracy was possible" (Moltmann 14-15).Moltmann considers it away
"Christians should respond to violence, ..do not turn swords into Christian swords, and do not be satisfied
with only Christian plowshares, but turn the swords into plowshares... The time of Christian swords is over;"
(Moltmann 15). The new political theology is for a just peace. In this sense, we wish to add that we do not
need the plowshares but the swords, the Sword of the Spirit, the Sword of the Word used by political
preachers (Eph. 6:10-18). DorotheeSolle and Leipzig's Nikolaikircheareindeed a model for the
contemporary Church.
Nigerian Politics and Her Challenges

Nigeria became an independent country onOctober 1, 1960. She has experienced so many political
challenges, both as a democratic and dictatorial (military) system which led to the civil war between 1968-
70 that claimed the lives of many; many women became widows and were raped, and starvation and hunger
killed many children (Ezeani166); an experience that no one wishes to witness again.
Today, it is predicted that Nigeria is about to experience another civil war if her democratic system is not
restructured. Nigeria is moving towards religious nationalism and nepotism (Kukah'Nigeria: Before our
Glory Departs'), and Mark Jürgensmeyer's observation supports this that it is on the rise, a situation
developing since the start of the 70s. It is a defiance of the "…legacy of secular nationalism based on the
ideas of the European Enlightenment" (Juergensmeyer 1).Many political injustices affect the nation,
including a high rate of corruption, inequality with political appointments, ahigh unemployment rate among
the youths, the educational and economic,etc. This paper focuses on one major challenge: the insecurity of
the nation associated with terrorism and Islamic fundamentalism, which is affecting the nation's peace and
threatening the extinction of Christianity in Nigeria.
Some Nigerian religious scholars have observed that Nigeria's highest cause of insecurity is religious
fanaticism and extremism, mainly affecting Christians in the northern region (Williams 4). However,
Hibbard Scott believes that religious extremism is not an Islamic phenomenon, and such claims should not
be attached to a particular religion or tradition but show a need to discover the questions of the politics of
religion (Scott 18, 20). On the contrary, from an Islamic perspective, "the separation of religion from public
life and the undue emphasis on the individual is inimical to their understanding of Islam. Nigeria being a
secular state should show fairness and equality in all aspects, including religion" (Scott 22);this is evident in
Nigeria when Ahmed Sani, the then governor of Zamfara state, declared Sharia law in 1999 against the
Nigerian constitution and approved by the state legislature until today (Michael 3). Sharia was in operation
between the 12th and 15th centuries in Northern Nigeria by the Usman Dan Fodio Jihad, which conquered
most northern regions (Naniya14). The registration of Nigeria into the Organization of Independent
Countries (OIC) during General Babangida Badamasi and General Muhammadu Buhari's military regime
in the political and social history of the country has registered phobia in the Christian Association of Nigeria
(CAN) till today. "Furthermore, the vigorously egalitarian principles of the Sharia were fundamentally
opposed to the political and economic goals of the colonial power (Naniya14)."The imposition of Sharia in
the Nigerian political system implies the enactment of state religion and is contrary to section 10 of the 1999
constitution (Awofeso 27).An attempt to make Nigeria an Islamic state is evident by the rise of the Islamic
Boko Haram, Fulani Militants, and the Islamic State in West Africa Province (ISWAP). Boko haram has
emphatically stated her demands to Islamize Nigeria. Some selfish politicians who sponsor these unethical
activities have a hidden agenda to enthrone their systems, which is unpatriotic. "With such ambition, they

can try to make the country ungovernable or insecure." (Awofeso 4, 24)Shafiu S. Zurmi was quoted to have
said on Daily Sun, Friday, January 21, 2011,p.19, that the situation of Nigeria is turned Germane, and it
should be a matter of concern for the country (Awofeso 5). This observation motivates the adaptation of the
German European political theology to be a paradigm shift for the Nigerian situation as a contribution from
Nigerian theologians.
Recently, in October 2020, the country witnessed another form of protest, #END SARS.It was a movement
against police brutality in the country, though there were other associated issues. Christian youths joined the
non-violence protest on the streets in Jos, chanting, hallowing, and singing on a rebranding Nigeria or
restructuring (new Nigeria), and ending police brutalityand extrajudicial killings (Olanrenwaju"January
2021"). This protest resulted in many arrests and the killings of unarmed protesters in the Lekki toll and Jos
by the military, exposed from the CCTV footage. However, it was reported that the military denied the
accusation (The Guardian"January 2021").
Secondly, the Church in Nigeria is not united, and this has contributed to not having one voice in the political
struggle the nation is experiencing. Tribalism, sectionalism, and denominationalism have become
significant challenges so far. Ironically, Nigerians are religious and prayerful but have not yielded any
political prayer strategy (Michael 2).
Thirdly, the two-kingdom concepts of Lutheranism, the privatization of religion, and pacifism are still being
upheld in some Nigerian faith traditions. There is no openness to a new way of doing theology, although
theoretical, but not practical. Moreover, the theological thoughts of some European theologians are
considered liberal by most Nigerian theologians since they come from Evangelical circles the most, and
they feel it's irrelevant to the Nigerian context. On the contrary, we have discovered some meaningful
contributions from the European theologians applicable in the Nigerian context.
The paradigm of Jürgen Moltmann for the Nigerian Church
The following are the primary three points from JurgenMoltmann'sevaluation that can be applied to the
Nigerian Church:
1. The theology of the Cross is the icon of victory for the Church in Nigeria. The Cross of Christ is a
unifying symbol, and all Christians should march with this triumph that "…the crucified one is the
power of the powerless,",especially for Northern Christians who are the minority and suppressed.
2. DorotheeSolle and Leipzig's Nikolaikirche approach should be reawakened with the voice of unity
and the best for the Nigerian Church since protesters are considered terrorists and are eventually
killed;this should be seen as the invisible Sword, and the Cross as the invisible weapon of victory.
3. There is a need for more political and public discourse preachers in Nigeria to address public and
contemporary issues without fear or favor. Bishop Mathew Hassan Kukah, the Bishop of the Sokoto
diocese of the Roman Catholic Church in Northern Nigeria, seems to be the only active voice. His
recent message on Christmas Day 2020 has made waves in the country that have sparked
controversy and reactions. Hence, the rise of more Kukahs.
Conclusion
Jürgen Moltmann'snew political theology is of great relevance for the Nigerian Church. Political theology
as part of Public theology discourse should be awakened in Nigeria and embraced by clerics and lay leaders.
Moltmann also concluded that political theology is an essential aspect of Public theology, and it is
ecumenically oriented. Christian theology is the source of the power of life for humanity(Moltmann 18).
Therefore, all Christian theologians should be public theologians in light ofJesus'command's light to the
nations (Matt. 5:14-16 ESV). It is the fulfillment of His command.
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The Reconciliation Between the Christian Reformed Church-Nigeria (CRC-N) and the Reformed Church of Christ for Nations
THE RECONCILIATION BETWEEN THE CHRISTIAN REFORMED

CHURCH-NIGERIA (CRC-N) AND THE REFORMED CHURCH OF CHRIST
FOR NATIONS
(RCCN) IN 2003: A MODEL OF COMMUNION
NuhuAkoga
08029286386 akoganuhu@gmail.com
&Prof. Pauline Mark Lere
Department of Religions and Philosophy University of Jos
Pauline3@gmail.com
Abstract
The history of the Christian Reformed Church-Nigeria (CRC-N) shows that it was once engulfed in
disagreement that eventually culminated in the schism of 1973. The schism later hatched another
denomination known today as the Reformed Church of Christ for Nations (RCCN). In such an atmosphere
of confusion and conflict which gradually ended in the breakaway of a section of the people, there were
attempts towards re-union or reconciliation. The efforts made by the church together with other external
bodies like the Tarayar Ekklisiyoyin Kristi A Nigeria (TEKAN), which is translated in English as
Fellowship of Churches of Christ in Nigeria, and the Sudan United Mission-Christian Reformed
Church(SUM-CRC), seems to be buried in the annals of the history of the CRC-N. The reconciliation in
2003 which restored the fellowship between the duos came to pass with less reflection on the efforts of the
past struggles for settlement. Even the process involved in trying to reconcile the factions were minimally
brought to light by the history writers of the CRC-N. Worthy of note is that the reconciliation that occurred
between the CRC-N and the RCCN in 2003 took some periods of time before the duos finally resolved to sit
on the round table and concur on the matter of reconciliation and not reunion. It is on this note that this article
investigates the process employed by the church which gradually led to a peaceful and amicable
reconciliation between the CRC-N and the RCCN in 2003 to showcase a lesson that is relevant to the
contemporary church. It submits that when reconciliation fail to reach reunion, an alternative model of
fellowship can be reached in the body of Christ as can be deduced from the recommendations. This research
is history based and for this reason, employed a qualitative method. It dwelled mainly on primary sources
which include, the minutes of the church, interviews and few secondary materials.
Key Words: reconciliation, communion, reunion, schism.
INTRODUCTION
Reconciliation is a term which applies to peace making after a disagreement. It is an act of making peace
between conflicting groups in an institution, family or friends (Longman Dictionary of contemporary). It
should be made clear that reconciliation is different from reunion especially in the church setting. In
reconciliation, the church resumes fellowship or communion with a person or group after a conflict or
disagreement. On the other hand, the church also resumes fellowship with a group that seceded from her but
each groupremains a distinct body. In this regard, the factionthat pulled out sometime ago decides to
fellowship with the former group she parted ways with, interact with them and be allowed to use their pulpits
when invited for any function. However, the two groups that parted remain separate from each other, bearing
different names as different denominations. Reconciliation can also take place between friends and
communities who, after a period of conflict or misunderstanding, decide to make peace and to resume their
usual relationship.
On the other hand, re-union has to do with a group that pulled out joining the former institution she parted
with after reconciliation. In this case the group that pulled away becomes part and parcel of the church she
seceded from. It wouldresumefull membership andis automatically accepted into full union with the former

group. They together become one body. This usually takes place under the arrangement of forgiving each
other of what generated the conflict that led to the schism and attempts at forgetting the past. In this case,
there is both reconciliation and reunion.
The schism that occurred in the CRC-N in 1973 later led to reconciliation, when allefforts to reunite the
church failed to yield fruit. This research makes an inquiry into the efforts of the church and the various
groups towards the reunion of the factions and how it gradually ended in reconciliation in 2003. It tries to
explicate the process of reconciliation betweenthe CRC-N and the RCCN and its benefits to the church as a
model of communion in the body of Christ which serves as a lesson in the 21st century church. This model of
communion goes slightly beyond mere ecumenical fellowship as elaborated atthe conclusive part of this
research.But how did the CRC-N come into being and its subsequent involvement in the schism?
The CRC-N as a United Church1951 – 1973

Before delving into the central theme of this research, it is germane to survey succinctly the history of the
Christian Reformed Church-Nigeria (CRC-N) to give an overview on how the church started, the ethnic
composition of the church and how the schism eventually occurred. History shows that the CRC-Ncame
into being through the labour of the Sudan United Mission - Christian Reformed Church, North America
branch (SUM-CRC/NA). The SUM began work in the middle Benue valley through the efforts of its
founder Dr. Karl W. Kumm who led the first party to Ibi and finally to Wase in 1904. It is worthy to note that
the SUM, as an inter-denominational missionary organization later had some branches in other parts of
Northern Nigeria (Maxwell 9). By 1905 a station was begun in Wukari, while in 1907 and 1908, Donga and
Ibi mission stations were opened in the present Southern Taraba which is today adominant CRC-N area
(Maxwell 20). Subsequently, the mission works made headway through the labour of some missionaries and
some early indigenous evangelists like Timon Mama,HabuLikita and FillibusAshu and the white lady
missionary, Johanna Veenstra who came to Nigeria in 1920 (Palmer 54). The contribution of these
indigenous missionaries and other foreign missionaries whose names cannot be mentioned here for lack of
space; a church was founded in the present CRC-N area of Southern Taraba State (Smith 25). The effort of
Johanna Veenstra who passed on in 1933 at Vom Christian Hospital, propelledthe CRC/NA branch of the
SUM to take over the mission field of the present CRC-N area in 1940 (Palmer 56). JohannaVeenstra
worked mainly inTakum and Lupweareas of Southern Taraba. The CRC-N became consolidated and hence
took the decision to become an independent church in June, 1951 (Ashu 120). This was in line with the
principle of Henry Venn's policy of mission which encourages a self-propagating, self-supporting and self-
governingchurch.The decision was finally ratified by all the branches of the churches of SUM-CRC in
IbiJuly, 1954 (Ashu 121).The first name adopted by the church was the Ekklisiyar Kristi A Sudan (EKAS)
Lardin Benue, meaning the Church of Christ in Sudan,Classis Benue. Later on this name was changed to
theEkkilisiyar Kristi A Nigeria (EKAN)Classis Benue; dropping alphabet 'S' for Nigeria. Finally the church
decided to adopt the name CRC-N in 1977 to identify with her founding mission (Ashu 147).Worthy of note
is that the decision for the independency was espoused by the parent missionaries of the SUM-CRC/NA
branch.The decision made the united church of CRC-N to witness development through the help of the
missionaries of the SUM-CRC/NA. Thesedevelopment include the increase in the number of churches,
andthe establishment of social facilities likeTakum Christian Hospital (TCH), rural development,and the
establishmentof educational institutions like primary and secondary schools.
On the other hand, the development of the church through converts among the various ethnic groupsin the
landwho were and are the aboriginals of the land, helped in the speedy growth of the church. They
includeWapan, Ichen, Kpanzo, Kuteb, Jibus, Wanu, Chamba, Yukubenand Wurbo. These were mostly from
theJukun extraction. Later on, others from the neighborhood of the Jukun dominated areas joined the
church. They are the Mumuye,Wurkum, Ngas, etc. Theselast groups were nota strong force in the church
when the schism took place.But frominception, the church was multi ethnic in nature with some cultural
diversity. This,in summary,was how the CRC-N began and had a schism in 1973. However, the causes and
the impact of this schism are not the focus of this research but the reconciliation that took place between the

duos which later gave a new face of fellowship to the body of Christ between the CRC-N and the RCC-N.
The Occurrence of the Schism in the CRC-N in 1973

In a multi-ethnic church there are bound to be challenges on how to carry every section of the church along
without any friction. It is a natural phenomenon in every human setupbe it family, institution or society to
face such challenges. Such challengesif not properly managed often lead to conflict and schisms in the
multi-ethnic church or society. Scholars like Barrett and Wagner consider such schism in the church as a
positive phenomenon, though schism generally is considered as a negative phenomenon. Barrett who has
done extensive studies on schism has coined a theory for this phenomenon in the church. He refers to this
theory as “independency and reformation theory” (Barrett 230). The theory shows that independency and
reformation are necessary ingredients for the growth and expansion of the church despite their horrors and
negative phenomenon. This is because it is always accompanied by renewal through reconciliation or even
reunion in some instances.
When the CRC-N became an indigenous church in 1951 she witnessed tremendous growth as some of the
above mentioned ethnic groups trooped into the church as converts. Of course in such a development there
could be agitation for independence depending on the perception of a particular ethnic group through the
zeitgeist.It was under this condition that Ajaver asserts that the period in question coincided with the rising
consciousness of many ethnic groups in Nigeria and Africa seeking identity which resulted in many schism
throughout Africa (15). On this note, between 1969 and the early 1970s the church in the Takum axis started
expressing some discomfort which in the course of time led to the breakaway of majority of the Kuteb ethnic
group in 1973. The major point of the disagreement was on the issue of financial mis-management which
was not verified (CRC-N Minutes, 1974). But underneath this point of disagreement are other factors that
have some socio-political undertones, which time and space would not allow their inclusion in this piece.
Nevertheless, the official breakaway took place in one of the synods of the church in Mararraba town now
under Donga Local Government area ofTaraba State. This happened on the 25th October, 1973 when
majority of theKuteb brethren (the delegates to the synod) decided to withdraw quietly from the synod
because their demands as asserted werenot taken into consideration after several appeals in the previous
synods (Aboki interview).
It is a natural phenomenon that in a multi ethnic church,there are divergent views which may lead to some
disagreements among the ethnic groups that constitute the church. This was exactly what happened in the
CRC-N in the early 1970s. The Kutebextraction of the church within the Takum-Lupwe axis of the church
were not comfortable with the manner in which the church was handling the finance of the church and other
secondary matters. Their opinions and stance on the matter led to a serious disagreement which ended in a
crack in the church in 1973. The crack in the church led to the birth of the RCCN which has continued to
grow till date and became one of the dominant churches in Southern Taraba and Taraba State at large. But
what were the efforts of the church to restore the breakaway group?
THE EFFORTS OFTHE CRC-N TO REUNITE WITH THE RCCN

Reconciling and restoring a group of people who decided on some reasons to stay apart from their original
group has not always been an easy task in the church. This is because there will be a lot of blame game
leading to exchange of words which may likely aggravate the process of reconciliation. In the fore going
narratives,investigation has shown that the Kuteb brethren who parted with the CRC-N in October, 1973,
decided to name their church, the Ekkilisiya Kristi A Nigeria, (EKAN) Lardin Takum, meaning, Church of
Christ in Nigeria, Classis Takum (Ali interview). In the course of time this name was changed to Reformed
Church of Christ for Nation (RCCN) in1993 (Palmer 57).
As already established above,the schism had already occurred and the RCCN had decided to avoid any
meeting or fellowship with the CRC-N. This began in October 1973. The researcher observed in one of the
minutes that the leaders of the CRC-N were worried and took immediate measures to prevent the RCCN

from their mission or intention of becoming an independent church (Minutes No: 1965, January, 1974).This
information was also narrated in the interview with an informant (Aboki Interview). The minutes state that
the CRC-N first asked her Secretary to write to the brethren to reconsider their decision and to return to the
church so that they can iron out their differences, make reconciliation and settle down as a church. But it
seems this letter did not yield positive response as observed in one of the minutes (GCC Minutes No.1980:
May, 1974). Considering the gravity of the matter as noted in the minutes of the church, the leadership of the
th
church summoned an emergency meeting on 4 January, 1974 to address the matter and if possible resolve it
amicably (GCC Minutes No: 1965, January, 1974). In view of this, another meeting was held in Lupwe and
the invitation was dispatched to the RCCN to attend, but the delegates of the RCCN did not show up (GCC
Minutes No. 1980, 1974). However, the meeting requested the Secretary to write to the TEKAN and the
Home Board Mission, notifying them of the secession and requesting them to pray over it. Prior to the above
meeting, around 27th March, 1974, the RCCN wrote to the CRC-N disclosing her position of maintaining an
independent status (Ashu), a position which CRC-N did not seems to accept because, if eventually the
schism became a reality, the population of the CRC-N would drop which would affect her socially and
economically. Therefore, she took the bull by the horns to reunite the church through the following efforts
(Nyajon).
First effort: In her bids to reunite the two churches according to an informant, the CRC-N decided to
constitute a reconciliation committee in 1974 (Iyab Interview). Interestingly as narrated by the interviewee,
the committee consisted of representatives of both parties and the missionaries of the SUM-CRC. The first
meeting of the committee was held in Wukari Division Combined Secondary School, Takum on the 15th-16th
October, 1974. The meeting was chaired by Rev. Adam Iyab who is of the Kuteb ethnic group, but remained
a member of the CRC-N. The Secretary of the committee was Dr. Jan Boar a foreign missionary (GCC
Minutes No. 2033, 1974). The coming together of the CRC-N and the RCC-N was an indication that they did
not give up the hope of reconciliation and possible reunion. This meeting ended in deadlock. But the
research discovered that both sides were not willing to compromise their positions or accept blame.
Probably, both sides decided deliberately to ignore some scriptural passages that encourage patience and
giving up right in the quest for reconciliation in the body of Christ (1 Cor. 6:7, Matt. 18:21-35). The
researcher observed that it is a normal characteristic of human being in an institution especially the church
which portrayed the inadequacy of man as fallen being and indeed imperfect and requires the mercy of God
and His grace in dealing with one another in a matter of disagreements that could lead to schism.
The Second Effort: Another informant notes that the second reconciliation meeting was held in Lupwe on
rd
23 April, 1975 (Ahmadu 73). This time around a TEKAN representative was present in the meeting to help
in the mediation between the groups. At the end of the meeting, no agreement was reached on reunion or
reconciliation. But the representative of the TEKAN in her position in that meeting reprimanded both the
CRC-N and the SUM-CRC for not being proactive when the matter cropped up at the early stage and
eventually resulted in the schism (Ahmadu). An informant said that the CRC-N refuted the blame of the
TEKAN representative and threatened to withdraw her membership from the TEKAN if she endorses tribal
secession in the church (Nyajon interview). This information was also carried in (GCC Minutes No. 2059,
1975).
Danbeki notes that on the side of the RCCN, re-union was not possible unless the CRC-N addressed the
various issues raised in relation to the schism to ensure fair treatment and justice in the body of Christ.
But Nyajon notes that the CRC-N consistently argued that those issues were unfounded and hence
lacked justification for appeal. Using the case of the then Treasurer who was accused of embezzlement,
the CRC-N opined that he was vindicated by the audit report of Dr. Jan Boer an expatriate missionary
and Ciroma a Wurkum from Karim Lamido and sought for the return of the RCC-N (Galadima and
Siman8). This offer did not make sense to the RCC-N as there was a build up of lack of trust among the
duo as expressed by Ahmadu in his research (Ahmadu 34).

Third Effort: The two churches never gave up coming together despite the lack of trust and confidence
th
among them. On the 4 November 1975, an arrangement was reached by both sides for
anotherreconciliation meeting. The representatives of the churches met at Nyita; they discussed and
deliberated over their bone of contention and both sides showed a sense of remorse over their
disagreements. Asnoted by Ahmadu in his project, both sides embraced each other and wept over their
actions and called for reconciliation and reunion. But after that meeting, there was no sign of reunion (20).
This appeared to be a shedding of crocodile tears since it did not yield any positive result at that time.
The Fourth Effort: According to the narrative of an informant, when the above efforts, failed to yield fruit,
the TEKAN constituted a committee to arbitrate between the factions. The Committee had as its members
the TEKAN President, the TEKAN General Secretary, the SUM Representative and the Representatives of
the CRC-N and the RCC-N. The Committee met with the representatives of the RCCN and the CRC-N, but
the story remained the same. There was no sign of either reconciliation or reunion ((Ashu 141). On her part,
the TEKAN encouraged dialogue to continue with the hope that the matter may be resolved in no distant
time. But shortly after that meeting, the RCCN presented to the TEKAN the certificate of incorporation
from the Cooperate Affairs Commission (CAC) which certified that she was a registered independent
church. Both the TEKAN and the CRC-N were surprised,andfilled with mixed feelings, as narrated by an
informant. He notes that many of them thought that the RCCN used the process of dialogue as a means to an
end, that is to get the CAC certificate and then fully declare her independent (Nyajo interview). But the
RCCN insisted that their intention was not a hidden one since they had declared to both the TEKAN and the
CRC-N their stand as an independent church and maintained that it was an irreversible decision(Ahmadu).
The CAC certificate obtained by the RCCN weakened the whole process of reconciliation and reunion. In
this regard, no further effort was made again after many years, since it was finally established that the RCCN
had become a registered independent church.
The fifth Effort: As narrated by an informant another effort was made again by the CRC-N for
reconciliation in 1986. According to him, the CRC-N constituted another Committee to meet the
representatives of the RCCN (after due consultations were made) to embark on another meeting for
reconciliation. The committee had as its members Rev Iliya Abowa, Rev. Filibus D. Aboki, Rev. Manasseh
Gokum, Rev. Ezekiel M. Nungala, and Rev. Norm Viss, the CRC-N Liaison Secretary. Other members
includedthe then TEKAN General Secretary and the Vice President. The Committee was chaired by Rev.
Ezekiel M. Nungala from the CRC-N. The committee met with their counterparts from the RCCN and the
representatives of the TEKAN. The meeting ended with the assurance that the two churches would be
reunited. As narrated by the informant, when the report reached the synod of the CRC-N it was applauded
with the hope that the long struggles for reconciliation would soon come to an end. But according to another
informant, theRCCN did not show interest in the reconciliation and re-union as resolved in the meeting of
the reconciliation Committee. It seemed as if the representatives of the RCCN had probably agreed on what
was not the position of their church (Nungala Interview).Also the GCC Minutes No. 175, 1987 carries the
information.
Thus, it is clear that both churches made efforts for reconciliation, but for some reasons both refused to
compromise for the interest of unity. Therefore, all the efforts ended in futility.
Furthermore, it has been reliably established that even the missionaries of the SUM-CRC branch made
several efforts to reconcile the factions but this also ended in futility. The missionaries themselves were
confused on where the truth lies in the matter as narrated by Essen in one of his meetings with the RCCN
officials. He says:

My response to these comments were that each time we meet with the EKAN Takum group (RCCN
now) and talk about reconciliation and reunion we hear all the bad things that the CRC-N are doing
and the reverse is also true, namely that each time we meet the CRC-N they tell us all kinds of bad
things the RCCN are doing (2).
Therefore, where can the truthbe found in order to proffer solution to the problem? The attitudes of both
factions to each other appeared to be a chameleonic form of relationship which would not yield fruit. This is
what scholars like Gaiya may probably consider as a “chameleon form of religious attitude in display” in his
reference to the deceptive and cunning attitude of King Kabaka Mutesa to missionaries in Uganda in the 19th
century (Gaiya 20).However, the inability of the two churches to reconcile or reunite led to challenges on
both sides and in the body of Christ for about 30 years.
CHALLENGES
When the reconciliation process and reunion failed to yield fruit, both churches continued to face some
challenges which hindered proper fellowship among them. First, there was the challenge of lack of
confidence, trust and break down in the fellowship and the socio- political life of the people. There was no
pulpit exchange between the CRC-N and the RCCN. All the church buildings and property of the CRC-N
within the domain of the Kuteb territory came under the control of the RCCN. This posed a great challenge
to the CRC-N. To apply the CAC law, as recommended under Company and Aligned Matters ACT (CAMA)
which prescribed that a seceded church must hand over all property to her former church would only result
in violence (Awoke interview). This is aweak aspect of the CAMA law which can take a whole thesis to
explore or digest.
On the other hand the RCCN too was not exonerated from certain challenges. On her part she applied to join
the TEKAN, but the CRC-N refused to endorse it, because, according to her the breakaway of the RCCN
was a tribal secession, which the TEKAN constitution frowns at. Even the SUM-CRC decided to limit her
services to the RCCN on this score. In short she ran a closed door relationship with the RCCN. On this
ground, theRCCN had the challenge of extricating herself of this accusation to make herself an inclusive
church. It took the RCCN some years of evangelism to exonerate herself from this accusation. The challenge
turned out to become a blessing as this compelled her to work hard to embrace other ethnic groups.
However, the above challenges continued to rock the two churches till the 2003 reconciliation. Towards the
middle of the the1990s and the end of the year 2000 AD, there were some ugly developments in Takum
because of some of those challenges which resulted in the socio-political upheavals of Takum and its
environs. But shortly after all the crisis that engulfed Takum between 1997 and 2000, it seemed both
churches were willing to make reconciliation. The idea was actually spearheaded by the SUM-CRC which
is the parent mission of both churches (Shamaki interview). It was the efforts of the missionaries in
consultation with the leadership of the two churches that gradually set the stage for the reconciliation
between the CRC-N and the RCCN.
The Reconciliation between the CRC-N andthe RCC-Nin 2003

After all the struggles to reunite the two factions failed, the dust of the hostilities and antagonism started
settling down among leaders and members after many years of struggle. The atmosphere was becoming
clearer and both sides were beginning to realize the frailty of human association in the church and society.
On several occasions the plight of the RCCN to become a member of the TEKAN was rejected by the CRC-
N on the ground that the RCCN secession from her was a tribal.
An informant noted that in the course of time the CRC-N observed that though the secession was thought to
be a negative phenomenon, she later saw something good coming up in the RCCN. The RCCN began to
spread to other places outside its sphere of influence. It started embracing other ethnic groups making her a
multi-ethnic church, contrary to the accusation levelled against her earlier on. Besides this, it had also

developedthe features of an independent church (Ahima Interview). Under this developments, Shamaki
noted that the missionaries of the SUM-CRC were happy about it and promised to work towards
reconciliation between the CRC-N and the RCCN, if reunion is not possible. According to him this was
disclosed to him during the conference of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches (WARC) in Indonesia
in 2000 (Interview).
In 2002, the leadership of the two churches were engaged in the process of reconciliation by the SUM-CRC.
This became a reality when Prof. Hiskia paid a visit to the then RCCN President, Rev. Joseph Kukwen and
the then CRC-N President, Rev. Istifanus B. Bahago. The meeting with these leaders set the pace for a peace
walk in February, 2002. This peace walk included all the Reformed families within Southern Taraba. They
included the CRC-N, the RCCN and the NKST. The peace walk set the stage for the reconciliation that took
place in March 2003.
The Reconciliationbetween the CRC-N and the RCCN: A Model of Communion

On 10th March 2003, the members of the two churches converged at Rimi Primary School Takum in great
number to celebrate the reconciliation between the CRC-N and the RCCN. But this reconciliation is a'model
of communion' (koinonia) in the body of Christ because it did not reunite the church but they agreed to
resume fellowship with one another, forgive each other of what transpired between them in the past and to
work together as brothers and sisters. The two churches remained distinct denominations, but from that time
onward interacted with each other, by using each other's pulpit when the need arises. They may join hands to
handle certain project based on mutual agreement. Members can freely interact with one another as people
of the same faith. This is a model of communion or fellowship which has been adopted to save the church
from unnecessary expenses and time of meetings for reconciliation or reunion. Funds and energy that were
to be used in evangelism were wasted on several meetings. This model of fellowship is slightly different
from the ecumenical movement because it was necessitated by some circumstances. It goes beyond that
because it handles some of the projects of the church together as can be seen under the benefits of the
reconciliation.
The Benefits of the Reconciliation

The reconciliation(not reunion) became a model of communion or fellowship through mutual dialogue and
negotiation between the CRC-N and the RCCN. The reconciliation ushered in a new face of fellowship
which probably can be a lesson to other churches. This can be seen in the following areas.
i. There is free exchange of pulpits by the ministers of the gospel in both churches. Free fellowship by
subgroups and members are allowed to encourage one another in the body of Christ.
ii. The two churches have teamed up together and received back the former mission secondary school
which was taken over by the Government in 1976. It was named Wukari Division Combined
Secondary School (WDCSS). Today it is re-named Reformed Combined Secondary School (RCSS)
Takum. The two churches are the proprietors.
iii. There are two Seminaries in Southern Tarabaafter the schism. The two are named after the lady
missionary, Johanna Veenstra, one in the CRC-N and the other in the RCCN. Before the
reconciliation, no member of the CRC-N attended that of the RCCN and vice versa. But after the
reconciliation, members are free to seek admission into any of the seminaries.
iv. The reconciliations led to the CRC-N endorsing the RCCN to be a member of the TEKAN churches.
This helped to strengthen the fellowship between the CRC-N and the RCCN and other ecumenical
bodies like the TEKAN and the CAN.
Recommendations
Reconciliation and reunion is a complex process that requires endurance and patience to handle. When
Christ lamented over disunity in his prayer in John 17, it shows that He saw it coming and it also meansthat
unity is not uniformity. Certain human traits may lead to schism but not severing a church from the body of
Christ. The unity of the church should be essentially seen in the body of Christ.In view of this, the research

st
offers these recommendations as a lesson for the 21 century in the management of schism for churches and
society to ruminate upon.
i. Re-union should not be imposed upon a group of people, society or family members who
choose to be independent to avoid problems. This is because independence is part of human
development. Whenever there is incompatibility in human relationships in a setup, schism
sometimes becomes inevitable to allow freedom of conscience.
ii. Let the church learn to employ the method of father Abraham and Lot to avoid protracted
altercations that would lead to a breakdown in fellowship and unnecessary expenses on
meetings. The strategy used by Abraham to separate with Lot was a good one because their
relationship continued(Gen. 13:1-18).
iii. Let the idea of Paul and Barnabas be applied to douse the flame of schism to enable the
church focus on her primary role which is evangelism. In the New Testament narratives,
when there was disagreement between Paul and Barnabas, they separated and that helped the
spread of the gospel. Instead of all of them going to one mission field the separation helped to
increase the mission field which aided the rapid spread of the gospel(Acts 15: 36-41).
iv. When a group of people decide or wish to be independent in the body of Christ, it should not
be totally viewed as rebellion, because the grace of God is there to rescue the church. Schism
is not apostasy; as such it should be handled with care to avoid extreme antagonism.
v. The church should not forget that the grace of God is supreme over any constitution, be it a
church or TEKAN constitution hence a model of fellowship should be adopted to free the
church from using coercive power as enshrined under the CAMA. It is also advisable to
employ persuasive and diplomatic means to restore a group or part with a group, than
insisting on a law that is subject to the supreme law of the scripture. The church does not rule
by the sword but by the word of God. Let the church always looks at the grace of God when
conflicts erupts to find easy way of resolving her conflicts. Conflicts of this kind are replete
in the history of the church and are always inevitable in the church. Churches should adopt
diplomatic procedures to settle their differences.
Conclusion
It is glaring that the reconciliation between the CRC-N and the RCCN took a protracted period before it was
realized. Initially, the CRC-N and of course the RCCN advocated for re-union which was not possible.
However, this reconciliation of which each of them remained distinct yet interact with one another in the
body of Christ or in the ecumenical body is a'model of communion' (Koinonia)that is worthy of learning. It
helps to water down some grudges and empty perception which generates tension leading to some social and
political disorders years back in the church and society of southern Taraba. Today this model of fellowship
or communion is worthy of emulation, in case a church is engaged in conflicts of this nature. The grace of
God which surpasses all understanding is supreme over all human laws and constitutions. Churches should
be patient and lean on the grace of God in order to minimize conflicts associated with schism using the
principle of Abraham's separation with Lot in Genesis 13.
Works Cited
Abowa, Iliya and Galadima, Siman. Statement by the Benue Church of Christ in the Sudan (EKAS) Lardin
Benue: In Reply to the Kuteb Tribe Allegations Against it, and their Split, 1974.
Aboki, Philip. Chairman CRC-N Board of Trustee.Interview in Wukari, 25/7/2020.
Ali, BulusUsman. CRC-N LCC Mararraba RCC Mararraba Interview in Takum 21/9/2020.
Ashu, David. A Legacy of Faithful Servants.Jos 1999.
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Experience of the Church in Northern Nigeria: A Reflection of 1 Peter in Asia Minor
EXPERIENCE OF THE CHURCH IN NORTHERN NIGERIA: A

REFLECTION OF 1 PETER IN ASIA MINOR
Rev. Davou M. Dantoro, PhD

Lecturer at Gindiri Theological Seminary P. M. B. 01001, Gindiri,
Plateau State, Nigeria
Phone Number:+2348069541272
Email: davoum.dantoro@gmail.com
Abstract
Like the Christians' case in 1 Peter's time, the followers of Christ in Northern Nigeria do not have reasonable
freedom to express their faith because of the suffering incurred on them by their unbelieved neighbours
(Boko Haram and Fulani Herdsmen fanatics). The undue quest for materialism, which led to corruption, has
made some political and traditional leaders careless in protecting the citizens' rights in the region amid the
Boko Haram and Fulani Herdsmen fanatics. As such, Christians who are in the minority continue to
experience marginalisation, discrimination, insults, and attacks, which result in killings and kidnapping of
well-meaningful people in the communities. This paperfocuses on the Northern Nigeria context by
exploring what has been documented on the extent of suffering among Christians through the historical
approach. The dilemma that surrounded or the church is facing in the present time is huge, and the question
has always been where to begin and how to come out of such suffering experienced. 1 Peter is essential in
this paper to enhance and revive the hope of the Christians in Northern Nigeria if the religious and secular
leaders would shun ????????????(tyrannical) and ???????????(greedy) form of leadership in suffering
communities and live like the author of 1 Peter who called on his fellow leaders in 5:1ff to serve in the right
manner and motive. The paper believes that doing that will greatly salvage the hopeless Christian to cope
with the reality of the time by depending on God, who alone can vindicate all people from every
circumstance.
Keywords: Church, kidnapping, Boko Haram, Fulani Herdsmen, and Terrorism
Introduction
This paperundoubtedly builds on the fact that several scholars in Nigeria, through their research findings,
have presented well and credible data that gives detailed information concerning the Christian community's
experience and the impact of Christian leadership in the region. Such findings by the scholars, as the paper
unveils, describe the uncompromised facts and reality on the ground concerning the present condition in
Northern Nigeria and the challenges of insecurity therein. This paper highlights and develops a theological
principle of leadership that would consciously bring healing to the suffering community. Therefore, the
paper begins with a brief description of Northern Nigeria, the experience of the church in Northern Nigeria.
Brief Description of Northern Nigeria
Nigeria (formally the Federal Republic of Nigeria) is a country on the Western coast of Africa. It shares
borders with Benin in the west, Niger in the North, Cameroon, and Chad in the east (see the map in the
appendix). Yesufu (2016) explains that Nigeria was amalgamated by the British in 1914, granted political
independence on October 1er 1960, and given republican status on October 1 1963 by the United Kingdom.
The country in 2022 celebrated its 62 years of independence, first under parliamentary democracy broken
by military rule and then followed by a Presidential capitalist system of democracy from 1999. Nigeria has
36 states and one federal capital territory Abuja. According to Olatunji (2018), between 1960 and 1963,
Nigeria was only divided into three regions. The regions were considered as the Eastern region, Western
region, and Northern region. In the years between 1963 and 1967, Nigeria had four regions instead of three

because of the carving out of the mid-western region out of the old-western region. Under the leadership of
General Yakubu Gowon, the first 12 states were created in Nigeria between 1967 and 1975. These states are
Rivers, Cross Rivers, East Central State (all from the old eastern state), Western State and Lagos (all three
from the old western state), Benue-Plateau, Kaduna, Kwara, Kano, North-western State and North-Eastern
State (all from the old northern region).
Hoffmann (2014) elucidates that the North of Nigeria is rich in natural solid minerals and agricultural
potential. It is home to around 60 percent of the country's population. It covers nearly two-thirds of Nigeria's
landmass - approximately 711,828 square kilometres. Though the history of Nigeria's regions and states is
sensitive and complex, the current classification of 19 of the 36 federal states as 'Northern,' specifically
those within the country's middle belt, is not without contention. The inclusion of the region's southernmost
parts under the label 'the north', according to Hoffmann (2014), has periodically been resisted by the mostly
non-Hausa communities living there (especially the Christians). There is a preference for the term 'Middle-
Belt' to describe the area that runs from Kwara through the federal capital, Abuja, and Benue State(s).
In line with that contention, Northern Nigeria is home to an ethnically and religiously mixed population.
Across the region, Christians and Muslims have co-existed peacefully for decades, and they inter-marry
even where identity is mainly shaped by regional culture and values. In fact, there is no doubt in saying that
ever since living in the Northern part of Nigeria, the region has been untroubled as a result of the selflessness
and integrity of both the religious and political leaders. The low cost of living is another reason why a high
influx of people is moving to the North. However, according to Obinna-Esiowu (2018), the problem of
terrorism in Northern Nigeria has caused people to migrate to other parts of the country for peace. Such
development in recent times has momentously affected the relationship of the Christians and Muslims
living in the region due to ????????????, ??????????? strategy and improper religious ideologies being
propagating by some Christian and Islamic leaders.
Experience of the Church in Northern Nigeria

The experience of the church in Northern Nigeria can be likened to the scenario of the believers in Asia
Minor, where some leaders in the churches and communities were practising poor Christian leadership
resulting from ???????????? and ???????????. The Christian communities were also suffering due to their
faith in Christ by their unbelieving neighbours (Boko Haram and Fulani Herdsmen), almost the same way 1
Peter's recipients were experiencing. According to Schreiner (2003), 1 Peter reveals that believers' faith was
threatened in the Graeco-Roman world. Threats, discrimination, and occasionally loss of life were the lot of
Christians everywhere. This was a message of the author of 1 Peter that the believers were suffering for their
faith (1 Peter 4:3-4). Northern Nigeria, in recent times, has been considered a dangerous place for Christians
to live. This is because of the high level of ???????????? and ??????????? form of leadership by the political
leaders and now being mimicked into Christendom by the Christian leaders. Kitause (2017) explains that the
magnitude and desire for fame and the quest for money by leaders in the country is alarming and lead to
church proliferation. Some people only set up churches today not to proclaim the gospel of Christ but just for
commercial purposes, making merchandise for gullible worshippers. Some youths seek admission into
Bible colleges with the sole aim of setting up churches just to defraud worshippers. The effect of such an
unhealthy manner and motive of some leaders in Northern Nigeria is seen in the way people are being
deceived, marginalized, and discriminated against. The ruthless killings of Christians by the people or
neighbours who do not mean well for the growth and development of the church in the region is another
effect.
The domination and discrimination against the church in Northern Nigeria is simply because of her faith in
Christ Jesus. On several occasions, according to Agang (2011) and Kukah (2016), the church has
experienced an outright denial of building permits and certificates of occupancy in the region. In fact,
Churches have deliberately been marked out for demolition in Northern Nigeria. The persecution of the
Christian minority has continued to be a problem in Northern Nigeria. Bakeni, in agreement with the

position of Agang (2011) and Kukah (2016), discusses that the discrimination of Christians "ranging from
political exclusion and the refusal to approve the purchase of land for the building of churches to the
kidnapping and forced marriage of young girls as acts of calculated violence. The attacks on Christians are
growing more flagrant and more aggressive" (Bakeni, 2019). In some parts of the North, Christians are
being treated as second-class citizens. All that happened with the Christians in Northern Nigeria resulted
from some unbelieving leaders whose attitude can be likened to Emperor Nero and others in the Graeco-
Roman context towards the Christian communities. Therefore, Krause (2011), who wrote on the church's
situation in Northern Nigeria, expounds on the worrisome experience of Christians and how they had been
subjected to many forms of discrimination and reprisal attacks in many parts of the region. The horrible
experience of the church keeps increasing daily and surfacing in many different forms, especially since the
emergence of Boko Haram and Fulani Herdsmen extremists in the North. The Christian community had
undergone an indescribable experience and shock that will only take the grace of God for the church to
recuperate from its loss and impediments.
Suffering under Boko Haram
Boko Haram, whose name means "Western education is forbidden," emerged in 2009 (Mantzikos et al.,
2013:10, 11). According to Mantzikoset al., the members of "Boko Haram prefer to be known by their
Arabic name - Jama'atuAhlisSunnaLidda'awatiWal-Jihad-meaning 'People Committed to the Propagation
of the Prophet's Teachings and Jihad'" (2013). The church in Northern Nigeria has always been at the
receiving end in terms of suffering from every terrorist sect's activity that has its root in the Islamic religion.
Though there has always been a saying that there is freedom of religion in Nigeria for a decade, it is more in
principles than in practice. All the attacks on the church in Northern Nigeria are not from any natural
disaster, but from a particular sect that claims its root and commitment from the Islamic religion with the
sole aim of wiping out the church and her mission activities from the face of Northern Nigeria as well as the
entire country. The missions of such sects which claim allegiance to Islam have an equal connotation with
the brutality of Saul against the church in Acts of the Apostles 9:1-2 as well as the attitude of Nero as
discussed in the previous chapters.
Until now, Christian communities in Northern Nigeria have suffered at the hands of several Islamic sects,
such as Maitatsine. According to Adesoji, Maitatsineis a "Hausa word meaning 'the one who damns;' it is
derived from the regular cursing or swearing of Marwa and alluded to his frequent, bitter public
condemnation of the Nigerian state" (2011). The Maitatsine movement, led by Muhammadu Marwa, a
Cameroonian with a history of residence in Kano, had as its professed objective the purification of Islam.
His declaration of himself as a prophet and his abhorrence of Western technology and its products marked
him out (Adesoji, 2011). The activities of that sect created a massive loss in some Christian communities in
Nigeria.
Sulaiman describes some of the group's activities as "notorious for inflicting severe religious violence on the
people in the Northern part of the country. Between 1979 and 1983, two Maitatsine uprisings occurred. The
classic case was the Kano uprising of 1980, which left between 4,000-6,000 people dead and property worth
millions of naira destroyed" (2016). This had been the scenario Christians always faced in Northern Nigeria.
Though, sometimes, moderate Muslimsalso suffer from such violence because of their resistance to the
activities of such ungodly sects. This fact was expressed by Lehneret al., that the "violence is not only
affecting the Christians, for many Muslims are also falling victim to it. In some places, mosques have been
burned to the ground, while the imams have had their throats cut for refusing to toe the line of Boko Haram"
(2018). However, in most cases, the Christian communities have suffered beyond measure and always being
the primary target, the way Christians in the Graeco-Roman context were. Christian leaders like the author
of 1 Peter need to frown at such violence with sincerity.
Taking advantage of the flawed governance system in Northern Nigeria, Boko Haram began her
radicalization with impunity and had no regard for anyone. Osaretin(2019) explains that corruption and

leadership failure in Nigeria, especially in the North East of the country, are responsible for the advent of the
Boko Haram terrorist group to Islamize the Nation due to the let-down of the government in their
constitutional tasks and obligations. Equally, Golwa (2013) elucidates that the armed conflicts in Nigeria
have much to do with corruption being motivated by greed or grievances by the ruling elites and the
marginalised politicians resorting to violence to maintain corruption, and they use it to prolong their rule
beyond legal mandates. This is because the "entrenched corruption of those in power motivates the
pauperised and hopeless segments of the population or economic interest groups to support or participate in
an armed rebellion, as has been the case in the Niger Delta, the Jos and Boko Haram conflicts" (Golwa,
2013). Though Boko Haram kill people based on some Islamic ideologies, their evil practices have been
motivated by ???????????? and ill motive to dominate the citizens due to leadership failure in the country as
compared to the Graeco-Roman forms of governance. The group carries out its operation by looting
valuable things before destroying the properties. Boko Haram's ill motive shows that they have some
backing from some corrupt elites leaders, and marginalised politicians in the region (Olojo, 2013).
According to Akujieze (2019), Boko Haram regularly destroys Christian villages in Borno, Yobe, Bauchi,
and Adamawa. The group concentrates its attacks on Christian areas in the North East. Royce et al.
(2016)and Thurston (2016) expound that Boko Haram is one of the most fearful deadliest terrorist
organisations in the world, alongside the Islamic State, al-Shabaab, and the Fulani herdsmen. Boko Haram,
in 2015, pledged allegiance to the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria(ISIS). This same Boko Haram do not just
stop at that; they attack villages, conduct drive-by shootings, use young girls as suicide bombers; they target
politicians and clerics for assassination. It is focused on the symbols of western advancement such as
schools, hospitals, churches, and the mosques that belong to the moderate Muslims (Muslims who do not
share Boko Haram's ideology). According to Thurston (2019), Boko Haram prides itself in destroying the
social infrastructure as a fighting tactic to gain control over territory and prevent escapees from returning
because their actions have made hundreds of thousands of civilians flee from their places to safe areas.
Similarly, Boko Haram's damage in Christian communities in Northern Nigeria cannot be quantified and is
beyond recovery. Okakwu (2016) reported on 2016 the havoc that the sect had caused in the Church's life.
She explains that over 13,000 churches were abandoned, closedown, or destroyed, 2000 children were
abducted, 10,000 boys were forced to join Boko Haram, 19,000 teachers displaced, 1500 schools were
closed, and 950,000 children were denied accessto education. For example, in EkklisiyarYan'uwa a Nigeria
(EYN) church alone, according to Spencer (2019), Boko Haram destroyed a total of 1,125 of its church
buildings and other structures over the years of insurgency. Okakwu (2016) further reveals in the same
manner that there were over 2.2 million Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in Northern Nigeria as of 2016.
Since the Christian faith has been their primary target, Boko Haram always sought to kill or forcibly convert
Christians to their Islamic rudimentary or ideology.
In many cases, they forced the adopted Christians in their custody to spend time "praying and learning
Qur'anic verses" (Thurston, 2019). These examples show how horrible the activities of Boko Haram have
been among the Christian minorities in Nigeria Nigeria. With such devastating practice of Boko Haram,
some Christian leaders in the region are still displaying ???????????? and ??????????? pattern of leadership
to the vulnerable communities, who are in dire need of proper oversight than ever before.
Equally, Boko Haram has ravaged and incurred the deepest and most unforgettable pain to Christian lives
and some perceived moderate Muslims as well. The sect, due to their evil practice and quest for
???????????? and ??????????? in Northern Nigeria, has deprived many people of dwelling in their ancestral
land, separated people from their belonging, increase the number of widows, orphans, and widowers as well
(Unah, 2019). The effects of Boko Haram activities have increased the church's faith to some extent, but the
drastic shock of it all is that it has created fear in the lives of most Christians (Je'Adayibe, 2018). Such fear is
gradually, directly, and indirectly affecting the church's growth in Northern Nigeria. Most church members'
houses were "burned down, large quantities of food supplies were destroyed, and motorcycle and other

valuables were as well destroyed" (Miller, 2019). The dilemma that surrounded or the church is facing in the
present time is huge, and the question has always been where to begin and how to come out of such suffering
experienced. That is why 1 Peter is essential in this paper to enhance and revive the hope of the Christians in
Northern Nigeria if the religious and secular leaders would shun ???????????? and ??????????? form of
leadership in suffering communities and live like the author of 1 Peter who called on his fellow leaders in
5:1-11 to serve in the right manner and motive. Doing that will greatly salvage the hopeless Christian to cope
with the reality of the time by depending on God, who alone can vindicate all people from every
circumstance.
Suffering under Fulani Herdsmen

Another horrible experience in the life of the church in Northern Nigeria is the re-emergence of the Fulani
Herdsmen's deadly attacks in 2012 to date. At the same time, the existence of northern radical Islamist sects
in the country has been in considerable tension since the country gained independence in 1960. However,
the recent reign of terror inflicted by Fulani Herdsmen and the escalation of attacks by the sect against
predominantly Christian communities in the middle belt region is homology with the activity of Boko
Haram, and even worse. According to Li, Fulani is an "ethnic group who are mostly shepherds and cattle
herders. They are rural or pastoral, and they migrate from one area to another. They are mostly Muslims who
speak the Hausa language" (2018:1). Most scholars such as Falola and Yacob-Haliso (2017); Mahr (2019);
Li (2018); John Foxe and The Voice of the Martyrs (2019); Ndubuisi (2018); Sunday (2019); and Ochab
(2018), who wrote on the harmful activities of Fulani herdsmen only considered it merely as a clash or
conflict between farmers and herders. However, they have their reasons for such expression, but anyone
who lives or comes from Northern Nigeria, especially those in the middle belts, knows that it is not a clash as
being perceived even by some international communities. It is religious cleansing; this is because the Fulani
Herdsmen are extremists. The Associated Press(2015) expresses that the attacks in central Nigeria are being
mounted by extremists disguised as Fulani herdsmen who want to enforce an Islamic state in the country.
Equally,Akujieze suggests that the "Fulani militants are now so well armed that they are possibly fighting a
proxy war for Boko Haram, with the shared agenda of driving Christians out of their homelands in Northern
and Central-belt Nigeria" (2019). The interest of the group and her leaders is to dominate other faith in the
region and to wipe it out from the frontage of the world as a result of its cruelty behaviours.
Successively, even if the perception that the Fulani's killings result from the clash between them and the
farmers is agreed upon, who are these farmers then? The farmers are Christians. Li explains that many
farmers in the region are Christians, and these "Christian farmers saw the Fulani as an Islamization force.
They view the Fulani as proxies for Northern Nigeria's elites, while some Muslim Fulani's complained that
they had been mistreated when they encountered Christian communities. The church in Nigeria criticized
Fulani herdsmen who continue to carry out fatal attacks on Christians" (2018). The killing of Christians
portrays that the Fulani herdsmen like Boko Haram are fighting Christians for their faith in Christ Jesus and
land grabbing, which will pave the way for the Islamization of the Christian communities. Gilbert explains
that the two dominant jihadi groups (Boko Haram and Fulani herdsmen) in Northern Nigeria "fully intend to
decimate Nigeria's Christian minorities. Their ultimatum is conversion to Islam or the imposition of Sharia
law over any unconverted survivors. More often than not, they simply murder those who reject their
demands" (2019). The malicious activities perpetrated in the Christian settlements by the Fulani herdsmen
clearly indicate that they are not friendly to Christ's followers.
Equally, Fulani herdsmen focused on attacking Christian villages and destroying homes and churches in the
region, especially in Plateau, Nassarawa, Adamawa, Kaduna, Taraba, Benue, and Kogi. Graef(2015)
elucidates that the Islamist herdsmen and their mercenary allies in Northern Nigeria had killed and
mutilated many Christian villagers for months making life unbearable to them. Why are all these
inhumanities carried out against Christian farmers? According to Graef, Christians are experiencing that
merely because they are "believing in Jesus" (2015). With such development, it means that Christians in
Northern Nigeria are suffering at the hands of their unbelieving neighbours, not because of their land alone,

but as a result of their faith in Christ Jesus, like in the case of the Christian communities of Asia Minor in the
Graeco-Roman context which the author of 1 Peter wrote to encourage them. Although Christian leaders in
Northern Nigeria suffered alongside their followers, some only protected their interests rather than that of
the affected community.
The Effect of Terrorism on the Church

Like the case of the Boko Haram terrorist sect, the level of damage and the kind of suffering Fulani
herdsmen extremists have triggered in the life of Christians in Northern Nigeria, even at the watch of their
political leaders, cannot be enumerated. Akujieze affirms this by saying, "Christian communities in the
Middle Belt are being wiped out, and the president is looking elsewhere" (2019). Life has continued to
become unbearable for most Christians in Northern Nigeria due to the sorrow incurred by the Fulani
Herdsmen. The Fulani attacks have an exacted effect on the Christian communities as the "Maitatsine
religious conflict, OIC conflict, Sharia conflict, and Boko-Haram terroristic activity, which have adversely
affected religious activities such as night vigils, midweek services, Sunday services, and open-field
crusade" (Ndubuisi, 2018). Such development and reality are horrible mischiefs on the growth of
Christianity in Northern Nigeria and the entire country; any factor that is forcefully affecting the great
commission (Matthew 28:18-20) to a true Christian is barbaric and must be condemned in its totality. Since
the church exists for peace, it should be given such an atmosphere to exercise its religious obligation to God
and all humanity.
A critical analysis of the activities of Maitasitne, Boko Haram, and Fulani Herdsmen in Northern Nigeria is
almost homologous to that of the Graeco-Roman emperors, leaders, and unbelieving neighbours whose
missions was to tarnish the image of the Christians from the communities. As the Christian communities'
enemies in Asia Minor, Boko Haram and Fulani Herdsmen are the unbelieving neighbours of Christians in
Northern Nigeria. They aim at ruining the identity of the church in the region. Alexander Lar, one of former
COCIN presidents and Chairman Board of Trustees, lamented, as cited by Boer, that:
Can you imagine that when Dr. Karl Kumm and his contemporaries came to the North of Nigeria in 1904,
they were explicitly instructed by Lord Lugard not to evangelise the Muslims but to go to the Pagan tribes
down the hills? These same Pagan tribes received the gospel and brought education, hospitals, rural
development, and total civilization to the North. Today, they are [considered] enemies enough to be wiped
out. How can we accept this? (2010).
Given the above quotation, despite all the remarkable growth in COCIN and other denominations in
Northern Nigeria, the church is still faced with a lot of unfathomable challenges from those who do not mean
well for Christians in the region.
Furthermore, the leading cause of such sects in Northern Nigeria is poor leadership by her political and
traditional rulers, religious leaders who put themselves ahead of service, and carelessness in protecting their
people's well-being. This is because political leaders have the power to use all types of machinery at their
discretion to order and curtail the activities of such sects. Some traditional rulers and religious leaders are
mute simply because of greed and their close association with some political elites. Agbiji and Swart (2015)
explain that some religious and traditional leaders in Nigeria were being bribed with money stuffed in
briefcases to support ungodly schemes and agenda of some past military and political leaders. Instead of
confronting such leaders' evil practices, religious leaders were used to cover up for the political elite due to
greed. Osaretin (2019) affirms the facts mentioned above that religion contributes immensely to the
prevalence of corruption in the Nigerian state and society. This is because some religious leaders, due to
???????????? and ??????????? motives, dance to the tune of the corrupt political leaders and become mute in
confronting the evil practices of both Boko Haram and Fulani Herdsmen killings in the land. Such practice
shows how some Christian leaders in Northern Nigeria's behaviour have been displaying their oversight
function to God's people in the society.

Conclusion
The paper uncovered that in Northern Nigeria, as far as history is concerned, the Christian religion has not
been given a breathing space to enjoy reasonable freedom of expressing her faith and fulfilling the great
commission as it should. Poor leadership, both secular and religious, has proven to contribute to the
challenges the Christian communities in Northern Nigeria undergo. Like in the case of the Graeco-Roman
context as addressed in 1 Peter 5, the spirit behind good shepherding in the Christian communities in
Northern Nigeria has been relegated to the pursuit of leadership positions, material gain, and becoming a
monocracy, which results in poor leadership instead of being an example in their services to the wounded
people of God under their jurisdiction. Some Muslim leaders have used such advantages to promote their
Islamic agenda and molest the Christian faith. Although Christians sometimes contribute to their sufferings,
they compromise their identity in Christ to obtain favour or leadership positions from the Muslims.
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of-a-country-decimated-by-boko-haram

Economic Implication Of Ethno-Religious Conflicts Among Women In Plateau State: A Threat to Christian-muslim Relations in Northern Nigeria
ECONOMIC IMPLICATION OF ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS AMONG

WOMEN IN PLATEAU STATE: A THREAT TO CHRISTIAN-MUSLIM
RELATIONS IN NORTHERN NIGERIA
Goshit Pwankit Dewan, PhD Candidate, Department of Religion and Philosophy, Faculty of Art,
University of Jos, +2348039709045pgdgoshit04@gmail.com
Abstract
Ethno-Religious conflicts have unrelenting to bedeviled Plateau State for over seven decades. This paper
aims to highlight some of the ethno-religious conflicts that have taken place in Northern Nigeria and their
impacts on women as a threat to Christian-Muslim relations in Northern Nigeria. It's no longer news that
significant and extensive work has been done on the issue of Ethno-Religious conflicts in Plateau State, but
the implications of these on women in Plateau State and on Christian-Muslim relations in Northern Nigeria
remains scanty. It is in recognition of this that this paper seeks to study this. Using library findings as well as
oral interviews, the paper notes that many women have lost their lives while many others have lost their
spouses or children as much as many have lost their means of livelihood and property. This situation has led
to undue sufferings with the attendant problems of poverty and impoverishment among the women. Most
significantly, it also leads to gender inequality, which when not checked easily translates to political,
economic and socio-religious marginalization of women in the society. In view of this, the researcher
recommends among others that women should be allowed to be full actors in the process of peace building
and conflict resolution in Plateau State. They should not be kept at the margin in political, economic and
religious discourse. It further advocates that amidst these incessant ethno-religious conflicts that have
plagued the state, protection of women and children should be of paramount importance by all and all the
violations of human rights of women and children addressed with the apt attention it deserves. The
descriptive phenomenological method was adopted for the study.
Keywords: Ethno-Religious Conflicts, women, girls, farmlands, economic, Christian-Muslim relations
Introduction
The conflict in Plateau State has ethnic, political, economic, and religious components, which, over time,
have become inextricably linked. Not all these ingredients have been present from the beginning. As
different groups have sought to recruit additional allies to support their cause, the conflict has become
increasingly complex, drawing in an ever-larger number of ethnic groups. It has also spread geographically
to different parts of the state, leading to a convergence of conflicts originally rooted in different locations.
Increasingly, different communities started reacting to events in other localities. The larger attacks have had
repercussions not only in the form of counter-attacks by the aggrieved community in the same area, but in
other areas some distance away, where communities from a different ethnicity but from the same religion
have identified with the victims and sought to avenge them by attacking people from the “opposing” faith
within their own area (Suberu 82). In the most extreme cases, these repercussions have extended well
beyond the state boundaries. For example, the 11th and 12thMay, 2004conflicts in Kano were a direct
response to the 2nd and 3rdMay, 2004 attack in Yelwa.
At the root of the conflict in Plateau State is the competition between “indigenes” and “non-indigenes.”
Throughout Nigeria, groups considered “indigenes,” or the original inhabitants of an area, are granted
certain privileges, including access to government employment, scholarships for state schools, lower school
fees, and political positions. To secure access to these privileges, they have to produce an “indigene
certificate” which is granted by the local authorities. “Non-indigenes” or “settlers” are denied these

certificates and the accompanying privileges. Different groups are considered “indigenes” or “settlers” in
different areas. The definition of the term “indigene” is commonly understood to be based on a person's
place of origin, but many people born and brought up in a particular area are not accorded that status, even
though they may never have lived in any other part of Nigeria (Suberu 81). No official document or
legislation defines these categories precisely or sets out clear criteria as to how a person's “indigeneship” is
determined.
For several decades now, Nigeria has been witnessing an upsurge in ethno-religious conflicts. Nigeria is a
country of diverse and rich cultural heritage. With a population of over 200 million people (World
population review 2, Nigeria remains the most populous nation in Africa endowed with rich natural
resources. Despite this, Nigeria is faced with many problems and challenges among which ethno-religious
conflicts seem to top the list. Ethno-religious conflicts have created instability and remained a constant
threat to peaceful co-existence in Nigeria society and Plateau State in particular. With each turn of events,
reports on ethno-religious conflicts in different parts of the state have been recorded for over four decades
now. Whenever such occurs, women are often the most hit and that has a direct impact on the social,
religious and economic life of the Plateau woman.
Women farmers have described the incessant destruction of crops by Fulani herders as a strategy
deliberately to cause hunger and force them out of their native lands. The crops which are near maturity are
usually moved down overnight in an act of sheer wickedness or grazed on by the herders leaving
traumatized farmers at a loss and without any hope of food. Their grief is that the herders allow them to
invest their energy, money and resources in the farms with crops destroyed or grazed on. The last three years
have recorded cases of farmland destruction by herders in Mangu, Riyom, BarkinLadi, Jos South and Bassa
Local Government Areas. Some of the farmers narrated their ordeals in the hands of the Fulani herdsmen to
the researcher that they were attacked by the herders when they bumped into them while grazing on their
farms. A visit to some of the farms revealed cattle droppings and hoof prints littered all affected farms.
Thousands of women, fearing attacks by either Fulani herdsmen or Boko Haram in Plateau State, are unable
to work their farms in some parts of the state. In some of these communities that have been adversely
affected by incessant attacks, food production is variously estimated to drop by 43 per cent to 69 per cent in
2021 as a result of attacks on farmers, thus affecting women economically as they can no longer work on
their farms to sustain their families. Other thousands of farmers have lost their crops and farm lands to
attacks and destruction meted out to them by Fulani herdsmen in parts of Plateau state. Stories abound of
Fulani herdsmen destroying crops in the field. Mrs. Grace Daniel of Miango village in BassaLadi LGA
lamented on how some Fulani herdsmen destroyed their crops. She avers that:
I was not expecting what I saw when I visited my farm. What we suffered to cultivate and plant were
cut down with cutlass by some Fulani herdsmen who vowed that we must not farm this season. They
sent letters to our people that we should not go to the farm this year (farm). We did not take their
warning as anything serious until when some of our men were killed on their farms by the Fulani
herdsmen, warning anyone that dares them. We planted our maize in May, 2021. We are hoping to eat
from the crop we planted, but this is what we have at our hands. We cannot even report anywhere
because from history, if you report them to the security; they will come after you in the night and kill
you. So we are afraid to take the matter anywhere. We are calling on our government to do something
and guarantee our safety or else we will starve here and die. That is actually what our attackers want
so that they can take over our ancestral lands (Interview 02/07/2021).

Such situations have created a major threat to the security of the state and the economic life of the women.
Against this background, this paper examines some ethno-religious conflicts that have taken place in
Plateau State with particular interest on the economic implications of these conflicts on women. Thus, the
aim of this paper is to present the plight of women in the face of incessant ethno-religious conflicts going on
in Plateau State. It will further attempt to proffer solutions on ways of reducing the impact of these conflicts
on women in Plateau State.
This work rehid on books, journals, newspapers, magazines and publications on the web, interviews among
some women who are victims of ethno-religious conflicts in Plateau State. The aim was to evaluate the
economic implication of these conflicts on the lives of Nigerian women for necessary intervention. The data
collected were qualitatively and critically analyzed. The descriptive phenomenological method was used in
this research.
SOME CASES OF ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS IN PLATEAU STATE: 2001 TO 2018

In September 2001, Jos, the capital of Plateau State in central Nigeria experienced a devastating carnage in
which unprecedented lives were lost and property destroyed. Like the situation in Kaduna State, it was
between the indigenous Christian communities, on one hand, and the Hausa and Fulani Muslims, on the
other hand. To many people, the situation in Jos was a surprise. “If this can happen in Jos then, nowhere is
safe in Nigeria” (Kukah 58). However, a critical look at the situation in Jos decades before the September
2001 incident shows that “a situation like this did not happen since all these years” is the greatest surprise
(Kukah 62). Jos has been a centre of deep-seated animosities and rivalry between the Hausa Fulani
considered to be “settlers” and the indigenous communities. Sometimes it escalates into an overt crisis. This
situation has been going on since the colonial period. At the back of this disaffection and rivalry are
questions of disproportionate access to socio-economic resources, power and land. State and ruling class
manipulation of these differences and “partisan handling of situations in the past” exacerbate these (Gofwen
38).
The 1990s witnessed resurgence in this identity politics, this time centring on the control of Jos North Local
government carved from the former Jos Local government in 1991. This according to Gofwen appeared to
have enhanced the Hausa-Fulani hegemonic control of political power in the local government (49-50). This
action of the Federal government exacerbated tension in Jos as the Hausa Fulani were seen to have been
given impetus to control Jos, and the indigenes excluded. The Hausa Fulani have continued to claim
indigene of Jos, Plateau State. On 12thApril, 1994, this growing tension escalated into violent clashes. The
problem started with the appointment of members of Jos North Local Government management committee.
A Hausa Fulani man was appointed a Chairman, an Igbo man, a Yoruba, a Berom and a Jarawa as members.
The “indigenes” objected to these appointments especially the appointment of SanusiMato, the Chairman of
the Committee. Suberu further posits that:
The indigene interpreted this action as a confirmation of the fear that the federal government wanted
to provide basis for the Hausa Fulani to assume political hegemony in Jos. They also interpreted
these actions supportive of the claims that Jos belongs to the Hausa-Fulani (57).
The indigenes organised open protest against the appointment, at the venue of the swearing in of the
th
appointees on the 5 of April, 1994. The youth sang war songs, stoned the governor's entourage to the
ceremony and burnt some government properties. The State government later halted the appointment.
Halting the appointment of SanusiMato was unacceptable to the Hausa Fulani. They justify his appointment
on the ground that “Hausa Fulani were numerically superior in the Local Government Council (Sa'id 9).
They in turn organised a protest, which later escalated to violent confrontation. Worship places and markets

were burnt as well as lives and property belonging to both Christians and Muslims were destroyed. This led
to high suspicion among the two major religions as settlement patterns began to take religious and ethnic
colouration. This became necessary, innocent people were targeted and killed in areas where they were
minorities. This gave rise to a systematic cleansing of communities by ethnic or religious affiliation. A
judicial commission of inquiry headed by Justice AribitonFiberesine (Rtd) was constituted. The report of
the commission since 1994 is yet to be made public by the government and no white paper has been
produced. The indigenes believe that the report was not made public because, the Hausa Fulani, who they
claim have been indicted in the report, used their “ethnic link” with the state and federal governments to
frustrate the official release of the report, due to the devastation it has done to their various claims (Suberu
58).
Such conflicts continued to set people against one another as on 16thMarch, 1996, electoral violence in ,
AnguwarRogo, a predominantly Hausa settlement, almost escalated to ethno-religious violence. The

indigenes alleged that the Hausa Fulani tried to rig the election, by smuggling into the polling station
“Shagari voters” from other parts of the country. The electoral officer decided to screen out the “unknown”
faces. The Hausa Fulani elements protested. It was at this point that violence erupted in which dangerous
weapons were freely used. In the end, a man of Anaguta ethnic origin was killed instantly while two others
nd
died later at the Jos Teaching Hospital. The burial of the first victim on the 22 March, 1996 was used for
political mobilisation; this situation was however contained (Suberu 83). It is on this general historical
account that the 7thSeptember carnage can be understood.
There were three major outbreaks of conflicts in Yelwa town: the first on 26thJune, 2002, the second on
th nd rd
24 February, 2004, and the third on 2 and 3 May, 2004. In all three cases, the victims included both
Christians and Muslims. However, the majority of victims in the24thFebruary, 2004 attack were Christians,
while the majority of victims in the May 2004 attack were Muslims (HRW 5). In the periods between these
attacks, particularly between late February and early May 2004, there were numerous smaller attacks on
villages in the surrounding area. While most Muslims described all three incidents as attacks by Christians,
most Christians described them as attacks by Muslims (Ahmed 46). These separate conflicts led to
extinction of communities and cleansing of some communities by religious or ethnic affiliation. This is seen
in the current settlement pattern of the town and the neighbouring communities. Christians were targeted
and killed by some Muslims leading to the rise of homogenous Muslim community in some places and
likewise Muslims were targeted, chased away and killed by some Christians, thus creating a Christian
community. These acts have led to the systematic act of ethnic cleansing and community extinction on the
Plateau. Following the carnage that was meted to the Yelwa town and some neighbouring villages, and in
view of the lives and property lost; the then president, OlusegunObasanjo declared a state of emergency on
Plateau State on 18thMay, 2004. The Governor was removed from office and a Sole Administration was
appointed.
Another reported carnage meted out on innocent lives, which has led to another round of ethnic cleansing
and community extinction on the Plateau people, was the September 2010 bloodshed. Amidst this tense
atmosphere, ostensibly in an attempt to wean out non-indigene from state and local government service, it
was directed that all officers on Grade Levels 1-6 be redeployed to their local governments of origin. Most
Hausa Fulani Local Government employees were forced to Jos North Local Government. The Local
Government rejected many of them “because they are not indigenes”' (Ahmed 59). More so, in recent times,
Plateau youths have violently resisted appointments of any person that is not of Plateau origin into any office
in the state. The protracted crisis over the Vice Chancellorship of the University of Jos is one case in point.
DrAbubakarLamurde (a citizen of Adamnawa State) was violently attacked in an attempt to force him out of
the National Veterinary Research Institute, Vom for “staying too long as a Director'' (Ahmed 62).

There was also a case of a Yoruba man appointed Managing Director of Nigerian Mining Corporation, Jos.
The most serious one that contributed to the 7thSeptember carnage was the appointment of Alhaji
Mohammed Muktar, a former Chairman of Jos North Local Government, as the Coordinator of National
Poverty Eradication programme, in Jos North Local Government. His appointment was variously criticised
by Plateau “indigenes.” Some groups “seize the opportunity to launch personal attacks on Muktar
Mohammed, posting death threats at his office” (HRW 11). In disbelieve that the crisis was a result of his
appointment, Muktar observes that:
I am not a new actor in the politics of Jos North local government Area. I started working with the Jos
North Local Government Area in 1993 as an Education Secretary was later appointed after a change
of Government in the Country. I was again appointed and posted to Nasarawa (LGA) Representing
Jos North Local Government Area. Later I contested and won the Chairmanship of Jos North Local
Government. And in all instances there are never any cases of opposition to any appointment or
election (Weekly Trust 6).
While this was going on, it was reported that Jassawa Development Association (JDA) issued a statement
calling on people of Jos North local government to vote only a Muslim candidate in the next Local
government election. The National Secretary of the Association, however, disassociated the association
from the purported statement, but reiterated that Hausa Fulani Muslim have equal right to contest election
like the members of Plateau Youth council. The Plateau Youth Council did not take these claims lightly.
They accused the Hausa-Fulani of not only making ridiculous claims but also fanning the embers of
religious crisis. According to the Chairman of the Youth Council:
It is funny and insulting that a Hausa- Fulani…from Bauchi, Kano, Katsina and other states who, for
the purpose of trading settled in Jos among the indigenes of Afizere, Anarguta and Berom woke up
one day to claim to a place leased to them for peaceful co-existence (Human Rights Watch 8).
The Human Rights Watch further graphically described how it happened thus:
th
On September 7 , a young Christian woman tried to cross the road through a congregation of
Muslim outside the mosque (in an area known as Congo- Russia) she was asked to wait until prayers
had finished or to choose another route, but she refused and an argument developed between her and
some members of the congregation. Within minutes, the argument had unleashed a violent battle
between groups of Christians who appeared at the scene and Muslims who had been praying in the
mosque or who happened to be in the neighbourhood (7).
The ensuing fighting spread to other parts of the city. The violence ranged from 7thSeptember to Monday
th th
10 2010. After a day's fire, the fighting continued again on Wednesday 12 September until Thursday
th
13 when the fighting ceased. In the end of the crisis, hundreds of people had been killed; the Human Rights
Watch reported 1,000 killed (HRW 10). The state government provided a lesser figure. Thousands of homes,
buildings, shops and worship areas were destroyed.
th
Sadly, also, on the early hours of Sunday, 7 March, 2010, was another day of immense horror in the history
of Jos when suspected Fulani herdsmen invaded Dogo-Nahawa and three other neighbouring villages
enmasse, killing hundreds of people. Other communities attacked were Zot, Reput and Kutgot, all in Shen

district of Jos South Local Government Area, populated by Birom people. Dogo-Nahawa was ruined and the
people were in grief for their losses. On 8thMarch, 400 corpses of the victims were arraigned for mass burial
amidst uncontrollable tears from family members and sympathisers (HRW 15). This incident aggrieved the
youths who took to the streets despite government appeal. People protested with banners and placards with
carried signs like “Genocide: Hausa-Fulani killed 400 Christians in Dogo-Nahawa” (HRW 15).
th rd th
Similar attacks occurred on 7 July, 2012 and 23 and 24 of June, 2018 when Fulani Militia attacked Gashish
District of BarkinLadi Local Government Area, killing over 200 lives with houses and places of worship
destroyed, and communities going extinct with some people being cleansed. Ever since, Plateau State has
become a flashpoint and a conflict zone in the Northern part of Nigeria. Violence has become the order of the
day in this once peaceful and tourism state, where a series of clashes and counter-attacks are now mainstays
of the state. This has led to massive acts of ethnic cleansing and community extinction especially in
BarkinLadi and Jos South Local Government Areas, where particular ethnic groups are often targeted and
cleaned up or a particular religious group is cleaned up from a given community. This is clearly seen in the
polarisation of some communities that hitherto were mixed together without showing any difference
between Christians and Muslims. This has posed serious challenge for Christian-Muslim peaceful
coexistence and relations, not only in Plateau State but Northern Nigeria.
ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS ON NIGERIAN WOMEN

IN PLATEAU STATE
The impact of ethno-religious conflicts on women in Plateau State cannot be overemphasised. However,
what is most worrisome is little attention being paid to its effect on such a vulnerable group of people.
Whenever conflicts occur in Plateau State, women are often the most hit as they become of the unknown. A
study carried out by Alawemo and Muterera (47) on armed conflicts in Nigeria using Jos, the state capital of
Plateau State, as their reference point notes the vulnerability of women and children in conflict situations.
According to them these conflicts have led to extensive destruction of lives and property. Some of the
economic implications of ethno-religious conflicts on women in Plateau State are addressed below.
Loss of means of livelihood

The economic impact of these ethno-religious conflicts on women in Plateau State is often very severe. Due
to the persistent trend of ethnic and religious conflicts in Plateau State, many women have lost their lives
while many others have lost their children and/or their husbands. Many houses and means of lively-hood
have been destroyed resulting in poverty among many families. Many of them have been displaced, thus
causing them to be away from their farmlands, business and other agricultural activities which hitherto had
been their major sources of income. Most of these displaced women have been forced to stay in the
Internally Displaced Persons camp (IDP) sometimes organized by the state government, some NGOs or
religious bodies.
Such often result in menial jobs in order to meet the needs of the home, especially where the husband has
been killed in the attack. While at the camp, some are been raped or their girls are often molested sexually,
thus making the prone to high risk of contracting ay of the sexually transmitted infections (STI). Some
women often find it very difficult to cope with these challenges as they battle with serious and severe
economic challenges in challenging communities. While they are still in their ancestral homes, they find it
very difficult to go to their farms for fear of being targeted and killed by the perpetrators. Often, when ethno-
religious conflicts occur, suspicion and hate set in, causing tension and anxiety in the minds of the
survivours; thus affecting their minds on going back to their normal economic activities. Some of the
surviving women who shoulder the responsibility of supporting their families especially when their spouses

have been killed or incapacitated due to injuries from the conflicts. They now become heads of families and
breadwinners.
In line with this, many women in Plateau State have lost their jobs, businesses, and farmlands; making them
to be economically dependent on their In-laws or relatives, though some of them are good, but most of them
have succeeded in depriving the women of their rights, thus affecting them economically. For example, the
following interviews which are just representatives of what women go through reveal the devastating
economic effect of the ethno-religious conflicts on women in Plateau State. Mary Gabriel who lost her
husband and his immediate brother in the attack, which saw them forced out of Dogo village, has been left
devastated having been made a widow by force. She lamented that her husband was killed by the Fulani
herdsmen who stormed their community by 9pm killing over 20 people with houses and property destroyed.
She recounts that:
It's a day I will never forget in my life. When we first heard the news that they had attacked Kache
and the surrounding villages, killing people, we were assured that security personnel were on their
way to repel the attack. So we all ran into our houses, though some people ran to the bushes in fear.
While we were still inside, he heard heavy gun shots that shocked our community. We did not see any
military man or Police around to protect us as it was alleged that they were on the way coming. We
were left to our fate and all scampered for safety. It was at that point that my husband rushed out with
other men, unknown to them, the attackers were already around our community, shooting
sporadically. I was 5 months pregnant and not too strong to run, so I hid under the bed while our four
children ran out for their safety (Interview 27/11/2020).
Mrs. Gabriel, still in tears recounting what happened, she narrated further that what she witnessed was the
worst thing that has ever happened to her as the attackers came into the room shooting sporadically, but God
saved her. She posits that:
The attackers came in their number and invaded the entire community, leaving everyone to scamper
for safety. I must tell you that since then, life has not been easy, but in all of this, I thank God for all He
has done because he sent me help. At the time they were shooting, one of them said in Hausa, Ku
kunekumai a gidan'' which means “You should burn everything in the house.” While they were
contemplating on what to do, another said, let us not waste our materials in this poor compound. That
was my saving point as they quickly went out without burning the houses. However, they took away
our animals and my husband's motorbike alongside other things they found in our bedroom.
Meanwhile I was hiding in the children's room. As they went out, I heard people crying while the
sound of gun shoots was heavier. I was praying for the safety of my children and husband. After they
had finished their work, it was around midnight. At that time, the entire community was devastated
and the few of us who survived began to come out as we heard the cries of some women. I was told
that my husband went to the mountain side and was saved. That calmed me a bit, but I was hoping to
meet him to narrate my ordeals alongside the children. Since it was late and the place was in total
darkness, the men that were around began to go out in search of the dead. There were four corpses
behind our house, but I did not know my husband was among the dead since I was told that he made it
to the mountains. The men who discovered it did not know how to disclose the sad news to me in
view of my condition (being five months pregnant). While I anxiously awaited the arrival of my
husband and the children in the morning, I was greeted with the sad news of the death of my husband.
I immediately collapsed and did not know what happened thereafter until I saw myself in the hospital
(Interview 27/11/2020).

According to one of the victims, Ngo Nvou Dido orates that the attack was carried out by suspected Fulani
herdsmen dressed in long jackets who walked towards them as they were in the farm harvesting their
potatoes. They suddenly opened fire on them killing four people and injuring two with only three people
escaping unhurt. She laments that:
We were harvesting potatoes on the farm when one of us drew our attention to two Fulani men
dressed in long jackets walking around the farm. I asked her to ignore them and continue with her
work. She said she could not continue with the work because she did not trust the Fulani men and she
was afraid. Her husband then asked her to stand and keep vigil to see what the Fulani men were up to.
Then suddenly she shouted 'See, they are coming our direction with guns' and we started running in
different directions. I could not run like the young people with us and that was why they shot me and I
fell down. They went to meet one of us who pleaded with them to spare his life but they shot him
twice and he died instantly. After that, they ran after the others who were running in different
directions and killed those they were able to get except three persons who were able to escape unhurt.
One of them called somebody from home to come with security personnel to rescue the rest of us
after telling the person what had happened on the farm. Myself and the other woman that was shot
when we saw that the attackers had gone after the others scrawled to a nearby bush to hide from the
attackers who they feared might return to them. The soldiers arrived much later and went in search of
the attackers (Interview 17/02/2021).
In another situation Ngo Deborah Davou narrates how they can no longer go to their farms due to insecurity
even after paying the bandits some money for them to be allowed to farm. She lamented that some people are
benefiting from their unfortunate situation:
I have not been able to go to my farm this year, 2021 due to the series of attacks on our people either
by bandits or Fulani herdsmen. Our people have been abducted from their farms and a huge sum of
money is always demanded before their release. When you are unable to pay for the ransom of your
relative, he or she is killed. We have lost thirteen people who were abducted on their farmlands on
different occasions, but their relatives could not pay their ransom due to the amount demanded for.
At times it is the Fulani herdsmen who will even demand that we pay them a certain amount of
money before they will allow us to farm. Last year, 2020, I paid over seventy thousand Naira before I
harvested my farm. This year (2021) we paid again in order to cultivate the land. After paying so
much, another set of terrorists came that we did not pay for this farming season, that they are not
aware of the people we paid the money to. Since there was no receipt to show for the payments we
made. They gave us two days to bring money or else we should not come to the farm again. To this
day, I have not been able to visit my farm for fear of what they said (Interview 10/07/2021).
She lamented further that there will be serious food security going by what is going on in the Northeast. She
opines that:
If something is not done urgently to address the security situation in the North, farmers will not go to
their farms and that means there will be no food for the teaming populace. Food scarcity will be high
next year, 2022 if these terrorists and bandits continue to terrorize farmers, especially women as
some of them are often raped in the farm. I do not know my fate and that of my family if things
continue the way they are now. We cannot go to our farms for fear of the terrorists (Interview
10/07/2021).
In another act of impunity linked to herdsman in Plateau State, mother of two, Grace Dalung, was attacked
by machete wielding Fulani herdsman who she claimed nearly raped her on her farm in Gashish area.
Speaking on her ordeal, she narrates that:

I was working alone on her farm on the fateful day when the Fulani herdsman attacked, gagged me
and tore my clothes preparatory to raping me. The gag he used miraculously slipped from my mouth
following which I raised the alarm to attract nearby villagers. He then fled but not before dealing me
machete blows. I cannot really explain the motive behind the attack by the herdsman, maybe to kill
me or to rape me. On hearing this, he mobilized our people and got the suspect arrested but he was
later set free by the state Police Command which described him as a scavenger who attempted to
sexually abuse me and injured me in the process. The police denied that he was a herdsman but a
northerner (Interview 16/05/2021).
Another victim, Jummai Emmanuel laments that:
The herdsmen are determined to send us farmers out of work and business in our ancestral homes,
and unless serious majors are taken by the authorities, the situation may degenerate to ethnic clashes.
What they have destroyed from our communities in a twinkle of an eye is worth millions of Naira.
This has affected the morals of other farmers around here to go back to the farm again. Many are
discouraged that, having spent so much on the farmlands, the Fulani herdsmen are destroying their
crops with none ever prosecuted by the government (Interview 16/05/2021).
The pain that farmers go through due to the incessant and recurring attacks will stifle production and
productivity in the agricultural sector. In the farming communities of Plateau State, some Fulani herdsmen
have spent years raiding farms, stealing livestock and driving farmers off their land. They face human rights
abuses of different kinds. Their dependants especially the girls are prone to be forced into early marriage,
rape, trafficking or prostitution. This leads to the violation of their rights, it also has implications on girls'
development and overall development of the country. This underscores the point that ethno-religious
conflicts accentuate poverty among the female gender. It has been observed that women make up 65% of the
population below poverty level in Nigeria as against 35% of men (Onah11). Many women in Plateau State
have remained in poverty.
Ethno-religious conflicts on the Plateau impacts women and men differently. Whenever conflict occurs,
women often struggle to regain economic control especially when the bread winner has been killed.
According to the Parliamentary Assembly women and men have different access to resources, power and
decision before, during and after conflicts. While women are the main victims of conflict, they are often
powerless to prevent them, they are excluded from negotiation when it comes to resolution and confined to a
marginal role in the post-conflict reconstruction and reconciliation efforts. This encourages victimization of
women (Daily Trust 4). Thus, ethno-religious conflicts greatly intensify gender inequality. This is also the
fate of women in Plateau State. As Osunyikanmi rightly observes that, if women are given equal opportunity
in post-conflict situations, they will impact meaningfully on Africa's development agenda, most especially
on its economic development (62). They will not remain passive, but active participants in the development
and growth of the economy.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Given the above scenario, the following recommendations are made for necessary actions in order to change
the narratives.
1. Ethno-religious conflicts should be avoided by all means. Adherents of different religions should
imbibe the moral teachings of their respective religions and seek to live peacefully with one another.
This will foster peaceful coexistence.

2. Government should empower women economically and give them equal opportunity to strive in the
society alongside their male counterparts. This will reduce the current trend of marginalisation been
witnessed in some parts of the state,
3. The process of rehabilitation of victims of ethno-religious conflicts with special focus on women
should be given serious attention. Proper and adequate counselling services should be provided to
them to enable them overcome their economic trauma for proper integration in the society.
4. The protection of women and children during and after ethno-religious conflicts should be of
paramount importance and all the violations of human rights of women and children be addressed
with the appropriate consideration it merits.
5. Perpetrators of ethno-religious conflicts should be reprimanded as the law stipulates. This will act as
a warning to future offenders.
CONCLUSION
Ethno-religious conflicts in Plateau State have posed major challenges to women and have affected them
economically among other effects. Although much has been said and written about Ethno-religious conflicts
in Plateau State, the state has continued to witness a series of ethnic crises and religious intolerance leading
to conflicts. This has affected sustainable human development. Many lives, especially women and children
have been lost and property worth billions destroyed leaving most women destitute and homeless. This
paper has attempted to examine the economic implications of these conflicts with particular reference to
women. The paper also notes that women and children are more vulnerable in these conflict situations and
argues that the major economic impact of these conflicts on women is the taking over of their means of
livelihood rendering them helpless and heightens poverty among the women in Plateau State.
Works cited
Ahmed, Abubakar.“Ethnic and Religious Crises in Kano: Impact on Women and children” Equal Justice
Vol. 2. No 7 HRM, Kaduna 2000.
Alawemo, O. and J.Muterera. The Impact of Armed Conflict on Women: Perspectives from
NigerianWomen. OIDA Journal of Sustainable Development Vol.2 (5) 81-86, 2010.
Gofwen, R.I. Religious Conflicts in Northern Nigeria and Nation Building: The Throes of Two
Decades 1980- 2000. Kaduna: Human Right Monitor, 2004.
Grace Dalung. Interview on May 16, 2021
Grace Daniel. Interview on July 02, 2021.
Human Rights Watch interview with a 24-year-old woman (name withheld), Maiduguri, July 8, 2010.
Human Rights Watch interview with then-Borno State chairman of the Christian Association of
Nigeria, Rev. Yuguda Mdurvwa, Maiduguri, July 7, 2010.
Human Rights Watch interview with Rev. Faye Pama Umar, secretary of the Borno State branch of the
Christian Association of Nigeria, Maiduguri, May 28, 2012.
Human Rights Watch interviews with Christians in Maiduguri, Maiduguri, July 2010.
Human Rights Watch monitoring of Nigerian and foreign media reports of Boko Haram attacks.
Jummai Emmanuel. Interview on May 16, 2021
Kukah, Hassan Matthew. Religion Politics and Power in Northern Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books, 1993.
Mary Gabriel. Interview on November, 27, 2020
Ngo Nvou Dido. Interview on February 2, 2021
Ngo Deborah Davou. Interview on July 10, 2021
Olukunlen, K. F. and Olugbenga, D. O. Distance education as a women empowerment strategy in
Africa.Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education TOJDE 7, (1) Article 13, 2016.
Onah. N.G. Women empowerment in 21st century Nigeria: The role of faith-based

Organizations.Nigerian Journal of Social Sciences.Vol. 7 (2) 130-141, 2011.

Osunyikanmi, A.F. The Political Implications of Violence Against Women in Africa. Canadian
SocialScience Vol. 7, (5) 58-63, 2011.
Parliamentary Assembly. Conflict Prevention and Reconciliation: the role of women. Accessed
on 13October 2021 from http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-XML2HTML-
en.asp?fileid=17233&lang=en
Sa'id, A.G (ed) Muslim Christian relation in Northern Nigeria Kaduna, Arewa House, 2015.
Shamima A. and Kyoko K. Gender-based Violence among Documented Rohingya Refugees in
Bangladesh. Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 21, 2 (2014): 225–246, 2014.
Suberu, Rotimi. Ethnic Minority Conflicts and Governance in Nigeria. Ibadan, Spectrum Books, 1996.
Weekly Trust, March 5, 2013: 6.
World population Review (2016) Nigeria Population 2016. Accessed on 4th October 2016 from
http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/nigeria-population/

An Appraisal of the New Innovations in the Electoral Act, 2022
AN APPRAISAL OF THE NEW INNOVATIONS IN THE ELECTORAL ACT,

2022
Yebo S. Dabup
N.M. Naron
W.S. Gwankat
ABSTRACT
With the enactment of the Electoral Act, 2022 as the legal framework that governs the conduct of general
elections in Nigeria, the Independent National Electoral Commission, which is the institutional framework
saddled with the responsibility of conducting general elections, is empowered to employ mechanisms and
technologies aimed atboosting transparency and fairness in general elections, thereby boostingthe
electorates'confidence in the electoral process. In the years that preceded the passing into law of, and the
President's assent to,the now-subsisting Electoral Act, so many issues bedeviled Nigerian elections.
Following its enactment, some of those issues have yet to diminish in entirety. Of course, it is a gradual
process. To their credit, the draftsmen of the new Electoral Act, introduced some new innovations which, if
well-implemented, will give general elections a face-lift in our polity. Therefore, this article seeks to
highlight and appraise the new innovations for which the Electoral Act, 2022 has made provisions.
Keywords: Returning Officer, Polling Unit, INEC, Election, Election Petition Tribunal, Results.
INTRODUCTION
In February 2022, President Muhammadu Buhari signed the Electoral Act Amendment Bill into law, after so
much delay.1 By virtue of Section 151 of the Electoral Act, 2022 (hereinafter or sometimes referred to as
“The New Act”), the Electoral Act, 2010 (hereinafter or sometimes referred to as “The Former Act” or “The
2
Old Act”) was repealed. Consequently, the new Act was in force, just in time, for the Osun State
Governorship or Gubernatorial Election conducted on July 16, 2022.3 The New Act introduced some
provisions which, it is strongly believed, will improve the conduct of elections in Nigeria, going forward.
The 2023 General Elections took place on February 25, 2023 and March 18, 2023. The Presidential Election
took place alongside elections to both the Senate and the House of Representatives, while the Gubernatorial
or Governorship Election was conducted alongside elections to the various States' Houses of Assembly.
1
Yebo S. DabupLLB, BL, LLM (Uni-Jos) is a Lecturer,General Studies' Department,Federal Polytechnic N'yakShendam. Phone number: 08137574955. E-
mail:yebostephen@gmail.com
2
N. M. Naron LLB, BL LLM (IN-VIEW) is a Lecturer, Department of Legal Studies, Plateau State Polytechnic Barkin Ladi. Phone number: 08136433038. E-
mail:nnaantoegoer@gmail.com
3
W. S. GwankatLLB, BL, LLM (Uni-Jos) is aLecturer, Department of Legal Studies, Plateau State Polytechnic Barkin Ladi. Phone number: 07036348448. E-
mail:walshakgwankat.wg@gmail.com
1
Ajibola, Akinola. “Finally, President Buhari Signs Electoral Act Amendment Bill Into Law” CHANNELS TV, February 2022,
https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.channelstv.com/2022/02/05/breaking-president-buhari-signs-electoral-act-amendment-bill-into-law/amp/. Accessed on
5th May 2023 at 5:47am.
2
Section 151, Electoral Act, 2022.
3
Nwachukwu, John O. “Osun Decides 2022: Live Results, Updates from Governorship Election.” DAILY POST, 16 th July 2022
https://www.google.com/amp/s/dailypost.ng/2022/07/16/osun-decides-2022-live-results-updates-from-governorship-election/%3famp=1. Accessed 6th May
2023 at 7:49am.

THE ELECTORAL ACT, 2010 VERSUS THE ELECTORAL ACT, 2022: NEW INNOVATIONS IN
THE NEW ACT
For a better appreciation of the subject, this section of the paper shall compare the Electoral Act, 2010 and
the Electoral Act, 2022 as well as point out the new innovations in the latter. We shall delve into them under
different heads as follows:
Prompt Disbursementor Release of Election Funds by the Independent National Electoral

Commission Fund to the Commission
Both the Former Act and the New Act made provisions for the establishing of a Fund known as the
Independent National Electoral Commission Fund (hereinafter referred to as “The Fund”), whose purpose
is to disburse money to the Independent National Electoral Commission (hereinafter referred to as INEC or
the Commission), to enable it perform its functions under the Act.4 Under both the Former Act and the New
Act, such monies or funds were and are to be credited periodically into the Fund by way of interest from
investments made from the Fund, or through aid and grants that may accrue to the Commission from time to
5
time, to enable it carry out its statutory functions.
However, the contrast between the Former Act and the New Act can be gleaned from their Sections 3. While
the Former Act provided simply that disbursements from the Fund were to be made in accordance with the
6
rules established by the Commission , the New Act states that election funds that accrue to the Commission
for any general elections are to be released to the Commission not later than one year before the next general
7
election .
Earlier Party Primaries and Submission of List of Candidates

Party primaries are the internal elections of political parties, the purpose of which is to choose a political
party's flag bearer for the general election. Under the Former Act, political parties were meant to conduct
their primary elections not more than sixty (60) days before the date designated for the general elections.
Contrariwise, the New Act makes provision for political parties to conduct their primaries one-hundred-
and-eighty-days (180) days before the next general election8. For ease of reference, Section 29 (1) of the
Electoral Act, 2022 is reproduced thus:
Every political party shall, not later than 180 days before the date appointed for a
general election under this Act, submit to the Commission, in the prescribed Forms,
the list of the candidates the party proposes to sponsor at the elections, who must
have emerged from valid primaries conducted by the political party.9
Flowing from the foregoing, it is crystal clear that under the New Act, political parties are to hold or conduct
their primary elections one-hundred-and-eighty (180) days before the next election, which means they have
ample time to prepare for the election.
4
Section 3 (1), Electoral Act, 2010; Section 3 (1), Electoral Act, 2022.
5
Section 3 (2), Electoral Act, 2010; Section 3 (2), Electoral Act, 2022.
6
Section 3 (3), Electoral Act, 2010.
7
8
9
Ibid.

Cases Challenging the Information Provided by Candidates of Political Parties

In both the Former Act and the New Act, suits or actions could and can be initiated against a political party's
candidate on the ground that such a candidate supplied false information to the Commission.The Former Act
empowered any member of the public to challenge a candidate with a certificate allegedly forged10.
Consequently, anybody had the right to sue a candidate whom he or she reasonably believedto have supplied
false information or a forged document to the Commission. However, under the New Act, not everybody has
the locus standi or right to sue a candidate who is believed to have given information that is false, or supplied
any false document to the Independent National Electoral Commission. In contrast to the Former Act, the
11
New Act provides that only an aspirant (italicized for emphasis) who participated in the primaries of his
political party who has reasonable grounds to believe that any information given by his political party's
candidate in the affidavit or any document submitted by that candidate in relation to his constitutional
requirements to contest the election is false, may file a suit at the Federal High Court against that candidate
12
seeking a declaration that the information contained in the affidavit is false.
It is worthy to note that under the Former Act, the Federal High Court, the High Court of a State or the High
Court of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), all of which are same-level Courts or Courts of coordinate
jurisdiction, had the requisite jurisdiction to entertain suits challenging the genuineness or authenticity of
the information and or the document supplied by a candidate to the Commission.13 In the New Act 14 the
Federal High Court is the Court vested with the exclusive jurisdiction to entertain pre-election matters
bordering on the genuineness or otherwise of the information and or document supplied by a political party's
candidate to the Commission.
Legalization of Electronic Voting and Transmitting of Election Results

The Smart Card Reader (hereinafter referred to as “SCR” or “SCRs”) was introduced in the 2015 general
election, for the purpose of registering and authenticating voters who had their Permanent Voter Cards
(PVCs). The Commission promoted the SCR as a tool/device to checkmate or curtail electoral fraud and to
15
enhance the integrity of the electoral process. But, in the Former Act, no provision was made for Smart
Card Readers to be used for registering and or authenticating voters. The New Act16 has therefore legalized
the SCRs, for electronic accreditation of voters via fingerprint authentication or facial authentication upon
presentation of their voter cards.
By virtue of Section 62 (2) of the Electoral Act, 2022, the Commission shall compile, maintain and update a
National Electronic Register of Election Results as a distinct database or repository of polling unit results, to
be kept in electronic format by the Commission at its national headquarters.
10
11
12
Ibid.
13
Ibid at 10.
14
Ibid at 11.
15
Adebowale-Tambe, Nike, and AzeezatAdedigba. “#NigeriaDecides2019: Card Readers Remain a Challenge.” Premium
Times, February 23, 2019, https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/315393-nigeriadecides2019-card-readers-
remain-a-challenge.html?tztc=1. Accessed on 7th May 2023 at 4:00pm.
16
Sections 47 and 50 (2), Electoral Act, 2022.

Eligibility of Political Appointees as Delegates or Candidates of Political Parties

Under Section 84 (12) of the New Act, any person who is holding a political office can be eligible to
participate in a political party's primary election as a delegate or as a candidate only upon vacating or
resigning from that office or position. In other words, such a political appointee must resign from or vacate
his or her office or position, in order to participate in a political party's primary election, convention or
congress either as a candidate or as a delegate.17 By virtue of Section 84 (12), no political appointee at any
level shall be a voting delegate or be voted for at the Convention or Congress of any political party for the
purpose of the nomination of candidates for any election.18
Physically Disabled and Blind Electorates

In Section 56 (1) of the Former Act, blind people or people in varying states of physical disability could be
19
assisted in the election at their polling units. In the same vein, the New Act provides for visually-impaired
and physically-disabled voters to be assisted during election at their polling unit, by any person whom they
choose and the Commission shall take reasonable steps to ensure that such persons are assisted and provided
with suitable means of communication such as braille, large embossed print, electronic devices, sign
language interpretation, or off-site voting in appropriate cases. It is apposite to reproduce the provision as
follows:
54.(1) A Voter with visual impairment or other form of disability whois otherwise
unable to distinguish symbol or who suffers from any other physical disability may
be accompanied into the polling unit by a person chosen by him or her and that person
shall, after informing the Presiding officer of the disability,be permitted to
accompany the voter into the voting compartment and assist the voter to make his or
her mark in accordance with the procedure prescribed by the Commission.
(2) The Commission shall take reasonable steps to ensure that persons with
disabilities, special needs and vulnerable persons are assisted at the polling place by
the provision of suitable means of communication, such as Braille, large embossed
print, electronic devices, sign language interpretation, or offsite voting in
20
appropriate cases.
Arising from the foregoing provisions, it is deducible that Section 54 of the Electoral Act, 2022 is in pari
materia with Section 56 of the Electoral Act, 2010. Put in another way, both provisions are saying the same
thing, with some variations, howsoever slight, in their subsections (1):First, the drafters of Section 56 (1) of
the Former Act used the phrase 'A voter who is blind…' while in Section 54 (1) of the New Act the phrase 'A
voter with visual impairment…' is used. Basically, the word 'blind' is more specific or limited solely to a
voter's complete inability to see, or total loss of vision, whereas the phrase 'visual impairment' is more all-
encompassing, as it refers not merely to complete blindness, butextends to varying levels of eye defects or
23
vision loss.
17
Ogun, Festus. “Key Provisions of Electoral Act 2022”. The Cable, 19 April 2022, https://www.thecable.ng/review-key-
provisions-of-electoral-act-2022. Accessed 7th May 2023
18
19
20
Ibid.
21
“In pari materia means on the same subject.” LAW INSIDER, https://www.lawinsider.com/dictionary/in-pari-materia.
Accessed on 10th May 2023 at 5:01pm.
22
“Blind” DICTIONARY.COM,https://www.dictionary.com/browse/blind. Accessed on 15th May 2023.
23
Mandal, Ananya. “What is visual impairment?” NEWS MEDICAL & LIFE SCIENCES, 5th June 2019, https://www.news-
medical.net/health/What-is-visual-impairment.aspx. Accessed on 15th May 2023.

Redefinition of Over-voting
By virtue of Section 51 of the New Act, over-voting has been redefined. Over-voting will now be said to
have occurred when the total number of votes cast in a polling unit exceeds the total number of accredited
voters. Therefore, where over-voting is one of the grounds24 upon which a Petitioner's election petition is
25
predicated , the question to be determined or answered by the Honourable Tribunal will be: Did the total
number of votes cast at the alleged or affected polling units exceed the number of accredited voters?
For the purpose of clarity, Section 51 (1) and (2) of the Electoral Act, 2022 provide that:
(1) No voter shall vote for more than one candidate or record more than one vote in favour of
any candidate at any one election.
(2) Where the number of votes cast at an election in any polling unit exceeds the number of
accredited voters in that polling unit, the Presiding officer shall cancel the result of the
26”
election in that polling unit.
27
The Old Act provided that over-voting is when the total votes cast exceed the number of 'registered voters'
in a polling unit, while the New Act defines over-voting as a situation in which the total number of votes cast
exceeds the number of 'accredited voters' in a polling unit.
Review of Declared Results

The decision of a Returning Officer on ballot paper was governed hitherto by Section 68 of the Electoral Act,
2010. It is now provided by Section 65 of the Electoral Act, 2022. Section 68 of the Former Act provided that
the decision of the Returning Officer on any question arising from or relating to unmarked ballot paper,
rejected ballot paper and declaration of scores of candidates and the return of a candidate, was final, subject
to review only by a tribunal or Court in an election petition proceedings under the Act.28
Now, under the New Act, the Returning Officer's decision on ballot paper is provided by Section 65 (1)
which is to the effect that:
The decision of the returning officer shall be final on any question arising from or relating to—
(a) unmarked ballot paper;
(b) rejected ballot paper; and
(c) declaration of scores of candidates and the return of a candidate:
Provided that the Commission shall have the power within seven days to review the
declaration and return where the Commission determines that the said declaration and return
was not made voluntarily or was made contrary to the provisions of the law, regulations and
guidelines, and manual for the election.29
Under the Former Act,30 a Returning Officer's declaration was final and only the Election Petition Tribunal
31
was empowered to review same. In the New Act, power is vested in the Commission itself, to review,
within seven (7) days, a declaration and return that was not made voluntarily, or was made in contravention
24
Section 134 (1) Electoral Act, 2022.
25
Ibid.
26
Section 51 (1) & (2), Electoral Act, 2022.
27
Section 53 (1) & (2), Electoral Act, 2010.
28
29
30
Section 68 (c), Electoral Act, 2010.
31
Ibid at 29.

or violation of the relevant law, guidelines and regulations.32 During the 2023 general election, a scenario
played out in Adamawa State, where the Commission invoked or implemented Section 65 (1) of the
Electoral Act, 2022, by voiding the declaration of APC's Senator Aisha Dahiru (known also as Binani) as
winner of the Adamawa State governorship election, a declaration that was done even before results were
collated completely.33 The declaration was made in outright violation of the provisions of the law,
regulations, guidelines and manual for the election.
Extension of Time for Campaigns

With regard to campaigns by political parties, Section 94 (1) of the Electoral Act, 2022 provides that the
period of campaigning in public by every political party shall commence one-hundred-and-fifty (150) days
before polling day and end twenty-four (24) hours prior to that day. Under the now-repealed Electoral Act,
2010, the period of campaigning in public by every political party was ninety (90) days before polling day
34
and was to end twenty-four (24) hours prior to that day.
Therefore, political parties, under the new Electoral Act, have the right to begin their campaigns one-
hundred-and-fifty(150) days before the date on which the election will be conducted. The innovation here is
that political parties are now permitted to begin their campaigns significantly earlier than the former
Electoral Act allowed. A cursory perusal of Section 94 (1) of the Electoral Act, 2022 and Section 99 (1) of the
Electoral Act, 2010 would reveal that, at the moment, political parties have sixty (60) additional days for
campaigning.
Pre-election or Post-election Death of a Candidate

In the event that a political party's candidate or flag bearer dies before the election date, the Commission now
has the power to, within fourteen (14) days after that candidate's death, fix a new date for the election.35
Section 34 (1) of the New Act provides that:
If after the time for the delivery of nomination paper and before the commencement of the poll, a
nominated candidate dies, the Chief National Electoral Commissioner shall, being satisfied of the
fact of the death, countermand the poll in which the deceased candidate was to participate and the
Commission shall appoint some other convenient date for the election within 14 days.
Furthermore, by virtue of Section 34 (3) of the New Act, where the candidate of a political party dies after the
commencement of the election, but before the conclusion of the election and announcement of the final
result, the Commission, when it is duly satisfied that the candidate has indeed died, has the power to suspend
the election for not more than twenty-one (21) days. It provides as follows:
If after the commencement of polls and before the announcement of the final result and declaration
of a winner, a candidate dies—
32
Ibid at 29.
33
“BREAKING: Nigerian Electoral Commission, INEC Declares Announcement of Binani as Adamawa Governor-Elect As Null and Void” SAHARA
REPORTERS, April 16, 2023, saharareporters.com/2023/04/16/breaking-nigerian-electoral-commission-inec-declares-announcement-binani-adamawa.
Accessed on 9th May 2023.
34
35

(a) the Commission shall, being satisfied of the fact of the death, suspend the election for a
period not more than 21 days; and
(b) in the case of election into a legislative House, the election shall start a fresh and the political
party whose candidate died may, if it intends to continue to participate in the election,
conduct a fresh primary within 14days of the death of its candidate and submit the name of a
new candidate to the Commission to replace the dead candidate:
Provided that in the case of presidential or gubernatorial or Federal Capital Territory Area
Council election, the running mate shall continue with the election and nominate a new
36
running mate.
Under the Former Act, the Commission had the power, by virtue of Section 36 (1), to fix a convenient date
for the election within fourteen (14) days in the event of the death of a political party's candidate. It provided
that:
If after the time for the delivery of nomination paper and before the commencement of the
poll, a nominated candidate dies, the Chief National Electoral Commissioner or the Resident
Electoral Commissioner shall, being satisfied of the fact of the death, countermand the poll
in which the deceased candidate was to participate and the Commission shall appoint some
37
other convenient date for the election within 14 days.
Under the New Act, the Commission now has the power to suspend theelection and fix a new date within
fourteen (14) days of the candidate's death.In the case ofa nominated candidate who dies after the
commencement of the election and before the final result is announced and the winner is declared, INEC is
empowered to suspend the election for a period not exceeding twenty-one (21) days.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A side-by-side perusal or a combined of reading of the Old Act and the New Act would reveal, without a
shred of equivocation, that the New Act is an improvement on the Old Act. Undoubtedly, a holistic
implementation of the New Act will boost the average Nigerian's confidence in the electoral process,
thereby reducing drastically the problem of voter apathy, i.e., poor participation or non-participation in
elections. The innovations of the new Electoral Act, as are glaring in its provisions hereinbefore discussed,
will enable the Commission, the political parties and their respective candidates to be better-equipped for
elections, going forward. On the whole, it is recommended that:
1. The Commission should have experts who will work in advance, by installing firewall
application(s) to prevent hackers from hacking the INEC Portal successfully, with the aim of
manipulating election results.
2. The Commission should make the BVAS (Bimodal Voter Accreditation System) more accessible
readily to political parties and their candidates who are desirous of inspecting the machines, to
avoid a repeat of the scenario38 that played out in the aftermath of the 2023 Presidential polls w h e r e
the Commission obtained a Court Order to enable it reconfigure the BVAS before any party could
inspect the BVAS. There is no gainsaying that such a reconfiguration is capable of making it
difficult, if not impossible, for a Petitioner to prove his or her election petition.
36
37
38
Ameh,Ejekwonyilo. “Appeal Court to rule on INEC's application to reconfigure BVAS as Obi opposes request.” Premium Times, March 2023,
https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/586669-appeal-court-to-rule-on-inecs-application-to-reconfigure-bvas-as-obi-opposes-request.html Accessed on 15th
May 2023.

3. The Commission should, when and where necessary, update the software of the BVAS, to forestall
malfunction. What this entails is that the Commission should enhance the technology behind the
BVAS and provide adequate training for its staff, to be well-equipped in their usage of BVAS.
BIBLOGRAPHY
ONLINE SOURCES
1. Adebowale-Tambe, Nike, and AzeezatAdedigba. “#NigeriaDecides2019: Card Readers Remain a
Challenge.”Premium Times, February 23, 2019, https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-
news/315393-nigeriadecides2019-card-readers-remain-a-challenge.html?tztc=1. Accessed on 7th
May 2023 at 4:00pm.
2. Ajibola, Akinola. “Finally, President Buhari Signs Electoral Act Amendment Bill Into Law”
C H A N N E L S T V , F e b r u a r y 2 0 2 2 ,
https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.channelstv.com/2022/02/05/breaking-president-buhari-
th
signs-electoral-act-amendment-bill-into-law/amp/. Accessed on 5 May 2023 at 5:47am.
3. Ameh, Ejekwonyilo. “Appeal Court to rule on INEC's application to reconfigure BVAS as Obi
opposes request.” Premium Times, March 2023, https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/586669-
appeal-court-to-rule-on-inecs-application-to-reconfigure-bvas-as-obi-opposes-request.html
th
Accessed on 15 May 2023.
4. “Blind” DICTIONARY.COM, https://www.dictionary.com/browse/blind Accessed on 15th May
2023 at 6:00pm.
5. “BREAKING: Nigerian Electoral Commission, INEC Declares Announcement of Binani as
Adamawa Governor-Elect As Null and Void” SAHARA REPORTERS, April 16, 2023,
saharareporters.com/2023/04/16/breaking-nigerian-electoral-commission-inec-declares-
th
announcement-binani-adamawa. Accessed on 9 May 2023.
6. “In pari materia means on the same subject.” LAW INSIDER,

https://www.lawinsider.com/dictionary/in-pari-materia. Accessed on 10th May 2023 at 5:01pm.
th
7. Mandal, Ananya. “What is visual impairment?” NEWS MEDICAL & LIFE SCIENCES, 5 June
th
2019, https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-visual-impairment.aspx Accessed on 15
May 2023.
8. Nwachukwu, John O. “Osun Decides 2022: Live Results, Updates from Governorship Election.”
DAILY POST, 16th July 2022 https://www.google.com/amp/s/dailypost.ng/2022/07/16/osun-
th
decides-2022-live-results-updates-from-governorship-election/%3famp=1 Accessed 6 May 2023
at 7:49am.
9. Ogun, Festus. “Key Provisions of Electoral Act 2022”. The Cable, 19 April 2022,
https://www.thecable.ng/review-key-provisions-of-electoral-act-2022 Accessed 7th May 2023.
STATUTES
9. Electoral Act, 2022.
10. Electoral Act, 2010.

Ecclesiastical Confusions, the Enlightenment And Socio-economic Development in Western Christendom: Implications For Churches In Nigeria
ECCLESIASTICAL CONFUSIONS, THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND SOCIO-

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN WESTERN CHRISTENDOM:
IMPLICATIONS FOR CHURCHES IN NIGERIA
Jordan Samson Rengshwat, PhD
University of Jos, Faculty of Arts, Department of Religion and Philosophy
(Email:rengshwatj@unijos.edu.ngJoe50rex@gmail.com Phone: +2348068124729)
ABSTRACT
The church is both a spiritual and human institution. As human institution the medieval church became
entangled in webs of confusion when it became powerful and very confident of itself. The self-confidence
made the church acted in ways contrary to the teachings of Christ. Using the qualitative method this study
looks at the effect of the ecclesiastical confusions oneconomic and social development in Western
Christendom. The study also looks at how the confusions were corrected. Using the cyclical theory as a
guide, the study examines how the narrative relates to the Nigerian setting today. The findings show that: the
confusions of the Western church affected development; the enlightenment (together with the reformation)
checked the confusions in the church; the church in Nigeria is enmeshed in confusions like the medieval
church, as a result development is hampered. The paper recommends that the Nigerian church should be
reined by God's Word and genuine quality education should be sought.
KEY WORDS: Confusion, Development, Ecclesiastical, Enlightenment, Ethos, Implication.
Introduction
The story of the Church in Western Europe from antiquity to the present as it affects matters of development
is quite fascinating. This study takes a panoramic view of the story of Western Christendom from the fourth
century (Anno Domini) to contemporary times to pick up and study issues relating to how confusions in the
church affected economic and social developments. The writer argues that it took the intervention of the
enlightenment and partly enlightened Protestantism to rescue the West from the developmental setback
created by the confusions in the church. Using the cyclical theory of history borrowed from the philosophy
of history, the study sees confusions in Nigerian Christianity that are hampering development similar to
what was obtainable in Western Christendom. The study also tries to reconcile the confusions of the church
in antiquity with contemporary apathy to Christianity in the West and cautions that it is possible for a similar
state of apathy to manifest in Nigerian Christianity if the Nigerian churches do not check the prevailing
confusions in its midst.
The theoretical framework adopted by this study is called cyclical theory of history. This theory was
propounded by French Humanists such as Leonardo Bruni and Louise Le Roy in the sixteenth century and
popularised by Arnold Joseph Toynbee and David Bebbington. This theory sees history as a pattern of cycles
where events merely repeat themselves (Bebbington21-42). This theory is essential for this particular study
as the idea that history repeats itself serves as a bridge between the Western church in antiquity and the
Nigerian churches in contemporary time. In this way the current writer is able to draw implications for the
churches of Nigeria from similar events that took place in Europe in antiquity and Nigeria in contemporary
times. The adoption and application of the cyclical theory of history has freed the current writer from a priori
analysis.
There is at the moment no work known to the current author that has addressed the concern of this paper.
There is no known work that has related rot and decay in the church to the question of economic and social
development in the wider society, particularly as it relates to the Nigerian scenes. Thus this paper has made a
significant contribution to the conversation on how a 'debiblicalized' church can produce confusions that
could negatively affect social and economic development in the wider society. The paper is organised in four

sections. The first section is concern with clarification of an exotic term crafted by the researcher. The
second segment looks at confusions in Western Christendom from the fourth century to the start of the
enlightenment period and how it affected development. The third section dwells on how the enlightenment
and enlightened Protestantism brought about a turning of the tides in the impact of the confusions of the
church on development. Confusions backlash in Western Christendom in contemporary times forms the
fourth segment. Hinging on the cyclical theory of History, the last section looks at the implication of the
narratives for the Nigerian setting.
CLARIFICATION OF TERM
In scholarship introducing essential new terms are permitted and encouraged. In this study the word
'debiblicalized' is adjudged essential for this study by the current researcher. The word is made up of a prefix
'de-' and a familiar word 'biblical'. The prefix 'de-' means removing something (Hornby 391). Thus, the word
'debiblicalize' as used in this context means sidelining the bible and not allowing it to play leading roles in
guiding the church in all areas of life.
CONFUSIONS IN WESTERN CHRISTENDOM AND ITS IMPACT ON ECONOMIC AND

SOCAIAL DEVELOPMENT
The Persecuting Church
The intention of this particular sub-section “The Persecuting church” is not to narrate the story of the
persecution of Christians by Jews and Roman leaders. The story of the persecution of Christians is well
known and can be found in many comprehensive works on the story of Christianity such as John Foster's The
First Advance and the anthology edited by Tim Dowley titled The History of Christianity. The intension of
the section is to unravel the confusions that made the persecuted church became the persecutor even when
Jesus admonished Christians to be as wise as serpent but as harmless as doves (Matthew 10:16).
When Christianity began it faced persecution from angry Jewish mobs that saw it as an aberrant sect within
Judaism. Later, Roman rulers also persecuted the church in greater measures when it became clear to them
that Christianity was not a sect in Judaism. The details of these persecutions need not delay us here since
they can be found in many existing works as has already been noted. When Constantine became a Christian
he stopped the persecution of the church within his realm and made Christianity a legal religion without
making it a state religion. In this way the church experienced a measure of freedom and gained prestige after
about three hundred years of intermittent and gory persecutions (Hastings 35-38; Foster 69-85).
Many years after the demise of Constantine, the church welded greater power in Western Europe as the
population of the church increased and as more and more prominent people such as Ambrose of Milan
became members of the church (Chadwick 167). The adage “Power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts
absolutely” became apparent in the life of the church after the demise of Constantine. As the church welded
more and more power it became so confident of itself that, without recourse to the teaching of Jesus on being
as harmless as doves (Matthew 10:16), the church that was once persecuted became the persecutor of Jews
(Shindler 249-253) and people of other faiths such as Islam.
The first persecution of Jews by Christians took place in a town called Callinicum situated on the Euphrates
River when in the year 388 AD overzealous Christians burnt a Jewish Synagogue. When the Emperor
Theodosius asked the local bishop to make restitution by providing funds to restore the Synagogue, the
Bishop Ambrose of Milan “[...] persuaded the emperor (against his better judgement) to revoke the
restitution order” (Chadwick 167). In the middle ages, Jews had limited rights in Western Christendom. In
the words of Thomas Aquinas cited in R. W. Southern: “[...] they are subject to perpetual servitude, and their
goods are at the disposition of the ruler; only he must not take from them so much that they are deprived of
the means of life” (17). At the height of the Bubonic plague in Western Christendom, Jews were wrongly
accused of causing the plague. For this many Jews were harassed by the Red Knights, the supposed
defenders of the church (Southern 307-308). The negative attitude of Western Christendom to Jews came to

the fore when Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) killed millions of Jews during the Second World War without any
collective and active resistance from the institutional church. These instances of the treatment of Jews by
Christians in antiquity have deeply affected Christian-Jewish relationships to this day. Jews are by nature
hardworking. The perpetual ill-treatment meted on the Jews in Western Europe over the centuries did not
allow them to contribute their best to economic and social developments in the lands of their sojourn.
The Church's persecution of non-Christians was not limited to Jews. The intermittent crusades which lasted
for two hundred years during the medieval period are stack testimonies of the persecution of Muslims by
Western Christendom. Narratives about each of the crusades need not delay us here. However, it is
important to note that the crusades “[...] cost Europe nearly five million lives” (Houghton 54). During the
two hundred years of the crusades the Church in Western Europe was so confused that “Christendom
seemed unable to realize that the cause of Christ is not to be promoted by the use of the world's weapons”
(Houghton 56). The two centuries of crusades and the millions of people involved as aggressors and victims
obviously affected social and economic developments in both Western Europe and Muslim lands. It also
eternally affected relationships across religious divides in the modern world.
Christendom's persecution of others was not limited to Jews and Muslims. Nonconformist Christians and a
few of the earliest scientists also faced persecution which affected the pace of development in the area of
scientific discoveries. At the height of the church's harassment of those who did not conform to its teachings
war broke out in many parts of Europe (Linder 425-427). In Germany war broke out between Catholics and
Protestants in 1618 and did not stop until 1648 (Linder 427). This war of religion which had its roots in
Christians persecuting Christians affected the pace of development in Europe. In the words of Robert D.
Linder, “France lost many of its most intelligent and hardworking citizens as a result of this act of religious
bigotry [and the] war left Germany culturally, politically, economically and physically devastated” (426-
427).
The Enslaving and Exploiting Church

In Western Christendom the Church of Rome before the Protestant reformation had a firm control over the
lives of people from the cradle to the grave. People then could not practise all kinds of profession. For
example, the Church encouraged agriculture, the study of law, medicine and theology. In contrast, trading
was discouraged. Similarly, freedom of thoughts and expression were limited. Those who thought outside
the box were adjudged heretics. The church's restrictions on trading and on freedom of thoughts and
expressions obviously had its toll on economic development in Western Christendom.
In Africa, Latin missionaries who came to convert the coastal peoples of sub-Saharan Africa did a most
disturbing thing. Once in a while they selected some of their converts and sold them into slavery in order to
get money to do more mission work. In the words of Elizabeth Isichei:
The great weakness of the Christian enterprise in black Africa in the Middle Years was its close
association with the slave trade. There was a basic contradiction between converting Africans and
purchasing them as slaves. [...] Some priests traded in slaves. The church in Angola derived much of
its income by instructing and baptising the enslaved, and the end of the slave trade caused a financial
crisis for the Luanda see. [...] It was a peculiar irony that only Christians could be sold, and that they
could be sold only to Christians (71).
The participation of the Latin Church of Europe in the trans-Atlantic trade severely depopulated and robbed
Africans of able bodied men who should have contributed immensely to development on the continent.
Latin priests used the name of Jesus to exploit Africans. They used the name of Jesus and conversion to
Christianity as bait to get those they could sell into slavery.

The Monastic Church

The roots of asceticism and monasticism could be traced to John the Baptist. Towards the end of the Early
Church period asceticism and monasticism gained popularity. In the medieval period the church encouraged
asceticism and monasticism as a dominant expression of the uttermost commitment to Christ. The biblical
basis for monasticism as practised in Western Christendom during the medieval era is controversial as there
is no direct reference to it anywhere in the New Testament.
As asceticism and monasticism became a way of life for thousands of people in Western Christendom in the
medieval period, society was deprived of wise, enterprising and able bodied men and women who could
have lived in society and contribute to the growth and development of society.
The Superstitious Church: A Market Strategy Targeting the Gullible

The medieval church was known for its superstitious beliefs. Superstitious beliefs were officially promoted
by the church of Western Europe so that gullible Christians could pay money to get prayed for by priests. In
other words, the promotion of superstitions had economic gains for the Church. S.M. Houghton captures
this more succinctly when he writes that:
Heathenism had vanished, but the superstitions of heathenism were retained. People believed in
witchcraft, fairies, and good and bad omens. At Canterbury in England, as in most cathedrals, it was
incredible what a world of bones, skulls, chins, teeth, hands, fingers, and whole arms were preserved
as sacred relics. Shrines, such as that of Thomas Becket, were visited by multitudes, and the priests
or monks in charge of them would produce relics by the hundreds; for example, a finger of the martyr
Stephen, hair of Mary Magdalene, blood of the apostles John and Thomas, a lock of the Virgin
Mary's hair, a fragment of Christ's seamless robe. In Gloucestershire was shone Christ's blood in a
vial. To support the doctrine of transubstantiation, bleeding wafers were here and there exhibited.
Imposture, in fact, was everywhere. The power of the Church was, in part, built upon it. And by it the
Church became enormously wealthy as the simple-minded parted with their money (76).
THE TURNING OF THE TIDES:THE ENLIGHTENMENT TO THE RESCUE

A 'debiblicalized' Christianity in the Medieval epoch dragged Western Christendom into the quack mire of
confusionsand retrogression in nearly all spheres of life. These dark pages in the history of Western
Christendom were interrupted by the rise of the enlightenment. The enlightenment was one of five phases in
European culture. From antiquity to the present, Europe passed through five cultural epochs namely:
classical antiquity, enlightenment, romanticism, modernism and postmodernism.
During the period of classical antiquity, Europeans think and behave in much the same way as any primitive
society. They gave birth to many children, they lived communally and believed in divination, witchcrafts,
fairies, bad omen, demon possessions and exorcism. The period of classical antiquity was also a period of
low literacy and little scientific knowledge. The church of the medieval period was a part of this cultural
conundrum and deficit (Dooyeweerd 10, 73-76). For much of this period the Bible was found in only a few
cathedrals, so not many Christians knew what the Bible said on many of the questions they raised. It is no
wonder that many aspects of church teachings and church life did not agree with the Bible. When the Latin
Vulgate (a most distorted Bible translation) emerged, its application led the church further and further away
from Biblical Christianity. Even when there was a copy of the Bible the priests depended on the traditions of
the church more than what the Bible teaches. It is no wonder that the church found itself enmeshed in
confusions which grossly and negatively impacted societal development. It is in this light that S.M.
Houghton echoed that “Dark, very dark, is the picture of the Church in the early 16th century” (76).
It was in this context that the Enlightenment (a culture of radical rationalism based on reason and scientific
discoveries) emerged. The enlightenment ethos centred on and revolved around the understanding that
through rational thinking and scientific discoveries mankind can enter an epoch of utopia characterised by

peace, health and abundance (Grenz 2-4). The Enlightenment was characterised by radical rationalism
which was incompatible with Medieval Christian worldview (Nash 238).
One of the prominent Enlightenment philosophers in the 18th century was Voltaire, a French Deist (Thomson
124-125). His real name was Francois-Marie Arouet (Heimann 464). Voltaire did much to destroy the
church. He looked down history lane and argued that in its wars of religion in the world the church had killed
more people than any catastrophe since the world began. Voltaire was not the only spokesman of the
Enlightenment, the English Edward Gibbon also gave the Medieval church a swipe. He accused the church
of highhanded intolerance, gross superstitions and barbarous fanaticism which brought only retrogression
and pains to Europe (Heimann 470). Alan Schreck also notes that “Catholic Humanists Erasmus of
Rotterdam and John Colet of England wrote openly, lamenting the spiritual confusion and decay in the
Catholic Church” (76).
As the enlightenment philosophers continued to expose the ills of the Church through their writings, they
also “[...] blamed the church for the loss of the genuinely civilising effects of the classical world so admired
by both Protestant and Catholic philosophers” (Heimann 470). In effect the spirit of anti-clericalism and
anti-church grew in Western Europe. This in turn led many Europeans to abandon the church. It was this
scenario that drew the attention of the church to re-evaluate its systems. In this way the Enlightenment
culture rescued the church from the confusions that have so affected development in Europe.
Enlightenment philosophers were not the only critics of the confusions that plagued the Medieval Church.
Alan Schreck observes that Catholic Humanists were unhappy about the decay in the Catholic Church
before the rise of the enlightenment (70). Similarly, before the emergence of the enlightenment,
Protestantism lambasted the church for all the ills associated with it. Schreck notes that “The condition of the
church had reached the point at which only the deadly serious, fiery temperament of Martin Luther would
ignite a reformation [...]” (71). Martin Luther, the German reformer, called the quest for wealth by the
members of the senior clergy robbery. In Luther's words, selected and edited by Henry Bettenson:
Now this devilish state of things is not only open robbery and deceit and the prevailing of the gates of
hell, but it is destroying the very life and soul of Christianity [...] If we rightly hangs thieves and
behead robbers, why do we leave the greed of Rome unpunished? [For] Rome is the greatest thief
and robber that has ever appeared on earth, or ever will; and all in the holy name of Church and St
peter... (Bettenson 275).
In this way Protestantism tried to reform church life and thoughts along the line of scripture and church
traditions began to take a back seat. This, together with the growth of cities, encouraged trade and trading
which was hitherto discouraged by the medieval church. The development of trade helped Europe to
develop phenomenally. David Jowitt puts this more clearly in these words:
The importance that Protestantism attached to lay education, including the education of women, and
to making use of God-given talents and resources, gave a new impetus to social development, and it
has been argued that, for good or ill, Protestantism facilitated the rise of capitalism in Western
Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (142).
Corroborating David Jowitt, James Atkinson notes that: “Lasting social, political and economic changes
followed the Reformation, and to some extend shaped it” (367). Enlightened Protestantism in Britain also
discouraged all forms of slavery. In this way the trans-Atlantic slave trade which took about 400 years (like
the duration of the period of slavery of the Israelites in Egypt) was painstakingly brought to an end by the
Evangelicals in Britain.

Although the reformers and the reformation did much to check rots and decays in the church, it did not take
long for the reformers and the reformation to also found themselves entangled by some of the evils they
sought to check in the institutional church of the medieval period. For example, the reformers and some
Protestants were found persecuting others like the Anabaptists (Thomson 43-44). While the reformers
called for reforms in church life and in the teachings of the church, the enlightenment philosophers went
further and made a satirical caricature of Christianity and made a radical call to all Europeans to
abandonment the church all together. The caricature and the call to abandon the church caught the attention
of both the Roman Catholics and the Protestants. The like of Voltaire's attack on the church did much to
make the church shake off her confusions and allow the gains of the reformation in the area of social and
economic development to be permanent. The enlightenment forced the church to lose a measure of its grips
on Europeans. The church no longer controlled the life of everyone from the cradle to the grave, as such
there were no more restrictions on commerce and scientific developments. In the end the enlightenment
ethos became a force for the good of Christendom.
CONFUSION BACKLASH IN CONTEMPORARY WESTERN EUROPE

The impact of the confusions and decay in the medieval church led to apathy and secularisation in France
(Detzler 516-517). This gradually spread to other parts of Europe including Czech lands (Walters 283). The
industrial revolution which was, in a way, a child of the enlightenment led to urbanisation in England. The
Church of England was too slow in her response to the growth of cities, as a result “The new urban masses
consequently grew up very often beyond the care of the Church of England. There was no room for them in
church, and all too often no clergy to care for their spiritual needs” (Briggs 520). The masses outside the
church in industrial cities did not bother to organised themselves into congregations because doing so
required the act of parliament, and also partly because many English people were fed up with some of the
human failures or confusions of the institutional church.
In no time the ideals of secularisation which began in France spread to other parts of European cities and
Europe became a secular haven. Secularisation set the stage for many Europeans to abandon the church
from the second half of the twentieth century. This is observes by David Jowitt thus:
In the Western world the contemporary era saw a further, and at times sharply accelerated decline of
the Christian churches and the corresponding growth of secularism. Attendance at services fell, the
Bible was read less and less, fewer people seriously prayed, fewer Catholics went to confession, the
number of baptisms and church weddings dropped (268).
Although many Christians in Europe have abandoned the institutional church, some of them still identify
themselves as Christians. They are Christians outside the church. They are churchless Christians who have
introduced a form of Christianity that might be called Churchless Christianity. All these chains of events are
in some ways remote consequences of the confusions and decay of the Medieval Church.
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN CHRISTIANITY IN WESTERN CHRISTENDOM IN ANTIQUITY

AND CHRISTIANITY IN NIGERIA IN CONMEPORARY TIMES
Christianity is popular in Nigeria because Nigerians are notoriously religious. This is a strength which
should be encouraged. However, Christianity in Nigeria has some characteristics that are similar to the
Christianity of Western Christendom. Nigerian Christianity has many similar features with the Christianity
of Western Christendom because the cyclical theory of history states that history merely repeats itself
(Bebbington 18).Some church denominations, ministries and pastors in Nigeria exploit their members like
the medieval church did. Some pastors “[...] charged their unsuspecting clienteles according to the type and
seriousness of the prayer request asked for [...] Some Christians (pastors inclusive), see nothing wrong or
unchristian in giving and demanding for bribes, to get promoted to whatever ecclesiastical level” (Wotogbe-
Weneka 23-24). This scenario of “accepting money for spiritual services” found among some churches and
ministries in Nigeria is very similar to the selling and purchase of holy things that was common at various

epochs in the confusions that characterized the Medieval church (Schreck 49, 68-69).
Belief in witchcraft and other superstitions were characteristics of life in Nigeria before Christianity was
introduced (Fleck 271-273). The presence of white colonial agents and white missionaries in Nigeria
discouraged thoughts about witchcraft as such thoughts were seen as primitive (Maxey and Danfulani 6). In
contrast, promoting or condoning superstitious beliefs is a characteristic of Christianity in Nigeria in
contemporary times similar to what was obtainable in Western Christendom in antiquity. Evidence abounds
of accusations and counter accusations of witchcraft among Christians in Nigeria today (Danfulani 21). This
has produced the scenario where city dwellers are afraid of visiting their villages for fear of witches and
villagers are afraid of going to the cities to see their relations because they are afraid of secret societies
(Tsado 1). It seems, some churches in Nigeria promote superstitious beliefs as a market strategy in order to
get those who would patronise them for prayer and other religious wares.
Christianity in Nigeria has a tendency to splinter. Today we have many splinter groups in Christianity in
Nigeria, each competing for space and membership in the religious market place of the nation. This
competition for space and membership has bred unhealthy rivalry which has resulted to court actions and
Christian fanaticism. This development is inimical to unity in the body of Christ and development (CAN 38-
39). Rivalry among indigenous Christians in Nigeria has its roots in the rivalry that was brazenly displayed
by Protestant and Catholic missionaries to Nigeria. The Catholic-Protestant rivalry was very pronounced in
South-Eastern Nigeria from the 1900 (Crampton 177). It seems, indigenous Christians in Nigeria inherited
the spirit of rivalry from their European forebears but added their own ferment to it. Thus, rivalry among
Christians in Nigeria is so common that it often manifest itself in verbal and political persecution. Christians
also sometimes verbally persecute people of other religions(Pwakim 54-55, 62). One way in which
Christians persecute Muslims today is to refer to Islam or Muslims as anti-Christ and enemy (Santos vii,
Godspecial 128).By this tendency Christianity has not translated itself sufficiently to be a force of national
cohesion necessary for development.
It was in the context of Christian-Muslim rivalry and an age-long verbal persecution across board (Pwakim
54-55, 62)that in 1991 the Reinhard Bonke evangelistic team insisted on staging a 'crusade' in the city of
Kano even when there were red alerts that there could be danger. The consistent refusal of the state
government top officials to allow the crusade take place at the Race Course was sufficient signal that the
gate-keepers of the state did not want the crusade to take place there. Some months leading up to the planned
'crusade', “[...] Muslims were denied the use of the Race Course for one of their celebrations” (Boer 41). If
the attitude of government officials did not show any red alert to the planners of the 'crusade', the prevailing
rumours about a planned protest on the eve of the attack (EPL 18-19) would have been sufficient for the
'crusaders' to relocate to a neighbouring state. The planners or the Bonke 'crusade' also forgot how in 1980
the Evangelist Paul Gunen Gindiri and members of the New Life Gospel Team were stoned intermittently
for more than three hours at a town called Shahuci in Kano State (Lar 181). The 'crusade' planners failed to
pick and utilize the red alert; and also failed to listen to the provision of scripture in such circumstance
(Matthew 10:14; Luke 10:10-11). In the wake of the mayhem that followed, the economic life of many
Christians in Kano was badly affected as “[...] a great deal of properties was lost [sic]” (Danfulani, Datiri and
Ajang 18). It is difficult to have the actual figure of the loss, as Christians then did not give much attention to
post-crises statistics (Lipdo 117-118).
IMPLICATIONS OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CHRISTIANITY IN NIGERIA WHICH

ARE SIMILAR TO THE CHRISTIANITY OF WESTERN CHRISTENDOM
There is a blatantly unhealthy rivalry among Church denominations and between Christianity and other
religious groups in Nigeria. Umar Habila Dadem Danfulani captures this scenario well in the following
words:

The concept of popular religious culture has translated into a fierce competition for religious space
between Christianity and Islam, with traditional and other cults boiling-over the fringes from time to
time. Christianity and Islam are in a mortal combat over the 'soul' of Nigeria, as each demonises the
other as Satanic/devilish. There is a whole scale demonization of Islam, AICs, Roman Catholics,
Protestant denominations and other non-members of the Pentecostal Fellowship of Nigeria [...] as
spiritually dead organizations by the Pentecostal movement in Nigeria (Danfulani 20).
This state of affairs is very similar to what was obtainable in the medieval church (Mbachirin 141). This is in
keeping with the cyclical theory of history which tells us that “Each past event [...] recurs” (Bebbington 35).
The unhealthy rivalry among Catholics and Protestants seen in Western Europe in antiquity is repeating
itself in Nigeria and is badly affecting inter-denominational and inter-religious harmony. Obviously,
unhealthy rivalry of any sort deprives a society of the peace and tranquillity necessary for development.
Unhealthy rivalry hampers business partnership among geographical locations or people of different
denominational or religious divides.
In Western Europe, among many other obnoxious ills, the church became a means by which the masses were
exploited for the benefit and enjoyment of the clergy who led luxurious lifestyles (Schreck 64). The
exploitation of the masses by the church was part of the reason for which the church was affected by the
French revolution. The church hierarchy was seen as collaborating with the state to make life difficult for the
masses. The exploitation of church members through simony, taxes, indulgence and purchase of relics of
saints affects the masses' capacity for wealth creation (Schreck 68-71). Where there is no wealth creation
there can be no economic development.
CONCLUSION
Some beliefs and practices of Christianity in Western Christendom in antiquity such as simony, promotion
of superstitions and unhealthy rivalry hampered the pace of development in Europe. God used the
enlightenment to rescue Western Europe from the underdevelopment that was a concomitant of the practices
of Christianity in the medieval period. These beliefs and practices that hampered development in Western
Europe are also evident in Nigerian Christianity. This means that, according to the cyclical theory of history,
the pace of development will also be hampered in Nigeria if simony, superstitions and unhealthy rivalry
among churches are not addressed. To this effect, the current writer recommends that quality education,
more than what is available today, should be encouraged at all levels to enable Christians know how to
handle superstitions, greedy men of God and unhealthy rivalry as they understand the Bible in greater
measure by themselves and for themselves. Furthermore, superstitious beliefs, simony and unhealthy
rivalry which are antithetical with development should be stigmatised and discouraged by all Christians and
church organisations.
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The Emergence, Growth and Decline of Christianity In Egypt A.d. 100- A.D. 800: Implications For Nigerian Christian
THE EMERGENCE, GROWTH AND DECLINE OF CHRISTIANITY IN

EGYPT A.D. 100- A.D. 800: IMPLICATIONS FOR NIGERIAN
CHRISTIAN
BULLAMA SAMUEL BULUS PhD
Karl Kumm University Vom
Department of religion and philosophy
08034268672
bulamasamuel@gmail.com
Abstract
This research work examined the study on the Emergence, Growth and decline of Christianity in Egypt
within a periodic of A.D 100 – A.D 800, and its implications to the Nigerian Christian. Christianity in
Nigeria is also faced with marginalization in appointment of workers and government appointees,
persecutions and killings, and internal crisis. In this kind of situation, Nigeria Christians need to learn from
the Egypt experience to avoid possible eradication of Christianity in Nigeria. This research work uses
secondary data. The study discovered that Christianity came to Egypt before the coming of Islam but Islam
became a dominant religion as a results of ecumenical crisis, Christianity encounter with Islam and heavy
tax duty and ban on construction of churches. Additionally, The following implications were drawn; it
reveals a similitude of the marginalization of Egypt in the way the government of the day appoints a Muslim
dominated cabinet and even a Muslim president and vice president. The study contributes to the
comprehension of history of early Christianity in Egypt and also reawakens the consciousness of the
Nigerian Christians to the eminent implications.. It revealed an urgent need for the Nigerian Christians to
pray and evangelize the unreached people group and finally the believers must live in the world with a
difference as the light of the world.
Key words: Emergence, Growth, decline, Christianity in Egypt, Implications, Nigerian Christian
Introduction:
Christianity was established in North Africa during the times of the apostles; it spread rapidly, won the
allegiance of the overwhelming majority of the population, and contributed most significantly to the
ministry of Christian church during the first five centuries. From its ranks came able leaders, teachers,
apologist, theologians, and writers, who witnessed to their faith with a dynamism that eventually won the
support of the roman state, causing Christianity to become the predominant religion of the Greco-Roman
civilization (Peter Falk 23). The church experienced one of the most disastrous calamities of its history in the
invasion of North Africa during the seventh and eighth centuries. It was also specifically recorded that the
church survived with much difficulty especially in Egypt, as a result of the fall of the Roman Empire and the
decay of the Greco-Roman Civilization (23).The effort of the church to minister in Northern Africa was
confronted with opposition by the Muslims and the Arabian invaders, thereby limiting the effort of the
Christian ministry from accomplishing much until later centuries.
With all the aforementioned, it is evident that the Christian missionary efforts in Northern
Africa was confronted by challenges,which has lead led to the declined of the church. It is in
view of this that this study seek to investigate Emergence, Growth and decline of
Christianity in Egypt within a periodic scope of A.D 100 – A.D 800, and its implications to
the Nigerian Christians in a time like this in the life of the church in Nigeria where the
church has faced a stiff opposition from government as a results of the government policies
and Islamic influences.. More to that, Nigeria as a country is also confronted with the issues
of banditry, kidnapping and terrorism that is making life unbearable for the church.

HISTORICAL FACTS ON THE EMERGENCE AND GROWTH OF CHRISTIANITY IN EGYPT

It is certain that the gospel came very early to Egypt, Particularly to Alexandria; but it is not known when the
earliest church came into existence (28). Christianity won its first adherence among the God-fearing people
of Alexandria. Reliable records concerning the existence of Christianity in Egypt date to the episcopate of
Demetrius of Alexandria (A.D 189-232) (Adolp Harnack 1908). As it spread in Egypt, it came into contact
with people of cultural differences. On the one hand the Greek-speaking population of the Delta (People by
the river sides) was acquainted with the Septuagint; they were influenced by Greek philosophy and platonic
ideals in harmony for the interest for learning, the Catechetical School of Alexandria offered theological
instruction to Christians and prepared them to confront the population with the Christian message. This
missionary endeavor was mostly directed toward them and less to win the population of the interior.(1908)
The language and cultural difference between the people of the Delta and those of the interior hindered the
natural diffusion of the gospel among the people of the Middle and Upper Egypt, where the Coptic language,
the dominion of the popular Egyptian religion, and the Old Egyptian religion stood in the way. The
Christians in The bias Under the emperor Septimius Sever us, were persecuted following the edict of the
emperor of A.D. 202 forbidding conversions to Christianity and Judaism, indicating, that Christianity had
advanced into Upper Egypt as early as the later parts of the second century (Falk 26) The persecution was
largely confined to Egypt and North Africa. Dispersion through the persecution led to further expansion; the
Coptic language was employed and the church took a national character (Falk 27).The following methods
employed, aided the Growth of Christianity in Egypt:
Educational Pattern
In order to strengthen the church and combat the false teaching of the Gnostics, who presented the Christian
faith to the intellectuals of Alexandria as a superior Philosophy, Christian instruction was emphasized. This
led to the establishment of the catechetical school of Alexandria, which played a significant role in the life of
the church. Pantaenus founded the School about A. D. 180,. Clement of Alexandria Succeeded himand gave
able leadership to the school as well as rendering service in the church. He was a gifted writer whose
“Exhortation to the heathen” is an apologetic treatise; his “instructor” is the first treatise on Christian
conduct and present valuable information on the custom of the age; and his “Stromata” is a collection of
profound thoughts on religions and theology (Fred 45)
In 203 clement was force to leave by the persecution and he was succeeded by Origin, although his father
was a martyr for the Faith, yet he remained committed to the work and his works have been valuable
theological systems for the church throughout the centuries. Origen devoted much attention to biblical
textual criticism and exegesis. Among his products are the Hexapala, giving the Hebrew and four parallel
Greek Translations of the Old Testament; and a series of evaluable commentaries. Origen's thoughts and
methods completed the process that had long been interpreting Christian truths in terms of Hellenistic
thinking and gave the Christian system of thought the fullest scientific standing. He spent the last years of his
life in Ceaserea, teaching, writing, and preaching. He died probably in 251 as a result of suffering during the
persecution under Decius (Falk 30)
Persecution and Growth:

The Church went through a number of persecutions. During the persecutions under Septimius in 202,
Clement and many other Christians were forced into exile, whereas Origen's father and others became
martyrs of the faith. Decius passed an edict against Christianity around 250-251 and this edict was said to
have caused many Christians to compromise their faith by purchasing statement attesting that they had
burned incense incompliance with the Roman religion; thereby, securing safety from persecution (30).
When the persecution was over, the more pious members of the church regarded those who had denied their
faith with disdain. This attitude caused considerable tension in the Church ( Devies 115).

Dionysius who was the bishop of Alexandria under this persecution along with others was exiled for
courageously witnessing to their faith in 250 and again in 258 under Valerian. The basic cause for the
persecution seemsto have been a pestilence that drove the terrified people to the altar of the gods and led to
hysteria against Christians (115).
With this it was assumed that basically because the people have neglected the gods for Christianity, probably
that was what led to the pestilence and the only way to avert it is to go back to the altar of the gods and pay
them homage and to effectively do this they were made to belief that Christianity is an enemy that needs to
be attacked and they were indeed hostile to the Christians and this made the persecution to become more
fierce against the Christians with the hope of making the church loose her administrative and spiritual
leadership and thereby losing her ministry (Robert Cornevin 68).
Again one of the most severe persecutions of the church came in 303 during Diocletion's reign, having been
instigated by his son-in-law MaximinDaia. The persecution was intensified in 311. After Maximin's death
the persecution was stopped and two years later (313) Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, granting
freedom of worship to Christians (Falk 31).With this, it is discovered that, the persecution also has its own
positive effect at the long run on the growth and stability of the church through the edicts of Milan.
Monastic Emergence
Monasticism was unknown in the first and second centuries of the Christian era. During the third century,
asceticism began to influence many church members. Ascetic ideals grew in the church. Men and women,
without leaving their homes were practicing asceticism. The persecutions forced Christians to seek refuge in
unfrequented places. There in isolation they were able to worship God in peace and seek intimate fellowship
with him, this furthered the monastic spirit (Petry 280-281).
As a result of the persecution, the gospel was proclaimed in new regions and many people came into the
church. As the church grew, the teaching and perfecting of the believers was not fully accomplished. Since
the condition in the church did not meet the ideals of the pious, they moved towards a more ascetic life (Falk
31). Another factor in the development of monasticism was the ascetic concept of the world. To them, the
world was filled with sights that offended Christian morality. From such influence the ascetics desired to
flee. Some people wanted to be free from the burden of civic obligations. Political and economic disorders
many have bred a sense of insecurity. Thus, as the cities grew larger the tendency to escape the noise, crowds
and moral corruption by seeking the isolation of the countryside also increased (Baur 24)
Towards the close of the third century, as the church was established, its public worship became formal and
rigid. This led to a desire for a freer and a more personal approach to God (Falk 32).
Monasticism began as a layman's movement in search of a more pious life. Although Paul of Thebes was
probably the first monk, Anthony is considered the founder of Christian monasticism. He was born in Koma,
in central Egypt, about 250 (Baur 24) With the advent of monasticism which preaches a life of chastity and
poverty and a total seclusion from the world that corrupt the Christian morality. This appealed to the people
so greatly that it drew the attention of many to the Christian faith. By the time of the death of Pachomius, one
of the founders of the Christian monasteries, some three thousand monks had joined the system and this
number increased to five thousand by the end of the fourth century. Monasticism contributed to the spread of
the gospel and to the ministry of the Christian church from Egypt throughout the North Africa (Baur 30).
Church Extension via the Patriarch

The patriarchs of Alexandria played a significant role in the universal church during the period beginning in
313, when Constantine, by the Edict of Milan, Declared religious liberty for the entire Roman Empire, until
451, when Dioscurus was deposed for having accepted the Monophysite doctrine. During the fourth century

the church in Egypt made considerable progress through the rapid establishment of monasticism and the
faithful ministry of Monks (Falk 33).
During this period the scripture was also translated into the Coptic language, services were conducted in the
same and an indigenous Coptic church, which took its place in the History of the church of the first centuries,
which was already well established by this time. During this period, the church was also given to a strong
theological argument on the nature and the unity of substance between Christ and the father, which also led
to division among the bishops of Alexandria and led to the call of the Nicaea general council in 325 by
Constantine, to this he summoned all the bishops of the church in the entire empire, and altogether being 318
in number. For this Emperor Constantine was concerned about the unity of the church as He was looking
forward to it to be the unifying fact for the unity of the empire (Falk 33).
DECLINING FACTORS AGAINST CHRISTIANITY IN EGYPT

At the end of the seventh century, the Coptic Church in Egypt was already establishing itself as the national
church and penetrating through every region of the country and every strata of the society to a greater
degree. Monasticism greatly influenced the church and the large staff of monks carried the Christian faith to
the distant pars of the country. The teaching of the scripture in the language of the people in the church
helped Christianity take root in Egypt, but yet, there were still some challenges. Some of these challenges
threatened the continuous sustain ability and unity of the Christian faith in Egypt (42-45).They include the
following:
Ecumenical Crisis: This was more of an internal crisis within the Christian faith. The different theological
thoughts on the unity of substance between Christ, and the Father were one crisis that almost took the church
off its balance. The crisis began when Arius a Presbyter in Charge of a Church known as “Baucalis” at
Alexander, disputed with his bishop Alexander, concerning the nature of Christ. Arius maintained that
Christ was neither fully God nor fully man, but opines that, He was like God but not of the same substance as
God. Bishop Alexander however, maintained that the son was eternal, like in essence to the father. Arius did
not heed the bishops warning to correct his teaching, but defended his position (Baur 24-26)
Consequently, Alexander called in 320, the Synod at Alexander. The Synod condemned the
teachings of Arius and his sympathizers. The Arian reaction created serious tension that
greatly impaired the effectiveness of the Church ministry and marred its testimony (25).
Christianity' Encounter with Islam:while Christianity was becoming the major faith of the
Mediterraneanworld Islam began in Arabia through the dreams and visions of Muhammad (Falk 63). He
was born in 570 in Mecca, a caravan town located on the main trade route between Egypt and India.
According to Muhammad the Angel Gabriel appeared to him and summoned him to serve as the messenger
of Allah. Consequently Mohammed preached to the inhabitants of Mecca and to pilgrims who came to the
city. He challenges them to accept a new morality and a monotheistic faith. After Mohammed's death his
followers conquered Arabia, and with further zeal conquered Damascus in 635, Antioch in 636,Jerusalem in
638, and Caesarea in 640. By 650 they had destroyed the Persian Empire (64).The Arab army AmrIbn al Ac
invaded Egypt in 640 without encountering strong resistance (64). They took Alexandria and rapidly
conquered Egypt to the first cataract.
After the Arabs were in full possession of the country their attitude changed. The Christians were soon
treated, as second class citizens lacking equal privileges with the Muslims. The Second Caliph Omar,
stipulated that in addition to paying tributes the Christians were to show hospitality to the Muslims, which
meant contributing to their sustenance. They were not permitted to erect new churches or monasteries, or to
exhibit any Christian practice that would present the Christian faith, such as wearing a cross. Omar
demanded distinction between Christians and Muslims in dress, saddles, the use of weapons, and the height
of the houses. with all this persecutions only a remnant of the genuine Christians remained true to their faith

through centuries of pressure (65).
Heavy Tax Duties and Ban on Construction of New Church Buildings

By the end of the first century of Muslim occupation, a poll tax, a land tax and various requisitions for the
army and for other purposes were imposed on the Christians, whereas there is no evidence that a tax was
imposed on the Muslims. It was also discovered that in due time the Government also subjected the Muslims
to paying land tax and also the government also introduced a pass system in order to stop the peasants from
living their land. Officers who were appointed into office regarded their appointment to office as an
opportunity for personal benefit and made exaction from the people, increasing their already heavy burden.
Converts to Islam were automatically exempted from poll tax. In order to escape from this financial
pressure, so many people claimed to have accepted Islam. In 744 the government of Egypt again offered tax
exemption to converts. It was estimated that in response twenty-four thousand Christians converted to Islam
(65).
In an attempt to confront the pressure and restrictions placed on them by the Arabs, the Egyptian
Christians revolted a number of times, attempting to through off the Muslim yoke but its failure only
led to more severe persecution by the Muslims. Churches and Monasteries were destroyed. The
Coptic Christians communities existed under very trying circumstances and became sadly reduced
(65).
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE NIGERIAN CHRISTIANS.

Following the above relevant discoveries on the emergence growth and decline of Christianity in Egypt,
what are the possible implications of these discoveries to the church in Nigeria who are confronted with the
same challenges like the church in Egypt? The following are the implications of this research for the
Nigerian Christians:
This research has exposed the researcher to the fact that Christianity got to Egypt before Islam but yet Islam
still invaded Egypt through Arabia and took over the Government and it forced Christianity to become a
second class religion in Egypt. Even though, Islam got to the Northern part of Nigeria earlier before
Christianity started from the west and Christianity became a well pronounced religion in the western and
southern part of Nigerian before it could penetrate to the North. Christianity in Nigeria just like the
experience in Egypt is fast becoming a second class religion in some part Nigeria. Take for instance, Kebbi,
Sokoto, Zamfara, Katsina, and Jigawa has very few numbers of Christians as a result of the Islamic Sharia
st
system. On the 21 on November 2021, Sahara reporter reported that “bandits write Christians in Zamfara
writes Christians in Zamfara to shut down churches or risk attacks” this shows an intense pressure on the
church in Nigeria in a moment of difficulties.
th
The government of the day especially the Kaduna state government in on June 7 2019 has pass into law a
bill to grant pastors and Immam license before preaching. and to be forced to collect preaching permit
before they can preach, this simply means that the government will be in position to regulate the preaching
activities of ministers which also include the pastors and when this is done it can be use just like the Egyptian
official who granted tax exemption to new converts, as a weep against the church.
Although the ecumenical crisis brought enlightenment in areas of doctrines theological literacy, yet, it
slowed down the growth and expansion of the church in some areas, (37) therefore the church must ensure
that effective theologians are placed at the hems of affaire to be able to oversee the level and standards of the
theological training being disseminated by the pastors and whenever there is a leadership disagreement it
should be quickly attended to less it give room for distraction and become an opportunity for the
adversaries.

The need to stand firm for the Christians in Nigeria is necessary in a time like this. This sis because, it is
either we win them to our side or they win them over so the earlier the better for us. The content of our
message in the light of evangelism should be content driven, by content I mean the scripture both the
suffering Christ and the Christ of faith should be preached to the prospective converts to prepare them for
any eventuality that may come along in the line of practicing their faith. The implication is that, if any
persecution rises against the church it will reduce the mass exodus of believers back to the opposite
contending religion as it was seen in Egypt in the seventh century. Many converts went back to Islam just to
be free from the pressure of the heavy tax duties and persecution that was against the church.
The officials use their positions and appointments in support of their religion, the Muslim converts were
exempted from tax payment (Falk 65). This is indeed a great lesson for the church. When the church prepare
disciples not just leaders, effective disciples becomes effective and impactful leaders, we must let people
feel our impact by engaging people for service.
CONCLUSION:
The investigation into the emergence, Growth and decline of Christianity in Egypt has exposed the fact that
Christianity came into Egypt before Islam, and also that the onslaught of Islam against Christianity, place
the church in a position where it could not effectively defend itself against Islamic invasion which led to the
decline of Christianity around the seventh and eight centuries. but yet there were still some remnants who
survived the persecution from the Islamic Government and they continued their worship. This work has also
discovered that persecution in one sense also has its positive effect on the spread of the gospel as it forced the
people out of their comfort zones and they went along to everywhere with the gospel and also to make
deliberate effort towards discovering a better and peaceful place of worship which led to the emergence of
the Monastic movements.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1.Christians in Nigeria should wakeup to the responsibilities of prayer and evangelism as it is the better way
to reach out to the hidden, before they are won over by Islam.
2.The believers should be helped to understand that persecution is part of the tools that aids Church Growth,
therefore as believers we should not be afraid or run away from persecution but rather prepare ourselves by
being true to our faith in Christ. Jesus said – “I have told you this things, so that in me you may have peace.
In this world you will have trouble. But take heart! I have overcome the world.” John 16:33 Niv. This is to
prepare the mind of believers that they have not been called in to a world of peace but a world of turmoil, full
of challenges and in fact, accepting Jesus is an opening to great and greater oppositions, because some of the
things you use to do you will not be able to do again, some companies you use to keep you will not be able to
maintain and all this will constitute a wall of challenges both within and without. The church must make
strong emphasis on the teaching of the truth of Gods world to prepare the heart of the believers against influx
of false doctrines and further more maintain effective and balanced theological education which will
prepare the heart of the ministers for them to be better equipped to teach the people the truth of God's word.
3.The church should be involve and not live an isolated life like the monks, yes the monks enjoyed a life of
piety, because they feel the world is corrupt, but yet our Christianity is still to be practice in the world, that is
how we can show the difference and make a difference. Jesus said in Mathew 5:14 – “you are the light of the
world .a city on a hill cannot be hidden. Neither do people light a lamp and put it under a bowl instead they
put it on a lamp stand, and it gives light to everyone in the house.”
4. This indicates that as believers we are people of influence and how can we influence or impact our world
when we isolate our self in the name of persecution. The church must prepare disciples for the challenges of

this end time, through effective and adequate knowledge of the word of God.
Works Cited
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Publications Africa, 1994.
Cornevin, Robert. Historie de L'Afrique. 2vols. Paris; Payout,1960.
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House, 1980.
Falk, Peter. The Growth of Christianity in Africa, Jos: African Christian Textbooks, 1997.
Frend, W. The Donatist Church, a movement in Roman North Africa. Oxford: Clarendon, 1952.
Gonzalez, Justo L. The story of Christianity. Massachusetts: Prince Publishing, 1999.
Harnack, Adolp. “The Mission and Expansion of Christianity in The First Three Centuries.” Translated and
Edited by James Moffat. New York: Putnam. 2nd ed., 2 vols.,1908.
Hubbard, David A. “The Literary Source of the KebraNegast.” Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis. Edinburgh: St.
Andrews University. 1956.
Idowu, E. Bolaji. Towards an indigenous Church. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.
Petry, Ray C. . A. History of Christianity: Readings in the History of The Early and MNedieval Church.
London: Prentice-Hall, INC., 1962.
Robinson, Charles H. History of Christian Mission. New York: Scriber, 1930.
Rutherforcd, J., and Glenny, Edward H.The Gospel in North Africa. London: Percy Lund, Humphries, 1900.
Sadler, George. A. Century in Nigeria. Nashville: Broadman, 1950.

Women, Agriculture And Rural Poverty In Plateau State
WOMEN, AGRICULTURE AND RURAL POVERTY IN PLATEAU STATE

Patience Mamie Kolade
Department of History and International Studies, Plateau State University, Bokkos Nigeria.
Email: koladep3@gmail.com Mobile No.: 08166666225
&
Barira Mohammed (Ph.D)
Department of History and International Studies, Plateau State University, Bokkos Nigeria.
Email:barri_moh@yahoo.com Mobile No.:07081232357
Abstract
One of the central features of the rural agricultural sector in Plateau State, North Central Nigeria is the
contribution of women to production, not only in Plateau State, North-Central Nigeria but globally. For
instance, women in Sub-Saharan Africa account for over 60 per cent of agricultural workers and
additionally contribute significantly to food production. Despite this critical role, women in Plateau State
continue to face numerous challenges that limit access to productive resources and economic
empowerment. These productive resources that disadvantage women's economic power are embedded in
cultural practices that limit their participation in the decision-making process, lack of access to financial
services such as land, credit, and insurance also limits their capacity to invest and take advantage of the
market opportunities. The paper thus, adds to the conversation on the contribution of rural women to
agriculture in Plateau State, Nigeria. The paper argues that there is a need for gender activism and
mainstreaming in the agricultural space if women are to be empowered to achieve Sustainable Development
Goals through the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger. The paper also posits that women's economic
empowerment must be given the attention it requires to increase the income generated by rural women.
Ecofeminist theory is used as a tool of analysis for the study while the qualitative methodology was adopted
for the study to explore the experiences of rural women in agriculture in Plateau State. Specifically, data was
collected from a specified number of women. In conclusion, the paper examined the challenges women face
in agriculture in Plateau State and the importance of empowering women in agriculture for sustainable
development, food security and inclusive growth by interventions that can improve women's access to
resources and training in modern farming techniques. The study contributed to the existing body of
knowledge on gender and agriculture in Nigeria to promote gender equality and women empowerment in
agriculture.
Keywords: Rural poverty, Women, Productive resources, empowerment, and agriculture.
Introduction
Plateau State, situated in the North Central region of Nigeria, is a significant contributor to the country's
agricultural output, with a vast array of agricultural resources at its disposal. However, despite the
agricultural abundance, poverty remains a persistent challenge in the state, particularly in rural areas where
1
most of the population relies on agriculture for their livelihoods. Women, who form the backbone of
1
Ejembi, E. P., S. A. Ejembi, and O. N. Abgulu. "Food chain activities of women in an agrarian community in Central
Nigeria: implications for rural development." Journal of Human Ecology 19.1 (2006): 63-67.

agricultural activities in the State, bear a significant burden of this poverty, owing to their limited access to
productive resources such as land, credit, training, and modern farming technologies.2
Empirical evidence shows that women's participation in agriculture is a critical factor in reducing poverty in
rural communities this is why there is a need to empower women in agriculture because it has the potential to
increase their productivity, income, and overall well-being, leading to positive spillover effects for
3
themselves, their families and communities. Furthermore, women's empowerment in agriculture
contributes to improving food security, promoting economic growth, and reducing gender inequality, which
4
are vital components of sustainable development.
Given the critical role that women play in agriculture, addressing the challenges they face is a necessary step
towards reducing poverty in Plateau State and other regions with similar contexts. Strategies such as
improving and addressing access to land which is deeply rooted in culture, education, credit, and other
productive resources for women, as well as providing training in modern farming techniques, can go a long
way in improving their agricultural productivity and income. Investing in women's empowerment in
agriculture should go beyond policy formulation to implementation, supervision, and sustainable feed back
to transform rural communities, promote inclusive growth, and reduce poverty. According to a report by the
World Bank, women make up a significant portion of the agricultural labour force in Sub-Saharan Africa,
including Nigeria. Despite this, they often face discrimination that is socially constructed and lacks access
to resources that could enhance their productivity, income, and well-being. The report highlights the
importance of empowering women in agriculture for achieving sustainable development goals, including
poverty reduction, food security, and gender equality.5
Research also indicates that women's participation in agriculture is a critical factor in reducing poverty in
rural communities. This is demonstrated by a study by the International Food Policy Research Institute
(IFPRI) which found that increasing women's access to productive resources, such as land and credit, could
boost their agricultural productivity and income. The study also notes that investing in women's
empowerment in agriculture has the potential to improve food security, promote economic growth, and
6
reduce gender inequality. Hence, to address these challenges faced by women in agriculture, interventions
that are sustainable needs to be adopted so that the financial fortune and status of rural women can be
improved.
A Brief Overview of Plateau State and its Agricultural Resources

Plateau State is a picturesque state blessed with diverse agricultural resources such as suitable climatic
conditions, fertile lands, and a variety of food crops such as potatoes, vegetables, maize, rice, kidney beans,
yams, and fonio (acha). The state is strategically located which makes it accessible for several traders and
buyers of these agricultural produce to patronize the various markets for the purchase of these assorted
agricultural produce. Despite these abundant agricultural resources, poverty remains a significant challenge
in the state, particularly in rural areas where most of the population depends on agriculture for their
7
livelihoods. A report by the Nigerian Institute for Social and Economic Research (NISER) shows that the
1
Ejembi, E. P., S. A. Ejembi, and O. N. Abgulu. "Food chain activities of women in an agrarian community in Central
Nigeria: implications for rural development." Journal of Human Ecology 19.1 (2006): 63-67.
2
Fortmann, Louise. "Economic status and women's participation in agriculture: a Botswana case study." Rural Sociology 49.3
(1984): 452.
3
Meinzen-Dick, Ruth, et al. "Women's land rights as a pathway to poverty reduction: Framework and review of available evidence." Agricultural systems
172 (2019): 72-82.
4
Malapit, Hazel Jean, et al. "Women's empowerment in agriculture, production diversity, and nutrition: Evidence from Nepal." (2013).
5
Adepoju, Aderanti, and Christine Oppong. Gender, work and population in sub-Saharan Africa. 1994.
6
Raney, Terri, et al. "The role of women in agriculture." (2011).
7
Lichter, Daniel T., and Diane K. McLaughlin. "Changing Economic Opportunities, Family Structure, and Poverty in Rural Areas 1." Rural Sociology 60.4
(1995): 688-706.

174
Nation's agricultural output is estimated at 3.7 million hectares of land available for agricultural cultivation,
Plateau state account for 95% of Nigeria's potatoes production,870% of the total annual yield of about
9
82,000 tons of Fonio (acha), and 477.9 thousand metric tons of maize, out of the total of 11 million metric
10
tons produced in Nigeria's annual production.
Additionally, the favourable climatic condition in the state allows for the production of livestock such as
cattle, sheep and poultry which provides a significant source of income for the rural population.11 These
abundant agricultural resources notwithstanding, rural farmers in Plateau State still live in poverty hence,
the need to address these challenges.
Role of Women in Agriculture

Rural women are key agents for development and they play a catalytic role towards the achievement of
transformational economic, environmental, and social changes required for sustainable development. But
limited access to credit due to their status as smallholder farmers which is rooted in the romanticized
12
tradition of timelessness, and lack of training are among the many challenges they face. Women make up
43 per cent of the global agricultural labour force, yet they face significant discrimination when it comes to
land ownership, participation in decision-making and access to credit and financial services.13 Hence,
14
equalizing this gap could boost agricultural output and decrease global hunger by 17 per cent. Agriculture
may seem like a male-dominated industry from the outside, but it is women who practice agriculture more,
especially rural women and by a wide margin of women making about 70% of the country's agricultural
workforce and also contributing to 70% of the country's food production, However, the contribution of
women to the agricultural sector in Nigeria is largely under-recognized. According to a study carried out in
2014, some of the reasons for the non-recognition of women in this space are due to male-dominated
cultures, which place women in inferior positions; custom, taboos and sex-based division of labour, and the
subordination of women to men; the failure of economists to place value on unpaid women's domestic
production; the uncertainty of women's ability to articulate their problems and needs effectively; as well as
the problem of the land tenure system and the inability of women to meet basic collateral security as bank
15
requirements for loans intended for agricultural production.
16
This is further corroborated by the United Nations Development Programme which shows that women's
limited access to finance is a major barrier to their economic development thereby contributing to their
marginalization. Land ownership constitutes another barrier women face in the agricultural space with
women owning less than 20 per cent of land in Nigeria, making it difficult to expand their production. In
Plateau State like with other parts of Nigeria, there exists a gendered division of labour. Traditionally,
women engage in farming activities such as planting, weeding, and harvest processing, while the men clear
8
Dakusuk, Markus Jimwan, et al., Assessing the Impact of Agricultural Programme on Potato Value Chain and Economic Development of Plateau State in
Zamfara Journal of Politics and Development | Vol. 3, Issue I No. II | Department of Political Science
9
(PSIPRA) Plateau State Infrastructure Promotion and Regulatory Agency, retrieved on https://investinplateau.ng/invest-in-
plateau/#:~:text=Plateau%20State%20is%20the%20largest,%2C%20Cowpea%2C%20Sorghum%2C%20etc
10
PwC, Positioning Nigeria as Africa's leader in maize production for AfCFTA, retrieved from https://www.pwc.com/ng/en/assets/pdf/positioning-nigeria-as-
africa-leader-in-maize-production-for-afcfta.pdf
11
Ayoade, J. A., H. I. Ibrahim, and H. Y. Ibrahim. "Analysis of women involvement in livestock production in Lafia area of Nasarawa State, Nigeria." Age
21.30 (2009): 31-40.
12
UN Women.. The Role of Women in Rural Development, Food Production and Poverty Eradication, (2012). https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/rural-
women-day/2013
13
Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Women in Agriculture: Closing the gender gap for development. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the
United Nations. (2011),
14
Oxfam International. Empowering Women Farmers to End Hunger and Poverty. (2023). https://www.oxfam.org/en/empowering-women-farmers-end-hunger-
and-poverty.
15
Ayoade, J. A., H. I. Ibrahim, and H. Y. Ibrahim. "Analysis of women involvement in livestock production in Lafia area of Nasarawa State, Nigeria." Age 21.30
(2009): 31-40.
16
UNDP. Human development report 2011: Sustainability and Equity: A better future for all New York: United Nations Development Programme, (2018)

the farmland and they also dominate rolesrelated to value addition such as market trading,17 this shows how
the women engage in lower-value activities which limits them from a shift in their poverty status.
There are two farming seasons in the study area: the rainy and the dry season farming the rainy season
farming has a higher number of participants and it starts by March with the clearing of farmlands and
planting starts between April and May, harvesting of maize takes place between October and November.
Various crops such as yam, fonio, rice, and potatoes have their own time of harvest which is determined by
the time of planting. The dry season farming consists majorly of potatoes and vegetables which is not
engaged by all women as in the case of the rainy season farming but by a limited number which is also due to
their poverty status given that the dry season farming is capital intensive.18
Additionally, women in agriculture face gender-based discrimination and cultural practices that limit their
involvement in decision making which is a platform that is capable of advancing the possibilities to solve19
these challenges women face in agriculture so that the desired environment can be provided for women to
achieve their full potential and contribute to sustainable development. On the other hand, Obianefo, Osuafor
20
and Ng'ombe in their examination of the challenges faced by women in the agricultural sector in Southeast
Nigeria cont end that women with poor economic status are less likely to have access to improved
technology, labour, off-farm employment, and improved infrastructure. This could be attributed to cultural
factors which increase the failure of women in owning land, farm inputs, and agricultural credit. Likewise,
as compared to men, institutional factors increase women's unequal access to extensive training as well as
their domestic workload. Thus, the conclusion of their study makes provision for useful policy insights
aimed at mitigating the challenges women face in agricultural cooperatives. Hence, economic freedom
among women in cooperatives may not be achieved unless they are emancipated from existing cultural,
economic, institutional, and management constraints.
The study by Muhammad et al21 appraises the poverty status of rural women farmers in Suleja and Gurara
Local Government Areas of Niger State, Nigeria. The outcome of their study was that most rural women
were in their active ages which enabled them to engage in various income-generating activities. The rural
women in the study areas were also slightly above the poverty line as a result of factors such as age, marital
status, level of education, farming experience, extension visits, farm income and access to credit which were
the significant determinants of poverty status among rural women in the study areas, the aforementioned
aptly describes the condition of the Plateau rural women from field interviews.
Mukaila et ala22 ssessed the poverty status of rural women in Nigeria and identified the factors responsible
for their poverty status through a multistage sampling technique. Their findings revealed that rural women
were less educated, had an average age of 47 years and 85.8% of them were married with an average
household size of seven persons. They were mostly involved in agricultural activities and had an average
income of N22,561 (USD 57.17) monthly. Furthermore, their study revealed that poverty was pervasive
among rural women in Nigeria. The incidence, depth, and severity of poverty among rural women were
0.6911, 0.1265 and 0.0374 respectively. Factors contributing to the high poverty rate among rural women
17
Droppelmann, Klaus, et al. Cassava, the 21st century crop for smallholders?. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 2018.
18
Field interview
19
group interview dated 10/11/2022
20
Obiafeno, C., Osuafor, O., Ng'ombe, J. On the Challenges Faced by Female Members of Agricultural Cooperatives in Southeast Nigeria. Journal of
Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, 13(1), (2021). 94-106
21
Muhammad, H., et al. Comparative Assessment of Rural Women Farmers' Poverty Status in Suleja and Gurara Local Government Areas of Niger State, Nigeria.
Journal of Agriculture and Food Environment 9(1): (2022). 28-37
22
Mukaila, R., et al. Drivers of Poverty among Rural Women in Nigeria: Implications for Poverty Alleviation and Rural Development. Journal of Rural and
Community Development, 17(1) (2022).: 32-48

are age, household size, and cropping system: While education, access to credit facilities, farm size, marital
status, and agricultural extension contacts were the inhibiting factors, this study corroborates the narrative
of the women interviewed in the study area to show that rural women irrespective of their location in Nigeria
face similar challenges.
Challenges rural women in agriculture face.

Rural poverty can be seen as a complex issue influenced by ranging factors such as limited access to
finances, education, and infrastructure. The persistence and prevalence of poverty in Plateau State are
exacerbated by factors such as insecurity, conflicts, and climate change. Climate change is specific to the
degradation of the environment which leads to a decrease in crop yields, thus negatively impacting the
livelihoods of rural farmers as well as the availability of food. Insecurity and conflict on the other hand have
continuously led to displacement of rural communities leading to loss of livelihoods and access to basic
social amenities. Women in Plateau produce 20 to 30 per cent less than men farmers because they face two
23
compounding layers of exclusion : as smallholder farmers and as women which is a deeply rooted culture
given that women in Plateau State do not own land either as daughters or as wives, this smallholder status of
women limits their access to credit facilities that can significantly boost their production output.
Additionally, as smallholder farmers, women in the study area most time farm on leased land or small
portions of land allocated to them by their husbands given the patriarchal setting of the people. The resultant
effect of this status women are made to leave with and come to internalize brings about limited profit
margin, hence the persistence of women's poverty status in rural areas. This is buttressed by Carolyn
Merchant, an environmental historian, and an ecofeminist whose argument demonstrates the subordination
of women in society was mirrored in the treatment of nature as a subordinate and passive entity. Thus, the
oppression of women and the degradation of the environment were intricately intertwined manifestations of
the same patriarchal worldview as obtainable in the Plateau society. Merchant goes further to historicize
these cultural forces that perpetuate these oppressive practices that keep Plateau women as smallholder
farmers. Merchant calls for the reevaluation of societal values and the need to question the entrenched
power structures that perpetuate the degradation of both women and the natural world. This she argues can
be done by illuminating the historical roots of this practice from a gendered dimension to achieve inclusive
and sustainable productivity of the Plateau women in profitable agricultural engagement.
Karen Warren another ecofeminist corroborates the submission of Merchant by emphasizing the
importance of gender in understanding oppressive practices such as patriarchy which exploits and degrades
women. Warren compares the challenges women face as same with what the environment faces.24
Ecofeminism has significantly contributed to our understanding of women and poverty in agriculture by
exploring the intersecting oppressions of gender, poverty, and environmental degradation.
From the field interviews, the study found that rural women's poverty, illiteracy, low educational level,
traditional cultural practices, and access to productive resources collectively affect their chances to benefit
from newer, non-traditional methods such as information and communication technologies.25 The work of
Ynestra King an ecofeminist is instructive in analysing the above, her argument explains the need to
challenge the domination of women which is rooted in systems of power and control by transforming
oppressive structures into enabling structures wherein women can engage in profitable and empowering
23
Folorunso, Solomon, and D. Bayo. "Comparative analysis of total factor productivity among potato (solanum tuberasum) farmers in Bokkos Local Government
Area of Plateau State, Nigeria." FUDMA journal of sciences 4.3 (2020): 275-284.
24
Warren, Karen J. "The power and the promise of ecological feminism." Environmental ethics 12.2 (1990): 125-146.
25
Group Interview in Quan pan on 28/1/2023

26
agricultural practices in Plateau State for instance. Where women in agriculture in Plateau State continue
to face unique challenges that hinder their productivity, profitability, and economic empowerment. These
challenges are rooted in gender inequalities, cultural norms, and limited access to land and property rights
constitute a huge barrier as it reduces their ability to secure loans and make long-term investments.
Another challenge faced by the women is limited access to farm inputs and other modern farming
techniques such as improved seeds, and fertilizer.27 Women are also confronted with the challenges of
accessing the market, lack of market connections, and limited bargaining power which limits their
income–generating opportunities. An additional challenge is women's limited access to information and
extension services, due to the limited availability of extension officers and especially the low literacy levels
of the women as shown from field interviews wherein the women are either ignorant of available
government agricultural programmes and interventions or are unable to navigate their way to benefit from
such platforms.
Importance of Empowering Women in Agriculture

The need for empowering women in agriculture is not only a matter of gender equality but also an important
factor for sustainable development and food security. Empowering women in agriculture can help increase
28
agricultural productivity as shown by the report of the Food and Agriculture Organisation, the report also
states that women's access to productive, resources such as land, inputs and training can increase crop yields
and food production, which by extension can contribute to reducing hunger, significant economic and social
benefits for their families, and communities at large. Studies have shown that when women who form the
majority in the agriculture space are empowered, this can help in promoting gender equality by providing
women the opportunity to gain a sense of agency and control over their lives, and challenging traditional
29
gender roles. allows for the creation of new economic opportunities, income streams and poverty
reduction. Furthermore, empirical evidence has shown that the empowerment of women in the agriculture
space can ensure sustainable farming practices that preserve natural resources which include water and soil,
hence, promoting biodiversity which helps in achieving long-term food security and environmental
30
sustainability.
In 2019, in pursuance of gender inclusiveness in agriculture, the government of Nigeria launched the
National Policy in Agriculture which was informed by the research conducted by the Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Research Programme on Policies Institutions and Markets
aimed at enhancing food security and development acceleration in Nigeria as well as to promote the
adoption of gender-sensitive and responsive approaches that gives women equal access to productive
resources. Their findings show that when women have access to farm inputs and markets, their productivity
becomes appreciable. To buttress this, field interviews revealed that rural women in the study area remain
unaware of such government interventions which have the potential of improving their current struggles and
challenges. 31A growing body of literature suggests that empowering women in agriculture can lead to
26
King, Ynestra. "Engendering a peaceful planet: Ecology, economy, and ecofeminism in a contemporary context." Women's Studies Quarterly 23.3/4 (1995):
15-21.
27
Mukasa, Adamon N., and Adeleke O. Salami. Gender productivity differentials among smallholder farmers in Africa: A cross-country comparison. Abidjan:
African Development Bank, 2015.
28
Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Women in Agriculture: Closing the gender gap for development. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the
United Nations. (2011),
29
Sofa Team and Cheryl Doss. The role of women in agriculture, ESA Working Paper No. 11-02 March 2011 retrieved on
https://www.fao.org/3/am307e/am307e00.pdf
30
Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Women in Agriculture:
31
Focus group interview with women in Bokkos17/01/2023

32
economic benefits for the women themselves, their households, and their communities, hence, the need to
change this narrative through government interventions and the awareness of such in the agricultural sector.
This is because empowering women in agriculture is very vital for promoting sustainable development,
reducing poverty, and achieving gender equality, Several studies have highlighted the importance of
providing women with access to productive resources such as land, credit, inputs, and training. The example
of a study carried out in Ethiopia will suffice to demonstrate that when women are empowered with the
above-mentioned resources, they were more productive and had higher crop yields.33 To corroborate this, a
similar study in Ghana found that providing women with the required resources such as improved seedlings
and fertilizer led to increased productivity and higher crop yields.34 Another research conducted in Uganda
found that women who received training in modern farming techniques and practices experienced improved
agricultural productivity.35
Government interventions can promote women's access to resources and training, in addition to land tenure
security, for instance, the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) under the Nigeria Agricultural Credit Guaranteed
Scheme Fund provides loans to small-scale farmers, with women as one of its main focuses meant to
improve women's access to finance and inputs. Despite these laudable programmes in addition to other
interventions such as Agricultural Development Project ADP (ADP) created in 1976, Agricultural Credit
Programme Guarantee Scheme(ACGS) created in 1977, the River Basin Development(RBDA) created in
1978, and Rural Banking System (RBS) created in 1978, the Green Revolution (GR)created in 1980, and the
36
Directorate for Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure DFRRI (DFRRI) created in 1986. All these
interventions are yet to produce the desired results as shown by field interviews conducted for this study
which suggest that implementation and monitoring are needed for the effective realization of these
interventions in increasing women's productive engagement in agriculture,37 this is corroborated by a study
carried out in Bangladesh that shows how this type of intervention resulted in women's productivity and
38
economic empowerment.
Another effective intervention is to engage women in training and extension services tailored to address
women's empowerment in the agricultural space as studies have shown that women farmers have different
needs from men. These needs include childcare and other gender-sensitive training. Such training can
provide women with applicable knowledge and skills leading to better agricultural productivity, this is
exemplified in Uganda where such training improved maize production for women and led to a significant
40
increase in their maize yields. Field interview infers that such interventions can be replicated in the study
41
area for such results.
32
World Bank. Poverty and Shared Prosperity, Reversing the Trend of Slowing Poverty Reduction, (2020). Retrieved from
https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/poverty-and-shared-prosperity-2020#
33
Quisumbing, A.R, Rubin, D., Manfre, C., Waithanji, E., van den Bold, M., Oiney, D.K., and Meinzen Dick, R. Gender, assets, and agricultural
development programs: A conceptual framework IFPRI Discussion Paper 01367, (2014).
34
Doss, Cheryl, et al. "Gender inequalities in ownership and control of land in Africa: Myth and reality." Agricultural Economics 46.3 (2015): 403-434.
35
Shiferaw. B., Okello, J., Reddy, R. V., and Wossen, T. Innovative agricultural practices for sustainable food security: The Case of improved fellows in Africa.
Natural Resources Forum, 35(4), (2011). 293-303
36
Green Revolution – GR (1980), Directorate for Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure – DFRRI (1986)
37
Group interview with women at Mangu 10/11/2022
38
Quisumbing, Agnes R., et al. "Gender, assets, and market-oriented agriculture: learning from high-value crop and livestock projects in Africa and Asia."
Agriculture and human values 32 (2015): 705-725.
39
Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations. Reduce Rural Poverty: Women in Agriculture, (2023). https://www.fao.org/reduce-rural-
poverty/our-work/women-in-agriculture/en/
40
Midamba, Dick Chune, and Ogei Kizito. "Determinants of access to trainings on post–harvest loss management among maize farmers in Uganda: a binary
logistic regression approach." Cogent Economics & Finance 10.1 (2022): 2148359.
41
Group interview with women in Barkin Ladi 22/01/2023

Examples of successes made in empowering women in agriculture.

The Plateau State economy is still largely dominated by the primary production sector with agriculture
42
predominantly subsistence, peasant and characterized by low and declining productivity. However,
women have been able to navigate their way through these challenges they face through credit facilities they
get from the cooperatives they have formed to assist themselves in acquiring improved seeds, fertilizer,
pesticides, paid labour etc. Field interviews for this study have shown that few women have been able to
transform their financial fortune and that of their families as some have through the proceeds of their farms
build houses, bought cars for commercial purposes, and sponsored their children through school to
postgraduate level.
To achieve the sustainable development goals in line with poverty reduction, the need to empower women in
agriculture is essential, hence examples of successes made in this space are thus shown. One such example is
the Women in Agriculture Development (WAD) programme established by the Federal Government in 2012
with state branches aimed at increasing women's participation in agriculture and boosting food security,
theprogramme has provided Plateau women with opportunities and platforms that have improved their
productivity and profits from their produce. Another initiative in this regard is the Agricultural
Transformation Agenda Support Programme (ATASP), which has provided women with improved seeds
and training but suffice it to state here that, the rural women were the least beneficiaries.
The Plateau State Potato Value Chain Support Project (2017), the project was to created to benefit at least
100,000 farm families from 2017 to 2027 in the two major potato-producing local government areas, funded
by the African Development Bank (ADB). The main objective of the project is to increase, on a sustainable
basis, the income of smallholder farmers engaged in potato production, by provision of farm inputs,
extension services and reduction of post-harvest losses.43 The National Agricultural Land Development
Authority (NALDA) is another government intervention that encourages farmers to aggressively engage in
farming in the state to achieve food security by providing farm inputs and extension services for smallholder
44
farmers, especially in wheat and maize production. NALDA has already taken delivery of inputs such as
seeds, herbicides, pesticides and fertilizers to about 600 beneficiary farmers through the traditional rulers
and youth leaders. Before the distribution of the inputs, land preparation activities had been carried out by
the authority. The total land donated by the communities for the projects is 618 hectares, but for the first
phase, 200 hectares would be cultivated with a targeted yield of 1000 metric tons.
The Plateau Agricultural Development Programme (PADP) was established in 1985, this is theState branch
of the ADP. The PADP was created to address rural agricultural poverty as there exists visible rural neglect
of smallholder farmers which has led to poverty and backwardness as seen in the rural areas of the state. The
ADP is a government strategy intended to address rural development in Nigeria as advised by the World
45
Bank which began in the 1970s but was adopted in Plateau State in 1985. the targeted population are in this
instance; the rural smallholder farmers who are mostly women. The PADP started in 1985 to increase food
crop production and income in agriculture, and provision of timely and adequate provision of farm inputs,
extension services, and portable water.46 The purpose of the PADPs is primarily to transform agricultural
productivity through improved seedlings, provision of pesticide and fertilizer, high-yielding (HYV) seeds,
credit facility in cash and kind, landing cleaning services, tractor hire, extension services and feeder roads.47
The rural farmers who are smallholder farmers from our field interview do not patronize the PADP nor seek
42
Friedmann, Harriet. "Household production and the national economy: concepts for the analysis of agrarian formations." The Journal of Peasant Studies
7.2 (1980): 158-184.
43
Jimwan, Dakusuk Markus, Canice Erunke, and Astiya Godiya Pius. "Assessing the impact of the agricultural programme on the potato value chain and
economic development of plateau state." Zamfara Journal of Politics and Development 3.1 (2022): 16-16.
44
Vanguard Newspaper, April 26th 2022
45
Hunter, Barry Wayne. Participatory planning and extension: an agroforestry case study from plateau state, Nigeria. Diss. Durham University, 1999.
46
Bank, Alan J., et al. "Effects of left ventricular assist devices on outcomes in patients undergoing heart transplantation." The Annals of thoracic surgery
69.5 (2000): 1369-1374.
47
Hunter, Barry Wayne. Participatory planning and extension.

professional advice, nor do they apply for the credit facility but rely on their traditional mode of farming and
fundraising through cooperatives they form which they make contributions from where they can assess
credit facility however, this is not sufficient to transform their fortune, reasons for their condition is
substantiated by empirical studies.48 Field interviews for this study showed that there is no evidence that the
project had benefited the rural women even though the programme has gender issues as one of its oversight
functions. The women who are our focus for this study have not taken advantage of the program which can
provide them with agrochemicals, sprayers, herbicides, and seeds at subsidized rates. This is because of
inadequate awareness of the availability of these products and services by the rural women in the State and
the dwindling resources of the PADP to reach out to the grassroots and rural farmers. These are some of the
successful interventions available in the State but have not been judiciously implemented and thus its effects
are not visible.Despite these interventions in Plateau State, the field interviews with women in the study area
revealed that these programmes are grossly insufficient in terms of reach, awareness and impact, especially
as the women are unaware of these initiatives either due to their lack of exposure to such information,
illiteracy level and cultural restraints which subordinate women to men.
In countries such as India, Bangladesh, Zambia, and Ethiopia such interventions have produced positive
results due to effective implementation and monitoring which can be replicated in Plateau State. These
examples demonstrate the importance of empowering women in agriculture and the positive impact such
initiatives can have on poverty reduction, food security and gender equality in this space.
Conclusion
In conclusion, investing in women's empowerment in agriculture, requires a sustained effort of tackling and
addressing the challenges of rural poverty in Plateau State, empowering women in agriculture is necessary
to also tackle the root causes of poverty and promote sustainable development, this is so because, by
extension, it is another channel of investing in human capital development, promoting gender equality.
Supporting women who are smallholder farmers with the required productive resources as discussed in the
paper can contribute to building a prosperous Plateau given its rich and fertile soils as well as its leading
position in food production in the region and by extension the country. Intervention can go a long way in
addressing the challenges that women face in the agriculture space such as access to land, credit, insurance,
training, access to the market and so on. Given their significant role in the agriculture sector, either as
smallholder farmers or sellers of rich agricultural produce such as maize, potatoes, vegetables, rice, yams
and fonio (acha), Plateau State's abundant agricultural resources have the potential of transforming the
state's economy and alleviating poverty. However, this requires concerted efforts by stakeholders to invest
in the sector and addresses the challenges facing smallholder farmers in the state. This paper study has
shown the contribution of Plateau women in the agricultural space, it went further to discuss the
compounding layers of challenges they face both as women and as smallholder farmers. The study also
discussed the various interventions of government and how these interventions are yet to transform the
poverty status of women. The study thus suggests the following;
48
See Sano 1983, Wallace, Beckman 1981, William 1981, Adelakun 1984 or the author of the work *Source: Thomas T. Shut, An Evaluation of the Strategies of
Rural Development Programmes in Plateau State1999-2010

1. The Plateau State government in collaboration with other stakeholders must be proactive in creating
gender-responsive policies and interventions that address the specific needs and priorities of women
farmers. These interventions could focus on access to resources, financial services, training and
addressing cultural barriers by promoting gender equality and partnering with men to see the need
for a shift in societal norms and altitudes to challenge gender stereotypes.
2. There is a need for government to invest in women's empowerment to sustain the immense potential
of its female agricultural workforce. This will enhance food security, increase agricultural
productivity, and reduce poverty. When this is done, Plateau State will be on the path of achieving
one of the Sustainable Development Goals including gender equality, poverty reduction and the
gradual eradication of hunger.
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A Review of Technological Advances for New Geography
A REVIEW OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES FOR NEW GEOGRAPHY

1
Adeniran Tolulope,
1
Department of Geographical and Environmental Education,
Lagos State University of Education, Oto – Ijanikin, Lagos.
E-mail address of corresponding author: adenirantea38@gmail.com
Abstract:
The review critically analyses the impact of technological advances on the field of geography. It critically
examines the effect of geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing, global positioning system
(GPS), digital mapping and other related technology on geographical research and practice, highlighting
both its advantages and drawbacks. Using the innovation and integration of ICT in Education from the west
(Specifically China) beginning from year 2000-2009, Major focus is placed on utilization of technology as a
tool for enhancing the spatial perspectives of geography. Through this analysis, potential areas of research
for future development of technology in geography are identified. Geography is an expansive science that
studies the physical environment, human activities and their interactions. Technological advances in the
field of geography are becoming increasingly applicable to data acquisition, analysis and data presentation.
Recent developments in GIS, remote sensing, GPS, and digital mapping have enabled high precision spatial
data acquisition and interpretation as well as enhance visualization of data. Furthermore, the introduction of
Big Data technologies has allowed access to data generated from varied sources and geographical locations.
Such technological advances have enabled geographers to engage in detailed analysis that are more reliable,
accurate and efficient than never before. The unprecedented access to data provided by technological
advances can support the development of more valid and reliable research methodologies in the field of
geography. It can also enable geographers to make more informed decisions based on spatial analysis. In
addition, the introduction of sophisticated technologies into geographical research can help increase the
consistency and accuracy of data obtained. Moreover, it can assist in the interpretation and understanding of
geographical phenomena in more comprehensive ways. However, it is important to recognize that
technological advancement in the field of geography should not be viewed as a panacea; rather, its
application should be balanced with caution. The availability of technology should not be considered as a
substitute for qualitative data gathered through field studies and interviews. Moreover, complicated
interfacing between different technological system can result in technical difficulties and potential errors in
data presentation. Ultimately, technological advances are continuing to revolutionize the field of
geography, allowing geographers to explore intricate data sources more efficiently. It is expected that future
developments will provide the opportunity to enhance existing research areas while also opening new
avenues for exploration.
Keywords: Advances, Geography, Technological, Globalization, Information,
Introduction
The world is rapidly growing into a global village with the emergence of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT). Information and Communication Technology popularly known by its acronym “ICT”, is
a universal concept. This is so because it is seen to be in operation in most fields of study and organizations
across the globe. It is a system derived from the intermingling of Information Technology (IT) and
Communication Technology (CT). It is defined as the application of electronic media [Computers,
telecommunication gadgets, digital media, mobile devices, Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), etc. in the
acquisition, processing, storage, retrieving, and dissemination of Information. It consists of those software
and hardware technologies that support the purposeful communication of Information.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is the application of computers to retrieve, transmit and
manipulate data, in education or other systems. One of the most vital contributions of ICT in education is

easy access to learning and teaching process (Idris, 2016; Sharma, Gandhar, & Sharma, 2009).
ICT is an umbrella concept that include any communication device, encompassing: radio, television,
cellular phones, computer and network hardware and software, satellite systems as well as the various and
application associated them, such as video conferencing and learning. ICT are often used in education,
healthcare, libraries, security etc. The positive effect of ICT on learning, education and libraries has been
highlighted (Falobi, 2014; Ubulom & KAYII, 2016).
A number of previous studies have shown that an appropriate use of ICT can raise educational quality and
connect learning to real-life situations (Lowther, et al. 2008; Weert and Tatnall 2005). As Weert and Tatnall
(2005) have pointed out, learning is an ongoing lifelong activity where learners change their expectations by
seeking knowledge, which departs from traditional approaches. As time goes by, they will have to expect
and be willing to seek out new sources of knowledge. Skills in using ICT will be an indispensable
prerequisite for these learners.
However, much research work has not been done on the operation of these ICT tools in order to enhance its
usage in the field of geography. This is required for users of the ICT tools to have knowledge of the operation
of these various tools that constitute ICT usage in geography. For instance, a global positioning system
(GPS) needs an individual that can operate on it to get accurate and valid results when gathering and
acquiring significant geographical data.
GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE
Geography is one of the areas of academic discipline with an elaborate syllabus which deals with virtually
every phenomenon within the earth crust. Hence, it is said that everything that can be located on the surface
of the earth (i.e geo-referenced) can be studied in Geography.
Also, in similar vein various scholars have overtime given their own definitions of Geography as it relates to
time (i.e temporal) and space (i.e. spatial). Adeyemo (2002) gave one of such definitions as a “discipline
which is primarily concerned with the observation and analysis of spatial patterns of virtually all
phenomena on the earth's surface; the processes involved, the underlying factors, as well as the possible
effects of the spatial processes and patterns”. A more contemporary definition is however given as, the study
of Man, his environment (Cultural-Sociofact, Mentifact and Artifact–and Physical – Biotic and Abiotic),
and the relationship (interaction, interconnection and interdependency) that exist between them.
Geography has been chastised for its lack of global ambitions many times and for some while (Taylor 1993;
Johnston 1985a 1985b). Moreover, Taylor's (1993) faith in the discipline 're-discovering' its world vision
still appears premature. Textbooks that are recent have introduced basic concepts to students of human
geography, or to its sub-fields, with an impression that the only experiences that concern 'us' are the 6 per
cent or so of the population of the world who happen to live in white and Anglophone dominated. The fissure
between popular and academic geographical debate has attracted less scholarly concern, although the
relatively low public profile of academic geography and the 'decoupling' (Machon and Ranger 1996) of
academic geography from school geography – a process which reflects a perceived 'withdraw(al) of
(geography) academics from active involvement in secondary education' (Stannard 2002, 80) – have
become widespread concerns (Clifford 2002; Johnston 2002; Thrift 2002). University and non-university
geography appear to inhabit different worlds.
The use of ICT in geography helps pupils learn by providing access to large quantities of information on
people, places and environments (www.teachingtime.com). According to UNESCO: ICT is a scientific
technological and engineering discipline and management technique used in handling information in
application and association with social, economic and cultural aspects. The integration of information and
communication technologies can help teachers and students (Noor-Ul-Amin, 2009). It also provides the
framework for analyzing data to investigate patterns and relationships in a geographical context. Once

pupils have made their findings, ICT can then help them organize, edit and present information in many
different ways.
There is no doubt that ICT is the medium of technological advances today. It is the medium of young people
and it already plays a pivotal role in almost every aspect of their lives. Therefore, it is used in a
classroom/learning environment supports the delivery of geography in a way that makes it highly engaging.
In this era of information-intensive development, possibly no industry is as actively courted by officials
concerned with regional development as the information technology, or IT industry. The proliferation of
(hoped-for) high-technology industrial parks is truly amazing. States and localities all hope to be on the
cutting edge of the continuing development of this industry.
Unfortunately for those concerned much of the geographic shift in location referred to by The Economist
entails globalization and the development of fully operating international supply channels. In view of the
foregoing, the study tends to objectively unravel the importance of information communication technology
to the field of geography, especially as the world keeps revolutionizing into the digital world, and
importantly is the fact that the operations of these tools need to be well operated by its users for validity and
accuracy of data acquisitions and gathering.
METHODOLOGY
The adoption of method for this study is the desktop review of published and unpublished works to gather
information that formed the bases of the secondary data used for the study, Using the innovation and
integration of ICT in Education from the west (Specifically China) beginning from year 2000-2009 to
showcase what the impact of the advancement in technology has been in the Education and specifically the
discipline of geography.
DISCUSSION
The Computer and Globalization
Although not the original purpose of computers, the rapid, cheap worldwide transfer of messages,
documents, data, and images have brought about yet another shrinking of distance and abetting of
globalization in all its economic and cultural forms. And even though access to computers for personal,
corporate, or group gain reflects extant power and income differences, the computer has become sufficiently
universal to have a vast democratizing effect, enabling communication and mobilization for almost any
group or cause. On the other hand, the computer also extends the spatial range of control, fostering
worldwide corporate mergers enabling economic and political power partially to supersede national
boundaries. In addition, alternate channels for advertising, buying, and selling are transforming the retail
industry as we know it. While catalogs have been around for a century, e-commerce (and more generally
persuasive communication) has a vast yet partly unknown potential for selling, shopping, and delivery of
goods and services, and for recruitment of persons (for jobs and for causes). The web is immensely valuable
for accessing information about rare and obscure goods, services, persons, and places, even from the most
remote places, as exemplified in the success of E-Bay.
Technology and Geography Education
There are two approaches to ICT that need to be considered. The first is to frame geographical
alphabetization in the way that it helps making sense of world that is increasingly digital. The other is to
apply two available technologies, remote sensing and Geographical Information Systems (GIS), as a way to
give an overview and particularly as tools to practice spatial thinking.
Digitality affects the way we organize our society and distort traditional patterns. What happens in
“cyberspace” has “real world” impact. For example, will digitality bring in a new element to the decision
about where to locate a business? It will affect where people live and the places they work. Digitality has
special demands of infrastructure. It affects the relationships of distance between places and how quickly

information spreads and in what form. It creates a divide between those who have access to the technology
and those who have not, and this digital divide may not follow any previously established differences.
Defining digital literacy broadly, ICT also redefines our social relationships and how cultures are created,
mediated and spread through space. In secondary school, the effect of ICT should be taught as a part of the
content within relevant competence aims, so that the cognitive patterns, categories and concepts can take
these effects into account. In terms of content digitality is also creating new spaces for geography. The
concepts of virtual worlds as spaces in cyberspace are only beginning to emerge, and it is not known where
this development will take us. The coming years might provide us with new insights, opportunities and ways
of understanding a digital geography.
Remote sensing
Remote sensing is not by any means a new technology in geography, but has been playing an important role
in cartography and studies of different spatial phenomena for decades. Over the last 20 years, it has become
the most prominent tool to make weather forecasts, in the surveillance of wildfires, for mapping
deforestation, alterations in vegetation cover and the coverage of the polar ice-caps, as well as military
surveillance and civil cartography. When satellite imagery was first introduced it sparked debate
internationally. During the cold war with its spy-satellites, attempts to legislate who could photograph what,
where and to whom the images could be distributed and so on were discussed with passion. While absent for
decades, this debate is coming back now, as better technology improves the quality of the remote imagery, at
the same time as it is more freely distributed and combined with close-up imagery to a level where it invades
the personal security and privacy of individuals. One example is the recent controversy around Google
Earth's Street view where children, private vehicles and pets are identifiable to any user worldwide. These
are issues that the students should know about.
Geographic Information System (GIS)

'A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer based information system that provides tools to
collect, integrate, manage, analyze, model, and display data that is referenced to an accurate cartographic
representation of objects in space” (Memecke, et al. 1995).
In the light of this definition, it is also recognized that GIS have several features that differentiates it from
other information systems. At first, GIS are structured to enhance map production. Various ways are
available for map production. They include paper map digitization, map generationvia aerial photographs or
satellite imagery, and map collection coordinates with the use of surveying techniques or global positioning
systems (GPS). Such techniques are either labor intensive or require specialized training and equipment.
Thus, in plenty of ways data acquisition can potentially cumbersome and costly issues in GIS
implementation. Secondly, GIS are spatial database management tools. In other words, they can be used to
obtain and manipulate spatially-defined data. The process of managing data begins with defining a link
between map data and attribute data. Geocoding is a term that describes the process of connecting attribute
data with the spatial coordinates on a map. For example, if a user needed to place the locations of her
customers' stores on a map, she could geocode each customer's address against coordinates on the map to
define points that would be used to represent the location of each customer. The geocoding process creates
fields in the attribute database for the longitude (location X-value) and latitude (location Y-value) of each
address. The resulting link generates a geographic database which is a synergistic combination of the two
data sets (i.e., the map data and the attribute data). For most applications, this database provides the user with
significantly more information than each data set would provide if used separately. Once these databases are
defined, GIS can be used to query data based on spatial criteria, based on criteria derived from the attribute
data, or based on some combination of these data. Spatial queries can be used to answer questions such as
“where is this house?' or “what is located at this intersection “'. Although queries such as this may be possible
with attribute data alone; GIS provides an integrated environment for performing these queries.
Furthermore, GIS can be used to perform queries with concepts such as “next to,” “contained within,” and
other spatially-referenced questions that often cannot be asked using other database management systems

(Berry, 1993)
The future of Geography
Geography with its growing importance has the following as very crucial:
• Empowering the citizen – through easy-to-use tools
• The importance of place – place-based decision-making
• A nervous system for the planet in real time
The future of geography as a discipline is to show good representation of the world in computer language
and in ways that are useful and meaningful
It is also to know the world by making new discoveries about how the world looks and works
And to alsoreflect on the role of technology, by changing our ways of knowing the world and in raising
issues of privacy and ethical behavior.
The Technological Revolution and Automated Geography

With the introduction of the PC and the increasing availability of spatial data, Dobson (1983) proposed the
future of geography cannot be separated from computing. Echoing earlier optimisms by Hägerstrand (2007)
and Haggett (2009) on the future applications of powerful technology, Dobson (1983) proposed the
development of Automated Geography in 1983—the year when the “Man of the Year” in Time Magazine
was a computer! According to Dobson, geographers should rally behind the banner of automated geography
to compute our way into the future. Despite the mixed responses from geographers (Marble and Peuquet
2003), the diffusion of computers proliferated in geography throughout the 1980s, largely through the
growing popularity of GIS, culminating in the late 1980s with the establishment of the National Center for
Geographic Information and Analysis (NCGIA) funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF).
NCGIA played an important role in moving GIS from essentially a technical discipline to a respected
geographic information science (GIS) (Good child 2002). Project Varenius funded by NSF, further
advanced the development of GIS throughout the 1990s. In Europe a call for the establishment of
computational geography by Openshaw (1994) and the recent push for Geo Computation (Open shaw and
Abrahart 2000) paralleled many of the recent developments in the U.S. At the end of the 1990s, geography
and technology are integrated in a more intellectual sense (Armstrong 2000).
However, from the beginning of year 2000 the west has been moving ahead in both innovation and
integration of ICT in Education. For instance, China's digital innovation was shown by growth in online
commercial applications that could be controlled by Government effectively. As a country it gave its nod to
nationally sanctioned commercial sites: TaoBao (2003, online shopping); Dianping (2003, urban city
entertainment guides); Hudong and Baike (2005, Wikipedia clones); Sina Weibo (2009, social network);
and Qiyi (2010 online entertainment) (Rabkin, 2011, p.73). Table 1 indicates the states of the digital world
from different viewpoints beginning from 2000-2009

Impacts of Technology on Geography

The increasing use of technology has allowed geographers faster processing of larger sets of data. The
increasing speed and capacity of computers allow and encourage the use of datasets that were simply
unmanageable and tedious only twenty years ago. Especially in physical geography (e.g., huge satellite
imagery datasets, such as Landsat 1972) but also in human geography (very large census files, like the 5
percent Public Use MicroSample (PUMS), or time-hogging analyses like clustering), far more
comprehensive datasets can be used and far more complex models can be run). Although coding of
qualitative data (recorded interviews, answers to open-ended survey questions) remains slow, computers
have vastly eased through direct computer answering of surveys, data entry and analysis, and textual search.
By 1998 a task could be completed in 12 hours on a 512-processor Cray T3E parallel supercomputer that in
1980 would have taken approximately eight years of nonstop computing on a top-end workstation.
The increasing use of computers has also contributed to the creation of vastly more data with better spatial
and temporal resolutions. The digital processing of satellite imagery began as early as 1965 in the military,
but has exploded in the last decade with the declassification of high-quality, frequently updated images of
most parts of the earth's surface. These images permit the analysis of change and processes, both short-term
(weather, traffic) and long-term (physical and human land use), and also allow recognition of complex and
previously hidden patterns revealing geological and historic processes. By the late 1990s, satellite images
with 1-meter resolution were commercially available for civilian applications. Corporations in insurance,
credit, and marketing; collected massive consumer data at the individual level. Also access to the vast
amounts of spatial and non-spatial data has become unbelievably easy and convenient. Nowadays, even
personal office computers (especially if networked) can process very large datasets. Only 25 years ago the
coauthor had to take boxes of punch cards to the computer, usually over in the College of Engineering, wait
patiently for the bulky printed output, and only then discover my stupid input error. It is perhaps
conservative to suggest that the efficiency of going from data entry to visual results has increased at least a
millionfold in the past 50 years.
Early users of computers were dominantly male in a tight network intent on quantitative methods and
mathematical models. But women are the leaders in qualitative methods, and the computing gap has
narrowed greatly over the years. Also, technologyis increasingly important in bridging the qualitative and

quantitative methods.
CONCLUSION
Undoubtedly the development of information technology in general and computer technology in particular
has created the most far-reaching impacts for geography as a discipline and the world we live in. As tools,
computers (in combination with other technologies) have extended geographers' eyes, hands, and brains. As
an integral part of reality, technology provide geographers new objects of study or new reality to
contemplate. Either consciously or unconsciously, we have plugged ourselves in with an intellectual
umbilical cord and become part of the machines (Gould 2005).
In many interesting ways, the computer has also returned geographers to the age of exploration–exploration
of not the physical world, but a virtual, digital world connected by computers. The technology is
empowering and the basis of stupendous gains in productivity, the spread of knowledge, the enabling of
long-distance communication and collaboration, and changing the practice of the academy–probably far
more in the future than it already has. The impacts of technology on society and on the landscape are also in
their infancy; and while history ever reminds us of the intense competitive drive toward concentration of
power and wealth, and while those with such power are in the best position to maintain and increase it, the
technology may be even more subversive than the printed word, and an inevitable and unstoppable agent for
democratization. Perhaps most important of all, technology have contributed to a larger audience both in the
academy and society, that spatial is special.
If the ultimate goal of geography is to better understand how nature works and how we humans can better
organize our activities on the surface of the earth, then we must continue to push the development of
geographers' craft. We must try to make everything computable on the one hand, and at the same time,
recognize the fundamental limits of computation and build dialogues with a variety of different scholarly
traditions. Or to put it more succinctly, we need to continue to Pixelize the social and at the same time,
socialize the pixels (Geoghegan et al. 2008).
It may be coincidence but we find it significant that John K. Wright delivered his AAG presidential address
entitled “Terrae Incognitae: The Place of the Imagination in Geography” in 1946–the same year the first
computer was built at the University of Pennsylvania. The more we read Wright, the more we think Wright is
speaking as eloquently to us today as he was to his audience in 1946. Wright (1947) warned the oncoming
generation of geographers against becoming too thickly encrusted in the prosaic. Our current state of
knowledge brings out sharply what Wright calls the contrast between the shadows of ignorance and the light
of knowledge. Wright further observes that “indeed, the more brightly the light of our personal knowledge
shines upon a region or a problem, the more attracted we are by the obscurities within it or concerning its
entire extent” (p. 4). Terrae incognitae of various forms and degrees stand forth clearly to arouse our
curiosity. Perhaps even more profoundly, Wright concludes that “the most fascinating terrae incognitae of
all are those that lie within the minds and hearts of men.” Maybe geography should be more than a
computational science in search of new algorithms. It should also be a humanistic science in search of
meanings of those computations and a speculation as to what lies beyond the limits of computation. More
than ever before, we need inner reflections on the outer world to balance the unprecedented superficiality of
its greedy consumption of information. Echoing J.K. Wright's AAG presidential address, Yi-Fu Tuan (2009)
observed that: “progress seems to consign us to a perpetual state of anxiety by offering us a giant menu for
every conceivable need and desire; and yet to choose wisely, all we have to work with is a computer–the one
in our head–that is now some 50,000 years old.”

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Planning, 30(4), 203–23.
Berry, J.K. (1993). Beyond Mapping: Concepts, Algorithms, and Issues in GZS. Ft. Collins, CO: GIS World
Books.
Clifford, N.(2002). The future of geography: when the whole is less than the sum of its parts Geoforum (33)
431– 436
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B. L. (2008). Socializing the pixel and pixelizing the social in land-use and land-cover change. In
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Remote Sensing and Social Science, 69-81. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
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497-505.
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Effect of Thunderb stormon Flight Operations in Yakubu Gowon Airport Heipang, Plateau State (Nigeria)
EFFECT OF THUNDER STORMON FLIGHT OPERATIONS IN YAKUBU

GOWON AIRPORT HEIPANG, PLATEAU STATE (NIGERIA)
Ishaku Asukudu Peter, Telzing Kurnap Pondu
Department of Geography, Plateau State University, Bokkos, Nigeria
Corresponding author: ishakuasukudupeter@gmail.com
Abstract
As the impacts of anthropogenic climate change mounts, climate related harms both economic and non –
economic disproportionally affects the world most vulnerable people with Africa being one of the hardest
hit – region. According to the six report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC), the
existing global warming of1.1oC has already caused dangerous and wide spread losses and damages and
future loss and damage will rise amongst the poorest vulnerable population with increased global warming.
The report also highlights that losses and damages are not comprehensively addressed by current financial,
governance and institutional arrangements especially in developing countries.
The study worked on the effects of thunderstorm on flight operations in Yakubu Gowon airport Heipang
focusing on the occurrences of seasonal and annual thunderstorms patterns and how its effects flight
diversion, delays and cancellation. However, in other to achieve the above, ten(10) years data on
thunderstorm occurrences, flight diversion, delay and cancellation were obtained from the Nigeria
meteorological agency (Nimet) office in Heipang. The data was analysed using multiple bar charts to
display the behavioral pattern of the variables, while product moment correlation coefficient was use to
show the strength of relationship between thunderstorm occurrences and flight diversion, delay and
cancellation and simple linear regression to predict the future behavior of the variables.
The result of the study shows that thunderstorms occurs more in the rainy season which may be attributed to
the movement of the inter - tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) whose movement give rise to seasonal
variation in the Nigeria. The study opined that tthunder storm accounted for 0.03% of flight diversion, flight
cancellation and flight delays attesting to the facts that flight operation within the study period would have
been influence by either technical problem, scarcity of aviation fuel among others. Inconclusion
thunderstorm had greater influence on flight diversion ( r = 0.52) than on flight delay ( r = 0.09) and flight
cancellation ( r = 0.13).
Key words: Effects, Thunderstorm, Diversion, Delay and Cancellation.
Introduction:
Thunderstorm also known as an electrical storm, lightning storm, or thundershower, occurs in association
with cumulonimbuscloud type and is astorm characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic
effect on the Earth's atmosphere. Thunderstorms are usually accompanied by strong winds, heavy rain,
sleet, hail. Relatively weak thunderstorms are sometimes called thundershowers. Thunderstorms may line
up in a series or become a rain band, known as a squall line. Strong or severe thunderstorms, known as super
cells, rotate as do cyclones. While most thunderstorms move with the mean wind flow through the layer of
the troposphere that they occupy, vertical wind shear sometimes causes a deviation in their course at a right
angle to the wind shear direction (Mooney, 2015).All thunderstorms progress through a life cycle from their
initial development through maturity and into degeneration. It is a known fact that thunderstorms occurred
before lightning, it is caused by the collision of clouds, the sound produces by resonance between high and
low clouds, and by high clouds descending and colliding into low clouds. And because of the built energy
and intensity of thunderstorm, it becomes dangerous and unsafe for aircrafts wherever it is building
(Accident investigation bureau, (AIB) 2013.

In some tropical regions, thunderstorms occur year-round. In mid-latitudes, they develop most frequently
in spring, summer while the Arctic regions occasionally experience it during summer (Pilot Outlook,
2010). Individual thunderstorms measure from less than 5 miles to more than 30 miles in diameter. Cloud
bases range from a few hundred feet in very moist climates to 10,000 feet or higher in drier regions. Tops
generally range from 25,000 to 45,000 feet but occasionally extend above 65,000 feet. Forced upward
motion creates an initial updraft, and cooling in the updraft results in condensation and the beginning of a
cumulus cloud. Condensation releases latent heat which partially offsets cooling in the saturated updraft
and increases buoyancy within the cloud. This increased buoyancy drives the updraft still faster, drawing
more water vapor into the cloud; and, for a while, the updraft becomes self-sustaining (Ayoade, 2015).
Countries of the size of United States or Australia experiences approximately10,000 variation in
thunderstorms rainfall over Nigeria using daily rainfall data and associated weather information over a 30
year period(1960 – 1999) for synoptic stations. Result shows that the dry season distribution pattern of
rainfall due to thunderstorms shows a general decrease from south to north similar to the total rainfall
distribution pattern in the country. At the peak of the wet season (July – Sept) thunderstorms rainfall
o
increases northwards up to around latitude 11 when it begins to decrease. The effect of orography in
enhancing thunderstorm rainfall across the country was also shown by elementary linkage analysis where
19synoptic stations were divided into thunderstorm region. The Six regions identified shows internal
coherence in terms of temporal fluctuations of thunderstorms. Eulodoyinetal(2009) studied monthly
rainfall distribution in Nigeria between 1985 -1994 and 1995 – 2004 and noted some fluctuation in most
months within the decades.
Severe thunderstorm can be as destructive as a tropical cyclone or a tornado. A single severe thunderstorm
unleashes its fury over an area of about 8km. Sometimes, especially along a weather front, thunderstorms
come in company and line up for more than 150km.Annually their destructive power results in economic
losses of about $2 billion. In Australia, thunderstorms are more damaging than cyclones, floods or bushfires.
The International Air Transport Association (IATA) stated that 71% of air accidents in Nigeria are due to
poor weather conditions (Bisiriyu, 2005).NOAA (2004) affirmed that weather affects flight operations in
Nigeria. Severe thunderstorm significantly influences the safety and operational efficiency of air traffic,
particularly at the terminal areas. The unavoidable consequences of reduced efficiency are delays,
diversions and cancellations of flights (Remi, 1987). NIMET (2011) reported that the year 2010 witnessed a
few instances of disruptions due to severe weather conditions. However, the month of March recorded a
severe dust hazy spell, which reduced horizontal visibility to between 200m-800m for several days and this
caused many disruptions in flight operations across the country. These disruptions affected flight operations
in Lagos, Abuja, Kano, Kaduna, Minna, Maiduguri, Sokoto, and Enugu. Others were Owerri, PortHarcourt
and Calabar airports. There were also cases of outright cancellations. In January and December, early
morning fog was reported in Lagos, Port Harcourt and Jos, which reduced horizontal visibility to between
200m-800m. This resulted in flight delays at these airports. In addition, thousands of Europe-bound
Nigerians were stranded at the Murtala Mohammed International Airport Lagos, as heavy snow pounded
European airports in December. These harsh weather conditions affected the number of inbound and
outbound flights at the Murtala Mohammed International Airport during the period. Therefore a good
knowledge of the subject matter becomes very important to aircraft poerators, pilots and flight crew
members as safety of lives and property should ensured and risk reduced to it barest minimum.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Study Area
Plateau State is located at the centre of country and is bordered to the north – east by Bauchi State, to north –
west by Kaduna State, to the south – east by Taraba State and to the south – west by Nasarawa state. It lies
o o o o
between latitude 8 53'20''N and latitude 10 33'20''N and longitude 8 320'E and longitude 10 33'20''E.

The Yakubu Gowon Airport is located in Barkin-Ladi L.G.A Plateau States, it lies within the southeastern
part of the Jos- plateaux, and is bordered by Bokkos to the South, Mangu to the East, Riyom to the West, Jos
0
east to the north. Barkinladi, lies between Latitude 9. 32'00” to 9.45'00”N and Longitude 8.54'00” to
9.5'00”E and has a land mass of approximately 1,032km2. The Airport lies at latitude 9.38'20”N and
longitude 8.52'15”E and has an elevation of 4.232ft/1.290m.
Climate
The climate of Barkinladi is typical of the Jos- Plateaux. It is characterized by two distinct seasons-dry and
rainy seasons. The dry season is characterized by lack of rainfall, low relative humidity, dry and dusty winds
commonly called harmattan. This often results in poor visibility hence, putting life at risk. The dry season
spans between November and March. However, for the past few years, this trend has drastically changed
due to global warming. The rainy season spans between April and October, and attains its peak toward the
end of May and August; it is usually marked by heavy down rainfall and high relative humidity. The heavy
down pour may also reduce visibility but it is not as bad as that experienced during dry season.
The mean annual temperature ranges between 220C to 27oC with the highest peak in March and the lowest in
January. This temperature is very typical of high altitude observed on the Plateau (Ezekiel, 2004).
Fig(1): Nigeria showing State of study(Plateau State)


Methodology
The goal of this study is to determine the effects of temperature and rainfall trends on maize yield in the
Plateau, and Benue States. However, in order to achieve these, the study made use of secondary data such as
annual thunderstorm occurances, flight cancellations delay and dversions for Heipang airport, obtained
from the head office of National Meteorological Agency (Nimet) Oshodi from 2010 – 2019.
The study used simple descriptive statistics such as mean in particular to summarize the climatic data and
other relevant data to these study, Pearson Moment Correlation Coefficient was used to for the strength of
relationship between the mean annual thunderstorm occurrances and flight cancellations, delays as well
assimple regression model to analyzed and predict the future behavior of the mean annual thunderstorms
occurrances as it relate to flight cancellations, delays and diversions indicated below, with the help of the
statistical software package for social sciences (SPSS).
Y = a + bX +c…………………………………………………………1
Where;
Y = independent variable
X = dependent variable
Where N = no of pairs (X, Y) values

X=independent variable
Y=dependent variable
r=coefficient of correlation
Correlation analysis shows the degree or relationships that exist between two variables and Y,
independent variable using the measured values. The estimate of correlate coefficient is denoted by(r) and
has a range of values between 1 (-1) and positive 1 (+1) i.e. measures the strength of the linear relationship.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Seasonal patterns of thunderstorm occurrences in Heipang Airport from 2010 to 2019
Figure 3: indicates thatthe seasonal variation in thunderstorm within the study period was remarkable. The
occurrences of thunderstorm tend to increase as the rainy season begins from April and increases to
September and declines in October to December.

Seasonal patterns of thunderstorms

The highest number of thunderstorms was recorded in June (2011) because this is the peak of stormy
weather this part of the globe and the least in December thus agreeing with (Anne-Duncan, 2010) who
asserted that the months of May to September, which is the months of the rainy season are mostly
characterized by thunderstorms and line squalls with its attendant turbulence, micro bursts and lighting. It
also supports (Maxwell, 2008), who said that the monsoon period of the year is the worst for bad weather
delays..
Annual patterns of thunderstorm in Heipang Airport from 2010 to 2019

Figure 4: indicates the annual variation in thunderstorm occurrences in the study area. The bar graph shows
the annual behavior of thunderstorm occurrences from 2010-2019.
Annual patterns of thunderstorm in Heipang Airport from 2010 to 2019

From the bar graph, it is obvious that there was minimal variation in the annual occurrence of
thunderstorms except in June 2011 where the highest thunderstorm case was recorded in the study area this
is to say that the behavior of thunderstorm occurrences in the study area is almost uniform, however, the
lowest cases of annual thunderstorms occurrences was recorded in January throughout the Period of this
study.
Figure 5: Flight diversion, Delay and cancellation due to thunderstorm at Yakubu Gowon Airport
from 2013 to 2017

Flight diversion, Delay and cancellation due to thunderstorm at Yakubu Gowon Airport from 2010 to
2019
Figure5: Shows the patterns of flight diversions, delays and cancellations within the study period. The graph
indicates that there were more of flight delays and cancellations than diversions. The result of analysis from
the graph shows that thunderstorms variably causes diversion, delays and outright cancellations. The
highest diversions were recorded in 2012 and the lowest in 2019, the highest delays were in 2015 and the
lowest in 2018, while the highest cancellations were in 2019 and lowest in 2012. Furthermore, the effect
decreases as the years goes by and was felt highly in diversion of flights schedules than in cancellations and
delays. The effect more on delays maybe attributed more to issues of poor logistics and lightly to the effect of
weather and climate which can be linked to climate change which is manifesting in such extreme weather
and climatic conditions.
Therefore, it can be deduced that thunderstorm occurrence influences the number of flight delays,
diversions and cancellations in Yakubu Gowon Airport. This finding is in line with Jones (2004), and Knecht
(2008) that most of flight delays and diversions were caused by poor weather conditions such as
thunderstorm occurrence, poor visibility, wind shear and squall.
Thunderstorm frequencies in relation with flight diversion, delays and cancellation (2010-2019)
However, thunderstorm frequency is in consonance with flight cancellations and delays, but differs from the
trend of flight diversion, it shows that 2017 with the highest thunderstorm frequency shows a corresponding
increase in the number of flight delay and cancellations but the reverse in the number of diverted flights.
To show the extent to which thunderstorm frequency affected operations of flight in the study area as
cancelled, delayed and diverted flight is as represented in multiple bar graph as shown in figure 4. The
results show that the effect of weather on diversion of flight was minimal for flight diversions and
cancellation but more on delays for the period of the study.
Figure6: Thunderstorm frequencies in relation with flight diversion, delays and cancellation (2010-
2019)

4.5 TEST OF HYPOTHESIS

FLIGHT DIVERSION
The strength of the relationship between the independent variable (ie thunderstorms) and the dependent
variable (ie flight diversion) in Yakubu Gowon airport Heipang was tested using product moment
correlation coefficient,
However, (r) stands for the strength of the relationship between thunderstorms and diversions study area;
where r = 0.52 and means that the relationship between thunderstorm and flight diversion was strong within
the study period therefore accepting the alternative hypothesis (H1) and rejecting the null hypothesis (Ho),
while using simple regression statistical techniques was used to test if thunderstorm significantly predict
flight diversion the result of the coefficient of determination indicates that thunderstorms contribute only
0.03% to flight diversions meaning that thunderstorm do not significantly predict flight diversions.
Furthermore, B = 0.014, P =0.887 means a unit increase in thunderstorm will increase flight diversions by
0.014.in addition to thunderstorm other factors such as technical operation, and human factors also impact
on flight diversions.
FLIGTH DELAY
The analysis of the correlation between thunderstorm frequency and flight delays in Yakubu Gowon airport
Heipang is where (r) represent the strength of relationship between the independent variable ( thunderstorm)
and the dependent variable (delay). However, r is 0.09 meaning that the relationship of the variables in the
study had a very dismal relationship ie flight delays was not significantly affected by thunderstorm but could
be as a result of other factors such as mechanical issues, human among other factors, therefore accepting the
null hypothesis (Ho) and rejecting the alternative hypothesis (H1). However, the result of coefficient of
determination (C/D) =r2= 0.0002 = 0%, shows that flight delays in the airport within study period was not
determine by thunderstorm. Furthermore, B = 0.005, P = 0.979 means a unit increase in thunderstorm will
increase flight diversions by 0.005.
FLIGHT CANCELLATION
The strength of the relationship between the independent variable (ie thunderstorms) and the dependent
variable (ie flight cancellation) in Yakubu Gowon airport Heipang was tested using product moment
correlation coefficient,
However, (r) stands for the strength of the relationship between thunderstorms and diversions study area;
where r = 0.128 and means that the relationship between thunderstorm and flight cancellation was not strong
within the study period therefore accepting the null hypothesis (Ho), and the rejecting alternative hypothesis
(H1) while using simple regression statistical techniques was used to test if thunderstorm significantly
predict flight cancellation the result of the coefficient of determination indicates that thunderstorms
contribute only 0.03% to flight cancellation meaning that thunderstorm do not significantly predict flight
cancellation but by other factors like technical, fuel scarcity and human failures among other factors.
Furthermore, B = 0.031, P = 0.725 means a unit increase in thunderstorm will increase flight diversions by
0.031.
Conclusion
Since it is now clear that global climate is changing, it is therefore mandatory for society to pay adequate
attention in its studies in other not to fall victims. Thus this study attempted to provide useful insight on the
effect of thunderstorm on air transportation in Nigeria.

References
Accident investigation bureau.(2003). Report of aviation accidents in Nigeria.Retrieved from
http/www.aib.org.
Anne-Duncan, P. (2010). Thunderstorm and their associated Hazards.AvStop Online Magazine.1-2.
Ayoade, J. O. (2015). Annual rainfall trends and periodicities in Nigeria. Nigerian Geographers, 16(2),
167–176.
Bisiriyu, R. (2005). Causes of Dereliction in the Nigerian Aviation Industry. Punch Newspaper, p. 41.
Eludoyin (2009) Monthly variation in the 1985 – 1994 and 1995 – 2004 rainfall distributionover five
selected synoptic stations in Western Nigeria. Journal of Meteorology and Climate science. 7:11- 12.
Jones P. G. and Thorton, P. K. (2004).The potential impacts of climate change in Africa and Latin
America.Global Environmental Change; 13:51 – 9. View article Google scholar.
Knecht, W. (2005).Pilot willingness to take off into marginal weather, Part II. Federal Aviation
Administration,Washington, D.C 3(2), 1-3.
Maxwell, I. (2008). Thunderstorm and weather Phenomenon Hazards to Flight Operation. 1-5.
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Thunderstorms University of Illinois
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Space Weather Storms. Washington, D.C. U.S. Department of Commerce
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O u t l o o k . ( 2 0 1 4 ) . T h u n d e r s t o r m s . R e t r i e v e d f r o m
http//www.pilotoutlook.com/aviation.weather/thunderstorms.
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Comparative Study of Radioactivity Concentration in Irish Potatoes Grown in Bags Using Fertilizer And Without Fertilizer.
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF RADIOACTIVITY CONCENTRATION IN IRISH POTATOES

GROWN IN BAGS USING FERTILIZER AND WITHOUT FERTILIZER.
1
Masok F. B., 2Nanzip D. B, 3Johna T. R., 4Choji D. D., 5Luka D. M. and 6Sati W. K.
1-6
Department of Physics, Plateau State University Bokkos, Plateau, Nigeria
Authors Email: masokfelix@plasu.edu.ng
Abstract
Radionuclides which the primary causes of radioactivity in the soil are Uranium (238U), Thorium (232Th) and
40
potassium ( K). These radionuclide can be absorbed by the plant and transfers to the edible parts which
becomes harmful to human health. In this study, activity concentration of these radionuclides were
determined in Irish potatoes grown in bags on soil samples collected from Vwang district of Jos South local
government area which is one of the locality in Plateau State producing large amount of potatoes yearly.
226 232 40
Using gamma spectroscopy, the activity concentrations of Ra, Th and K in these soil samples were
found to range from 45.57 Bqkg－１， Bqkg－１
７３．１１， Bqkg－１
１６１．１９ and １０２．３９Bqkg－１， Bqkg－１
１０３．２３，３４３．０４Bqkg－１respectively．
226 232
Similarly，the activity concentrations of Ra and Th in the Irish potatoes cultivated on fertilizedsoil ranged
from77.38 Bqkg－１ Bqkg－１
to １０９．６２ Bqkg－１
and ７６．８７ Bqkg－１
to １２９．５２．The activity concentrations of 226Ra and 232Th in Irish
potatoes grown on fertilized soil were found to be slightly higher compared to those grown on unfertilized
－１－１－１－１
soil which ranged from 35.96 Bqkg to ９８．１９ Bqkg and ６６．７６
Bqkg to 127.39 Bqkg ． The activity concentration of
Ra－２６６was found to be enriched in both fertilized soil and fertilized potatoes．This enhancement in activity
concentrations may be attributed to the used of the phosphate fertilizer and the absorption tendency of
potatoes for Ra-266.
Introduction
Food is an important needs of man and Irish potatoes is one of the must consumed root crop globally． The
rapid increase in population of the world is becoming a thread to food security （Pulhani，２０
et'al．，05), hence the need for
an increase in the production of food to meet up to this demand. The use of chemical fertilizer for agricultural
purposes can increase crop yield (Fageriaet'al., ２０１０）． Fertilization of the soil can increase the efficiency of the soil
for better quality of produces (Guidotti, et al., ２０１５）． Chemical fertilizer is a chemical compound that contain
elements such as Nitrogen， Phophrus and Potasium N（．P．
K） which are very essential nutrients for enhancing crop yield
（Alharbi，et'al．，２０１３，
Guidotti, et al., ２０１５）．
238 232 40
The natural radionuclide； Uranium （U), Thorium ( Th) and potassium ( K) are the primary sources of
radioactivity in the soil. Its origin can be traced to phosphate ore which form the major raw materials used in
the production of phosphate fertilizer （Masok et al．，２０１８）．
This natural radionuclide existing in the soil，
water and rocks
are not distributed homogenously throughout the world but their concentration depend on the geographical and
geological location （
Alshari ＆El－ Tasher, 2019),
Information on the radioactivity of the soil is essential for health purposes (Becegatoet al., ２００８）． Nowadays， the
application of chemical fertilizer such as NPK and urea to soil has become an essential part of agricultural activity to
enhance crop yield. Plant nutrients supplies by the soil is very limited and are been disturbed by harvest
which lead to the reduction in the quality of yield. The concentration of uranium in phosphate rocks range
from 30 ppm to 260ppm (Masok et al．，２０１８）
which is below its abundance in the earth crush. The application of
chemical fertilizer may help in the increment of the phosphate and the uranium concentration of the soil
thereby increasing the nutrient supplied to the crop (Boukhenfouf and Boucenna 2011).
Irish potato (Solanumtuberosum） is said to have originated from the highland of Boloivia in South America．
It could
be grown under rain－ fed condition or irrigation but waterlogged areas are unsuitable. Temperatures higher
0
than 27 C are unfavorable for the production of economic size tubers. The cool climate temperature range of
0 0
21 C–26 C is required for sprouting of the planted seedlings． Irish Potatoes can be grown on all soil types,

except heavy water-logged clays, but for optimum yields need a well-drained loam or sandy loam, relatively
free from stones(MOA, 2011). Better tuber yields have been obtained from potatoes grown on soil whose
o
pH ranges between 5.0 and 7.0 (MOA, 2011). Temperature ranged between 15-25 C is ideal for Irish potato
tuber development. At higher temperatures the plant fails to initiate tuber formation and at low
temperatures vegetative growth is restricted by frost. The number and sizes of tubers produced per plant is
higher at lower than at higher temperature. Irish potatoes produced better tubers when planted on moist
loamy soil (MOA, 2011).
Irish potatoes is a root crop which exhibits a greater root absorption of radionuclide than there trapping into
external plant surface even though there is a considerable weather condition for it (Wilcox 1970).
Growing of potatoes in bags or sacks was a method adopted from Israel and the United State of America
where it helps in the use of discarded bags, less used of pesticide, disease control and also the control of the
fertilizer to be used to the soil, preservative and limit the land for crops production (Ghazwa, et al.，２０１６，
238 232
Westermannet al.，１９９４）．
Moreover， fertilize material such as phosphate （ which has U and Th) and potassium
which are used in plant nutrition are considered to be important source of soil contamination and a source of
radioactivity (Ghazwa, et al.， However ２０１６）．，
the influence of chemical fertilizer on the radioactivity of the fertilizes
soil still need more research and investigation therefore， this research is aim at taking the comparable study of the effect
226 232 40
of fertilizer （NPK and urea） on the radioactivity of （Ra, Th and K radionuclide) on Irish potatoes grown in
bags in Jos south local government area of Plateau State Nigeria. Consequently, the geology of the area
constitute a major source of external exposure to radiation for the inhabitants of the area； thus，making
the assessment of radiological impact and risks to the population are of major interest．Application of chemical
fertilizer can result in a yield of over ３２％upon the unfertilized soil used in Irish potatoes． For example the current rate of
nitrogen fertilizer application practiced across the country is based on the recommendation released from the research
Centre；there are varieties of soil types, climate and associated factors into consideration. It has been found
that, 138kg nitrogen and 20kg Phosphorus is an appropriate quantity for most favorable production of
Potato (Zelalerm et al., 2009).
The radioactive element present in biosphere can interfere with human through food chain, this radionuclide
Can be transported through soil to plant and then to food which can lead to uptake of radioactive element by
humans, the radioactive contents transfer from soil to plant root and then re－located in different parts of plant
depending on the metabolism and condition of plant growth （
Zelalerm et al．，
２００９）．
MATERIALS AND METHOD

Study Area
This study was conducted in Vwang District of Jos South Local Government of Plateau State. The area has a
0 0
latitude of ９４１＇
８＇＇
N and longitude of ８４４＇２４＇＇
E with a population of about of ６５０，８３５
people（
NPC，２００６）．
More than ２０００ Irish
Potato farmers in the area with a yearly rainfall of １３２４
mmper year （ Nuhuet al ２０１５）．
Vwang Distrcit has a conducive
weather temperature minimum of 13.9 c (57 F) and maximum of 28.80 c (83.80F), which is for suitable for
0 0 0
growth of Irish Potato (Nuhuet al ２０１５）．

Figure 1. Map of Jos South L.G.A showing the location of Vwang
Sample Collection
Bags grown method commonly used in plant research （ MOA，２０１１）
was adopted for the purpose of this study
because the researcher can make all the necessary observations．
After intensive interview, soil samples were
collected from Irish potatoes farm land in Farin-lamba village of Vwang district, Jos south local
government. Using big hoe, ten (10)samples of top soil not below the depth of 20cm different points within
the farm land which covered an area of about 200m by 200m were collected and labled with sample ID S1-
S10 The samples were collected into different bags to a height of about 30 cm and were weighing
approximately 5kg each. N.P.K fertile was bought from Bukuru market.
Sample Pre- Treatment

Each bag was watered before the planting of the Irish. The potatoes seedling popularly called Marable on the
Plateau was planted. After which the samples were randomly divided into two； the first twenty bags were
fertilize using N．P．K fertilizer while the remaining twenty were not fertilized throughout the study． For those
samples to be fertilized, N.P.K fertilizer was applied at two stages； first just before the planting and secondly
six （６）weeks after planting． Until the end of the growing period the plantation all the samples were adequately
watered three days per week to keep the soil moist. In this study fertilizer was applied at a concentration of
one full cup of tin milk per bag.

Fig 2a Planting Fig 2b Maturity (8 weeks) Fig 2c Harvesting
Sample Preparation
After the harvest, soil and potatoes from each bag was treated separately as a sample. Soil samples not
fertilized were marked with sample identity none fertilized soil (NFS) while those fertilized were
distinguished using sample identity of fertilized soil (FS). Similarly, Irish potatoes that were grown with
fertilizer were labeled as fertilized potatoes (F-poatoes) while those grown without fertilizer were labeled as
none fertilized potatoes NF-potatoes. Soil samples were sundry for two days to ensure no moisture is in the
sample. Stones, organic matters were remove from the soil sample and then pulverize into fine powder form.
Each sample was packed into nylon bag, labeled and seal to avoid cross contamination before the analysis.
0
The Irish potatoes were slice into smaller pieces and oven dry at a temperature of 105 C for 24 hours (Masok
etal., 2018). The samples were separately crush and sieve through profiler to collection fine powder form of
the sample which is homogenous. Each sample was packed and sealed in a polythene leather. The sample
were taken to the nuclear laboratory in Zaria for analysis．
Figure 3.1 Sample Sun drying Fig 3.2 Sample Sieving Fig. 3.2 Packed Samples
Sample Analysis
At the laboratory, each sample was separately packed into radon-impermeable cylindrical plastic containers
which were selected based on the space allocation of the detector vessel. To prevent radon-222 escaping, the
packaging in each case was triple sealed. Radon and its short-lived progenies were allowed to reach secular
radioactive equilibrium by storing all the soil and potatoes samples for 30 days prior to gamma spectroscopy
measurements.
The analysis was carried out using a 76x76mm NaI (Tl) detector crystal optically coupled to a photomultiplier
（）．
tube PMT The assembly has a preamplifier incorporated into it and a 1kilovolt external source. The detector is
enclosed in a 6cm lead shield with cadmium and copper sheets. This arrangement is aimed at minimizing the
effects of background and scattered radiation.
Fig. 4 Gamma Spectrometry set up at Zaria
The data acquisition software is Maestro by Camberra Nuclear Products. The samples were measured for a
period of 29000 seconds, for each sample. The peak area of each energy in the spectrum was used to
compute the activity concentrations in each sample by the use following equation:
－１
C（Bq． kg ）＝Cn／ Cfk
Where,
－１
C = activity concentration of the radionuclides＇in the sample given in BqKg
Cn ＝count rate （
counts per second）Count per second （
cps）
＝
Cfk ＝
Calibration factor of the detecting system.
Calibration and Efficiency Determinations

Calibration of the system for energy and efficiency were done with two calibration point sources, Cs-137
and Co-60. These were done with the amplifier gain that gives 72% energy resolution for the 661.16KeV of
Cs-137, and counted for 30minutes.The standards used to check for the calibration are the IAEA gamma
Spectrometric reference materials RGK－１－４０
for K ，
－１
RGU for Ra－２２６（
Bi－２１４
peak）
－１
and RGTh for Th－２３２（
Ti－２０８）
and the
background count rate was done for 29000 seconds.
Table 1.1 Spectral Energy windows used in the analysis

Isotope Gamma Energy (Kev) Energy Window (Kev)
R - 22 6 1764. 0 1620 - 182 0
Th - 23 2 2614. 5 2480 - 282 0
K - 4 0 1460. 0 1380 - 155 0

Table 1.2 Energy Calibration for quantities spectral analysis

Isotope Calibration Factors Conversion Factors( Bq-Kg-1) Detection Limit s
10-3(cps/ppm) 10-4(cps/ppm) ppm Bq/K g
40 K 0.02 6 6.43 1 0.03 2 454.5 4 14.5 4
226 R a 10.50 0 8. 63 2 12.20 0 1.3 2 3.8 4
232 T h 3.61 2 8.76 8 4.12 0 2.2 7 9.0 8
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Activity concentration of 232Th, Ra226 and 40K in soil samples
The activity concentrations of 232Th, Ra226 and 40K in fertilized and non-fertilized soil samples are recorded in
232 226 40
Table １．
The activity concentrations of Th, Ra and K in fertilized soil were found to range from 73.12
－１－１－１－１－１－１－１－
Bqkg to １０３．２３
Bqkg ，４５．５３
Bqkg to１０２．３９ Bqkg and １６１．１９ Bqkg to ３４３．０２
Bqkg with a mean values of ８８．６２ Bqkg ，７１．２４
Bqkg
１－１
and 241.57 Bqkg respectively．Similarly， The concentration of same nuclides in non－ fertilized soil samples
－１－１－１－１－１－１
Bqkg to 97.07 Bqkg ，
ranged from７３．１１３４．５６ Bqkg to 64.68 Bqkg and ３１４．８４ Bqkg to 209.06 Bqkg with the mean
concentrations values of 79.29Bqkg－１，53.09Bqkg－１ Bqkg－１
and ２３５．１８ respectively.
226 232 40
Activity concentration of Ra ，Th, and K in fertilized and non-fertilized soil samples
Table 1．
SampleDI Fertilized soil (FS) samples (Bq/Kg) Non-Fertilized soil (FS) samples (Bq/Kg )
(FS)Ra-226 (FS)Th-232 (FS)K -40 (NFS)Ra -226 (NFS)Th-232 (NFS)K -40
S 1 103.2 3 73.8 8 261.7 4 97.0 7 58.5 5 287.5 4
S 2 100.5 5 53.0 4 219.2 2 93.2 2 34.5 6 237.0 8
S 3 75.0 2 69.9 1 316.2 8 90.3 2 56.1 5 241.6 8
S 4 103.2 7 74.9 5 343.0 4 85.2 3 60.4 7 314.8 4
S 5 87.2 1 60.4 7 161.1 9 75.0 2 58.1 1 301.8 0
S 6 76.0 2 78.9 9 288.7 2 96.8 8 59.2 1 247.5 9
S 7 80.2 6 50.5 7 212.8 9 91.3 1 45.2 9 294.6 7
S 8 73.1 2 90.1 6 237.6 7 76.6 2 64.6 8 209.4 6
S 9 90.3 2 63.0 3 206.5 1 79.4 5 46.0 8 272.7 4
S1 0 97.2 4 102.3 9 168.5 9 73.1 1 50.8 4 209.7 8
Mean 88.6 2 71.2 4 241.5 7 79.2 9 53.0 9 235.1 8
In comparism， the activity concentration of Ra－２２６was observed to be higher in most of the fertilized soil （Table１； column
２）
than in non－fertilized soil as presented in Table１；column The ５． concentrations of Th－２３２（１
in all the fertilized soil Table
column ３） are found to be higher than those of non－ fertilized sample （
Table１；column ６）． However， the effect of fertilizer
was not observed in the concentration of K－４０ in both fertilized （
Table１；
column ４） and non－ fertilized soil （Table１； column
7) because most of soil samples that were not fertilized were observed to have higher concentration of K-40
than those fertilized. In this study, only the activity concentrations of Ra-226 and Th-232 were enriched in
soil as a result of fertilizer application. The concentration of Ra-226 in fertilized soil is lower than the value
reported for the same nuclide in farmland from Malaysia (Alzubaidi et＇ al 2016) (See Table 3) but higher
than what was observed in many other countries listed in (Table3) such as Algeria （ Boukhenfouf ２０１１），Egypt
（Uosif et＇
al 2008) and U.S.A (Faanu et＇ al ２０１１）．
The higher values obtained for the concentration of K－４０
in both fertilized

and non－
fertilized soil may be attributed to the abundance of K－４０
naturally in soil．
232 226 40
Activity concentrations of Th, Ra and K in Irish Potato samples
238 232 40
Table ２ shows the activity concentrations of U, Th and K in the Irish potatoes samples as obtained in this
study. These values ranged from 78.34 Bqkg－１ to １０９．６２
－１
Bqkg for Ra－２６6, 76.87Bqkg－１ to １０７．８１
－１
Bqkg for Th－２３２ and from
－１－１
１３２．０３
Bqkg to ２２８．０３Bqkg for K－４０ in potatoes grown using fertilizer．
The activity concentration of Ra-266 in potatoes grown using fertilizer (Table2； column ２） are higher than the
concentration of the same nuclide in Irish potatoes grown without fertilizer （ Table２； column ５） except in sample S７．
Conversely， the concentrations of Th－２３２ in fertilized potatoes （Table２； column３） and non－ fertilized potatoes （Table２；
column ６） and K－４０（Table２； column ３and Table 2； column ７） does not show any recurrent pattern that will suggest
enrichment of nuclides as a result of fertilizer application． Therefore，the increased in concentration of Ra－２６６observed in
fertilized potatoes （
Table２；column ２） when compare with non-fertilized potatoes (Table2； column ５） suggest that Irish
potatoes absorbed Ra－２２６ more readily than Th－２３２ and K－４０．
Table 2. Activity concentration of Ra226, 232Th, and 40K in Irishpotato samples
Sample DI Fertilized potato (FP) samples (Bq/Kg)

Non-Fertilized potato (NFP) samples (Bq/Kg)
(FP)Ra - 22 6 (FP)Th-232 (FP)K -40 (NFP)Ra -226 (NFP)Th-232 (NFP)K - 4 0
S 1 85.2 1 105.9 3 228.0 3 68.8 1 91.2 9 213.1 2
S 2 97.6 4 107.8 1 218.5 9 38.1 9 110.2 5 219.8 3
S 3 95.2 8 76.8 7 196.9 2 45.3 9 89.4 9 206.3 4
S 4 109.6 2 101.9 5 209.7 4 43.4 3 66.7 6 268.9 4
S 5 102.3 9 95.2 3 222.6 1 60.1 4 127.3 9 200.3 0
S 6 81.3 8 114.1 0 156.4 2 35.9 6 84.4 2 203.1 1
S 7 77.3 8 93.3 8 152.5 7 98.1 9 97.1 2 153.6 4
S 8 91.8 4 102.7 4 164.6 9 88.0 1 104.5 5 176.7 0
S 9 78.3 4 129.5 2 132.0 3 64.4 9 99.2 0 114.6 6
S1 0 86.0 5 97. 4 3 167.1 1 76.5 0 102.7 4 117.9 3
Mea n 90.5 1 102.4 5 184.8 7 61.9 1 97.3 2 180.4 6

226 232 40
Table 3. Activity concentration of Ra ，Th, and K in soil samples across the globe
-1
Country Activity concentration Bqkg Reference
232 226 40
T h R a K
Algeri a 5 0 5 3 31 1 Bou khenfouf 201 1
Brazi l 0.4 - 1 7 3 - 2 1 31 - 12 4 Becegot et’al 201 5
Egyp t 6 5 117. 6 12 6 Uosif et’al 200 8
Greec e 8 - 7 8 8 - 6 8 185 - 86 8 Servitzoglou et’al2018
Ital y 20 - 7 0 24 - 23 1 242 -143 4 Guldottil et’al 201 5
India n 48 - 30 9 3 - 2 1 322 - 56 4 Hameed P.S 201 4
Ira q 9 - 1 2 12 - 1 8 248 - 33 8 Najam L et’al 201 5
Malaysi a 88 - 18 1 59 - 16 7 202 - 52 9 Alzubaidi et’al 201 6
Nigeri a 48. 1 51. 5 114. 7 J.Beretka et’al 198 5
Pakista n 42 - 5 0 30 - 5 0 591 - 70 9 Akhtar N. et’al 201 1
Spai n 4 9 4 6 65 0 R.D Senthikumor 201 6
Turke y 55 - 8 1 60 - 9 8 450 - 73 7 Cengizg G.B 2 01 9
Tripol i 9. 5 10. 5 27 0 R.M Yusuf et’al 201 3
U.S. A 3 5 4 0 37 0 Faanu et’al 201 1
Vwang, Nigeri a 71. 2 88. 6 241. 5 Present stud y
-1
World Range Bqkg 11 - 6 4 16 - 11 0 140 - 85 0 UNSCEAR 200 0
World Average Bqkg -1 3 0 3 5 40 0 UNSCEAR 200 0
Conclusion
Using gamma spectroscopy, the activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in these soil samples were
found to range from 45.57 Bqkg－１，７３．１１
Bqkg ，
－１
１６１．１９－１
Bqkg and １０２．３９
－１
Bqkg ，１０３．２３－１
Bqkg ，３４３．０４－１
Bqkg respectively．
Similarly，
226 232
the activity concentrations of Ra and Th in the Irish potatoes cultivated on fertilized soil ranged from 77.38
－１－１－１－１ 226 232
Bqkg to １０９．６２ Bqkg and ７６．８７ Bqkg to １２９．５２ Bqkg ． The activity concentrations of Ra and Th in Irish potatoes
grown on fertilized soil were found to be slightly higher compared to those grown on unfertilized soil which
ranged from 35.96 Bqkg－１ to ９８．１９
－１
Bqkg and ６６．７６
－１
Bqkg to 127.39 Bqkg ．
－１
The activity concentration of Ra－２６６
was found
to be enriched in both fertilized soil and fertilized potatoes．
This enhancement in activity concentrations may be
attributed to the used of the phosphate fertilizer and the absorption tendency of potatoes for Ra-266.
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Christian /Muslim Relation In Nigeria: Journey of Hope
CHRISTIAN /MUSLIM RELATION IN NIGERIA: JOURNEY OF HOPE

Ezekiel Yayi Kakoh And Professor Musa A. B. Gaiya
Department of Religion and Philosophy, Faculty of Arts University of Jos
ABSTRACT
The relationship between Islam and Christianity has been a rivalry historically; it has been a claim to the
right knowledge of God. A civilized religion should concern itself with peace, spiritual and social security, it
should aims at achieving unity and harmony. Situation in Nigeria began changing with the introduction of
Sharia law in zanfara. Many efforts have been taken for better understanding between the two faiths;
however, the question unanswered is who has the right to say which the right or wrong religious is teaching.
The fact that both should accept each other's faith and celebrate them has been suggested, both faith call for
tolerance. Doctrinal difference between Christians and Muslims are crucial but should not be a hindrance to a
meaningful relationship. The Christians believed that that Jesus is the prince of peace and frowns at violence,
injustice and destruction of public properties and killing of innocent souls. However findings have shown
that Pentecostal fundamentalist and Islamic fundamentalist are confrontational. They are guilty of
unwholesome preaching; they have negative feeling against each other. The three main religions
Christianity, Islam and African traditional religion preach peace, advocate for Justice, peaceful coexistence.
Finding has shown that the missionary nature of both faiths has contributed to the present situation. The
unhealthy interferences of the press, mutual distrust and involvement of religious bodies or institution are
seen as vehicles of religious bigotry and intolerance in Nigeria. Those challenges could be handle through
mutual understanding, truth telling, denial of self and desires.
Introduction
The rivalry between Islam and Christianity is partly a continuation of their past history, which glorified in
exclusive claim to the right knowledge of God and the truth about him and partly a logical consequences of
the ambition of the two religions who want to convert the whole world to the their own view of ultimate
reality. Looking at the Nigerian religious terrain, rivalry has become perennial between Christians and
Muslims, not because of the identical agenda of the expansionism and absolute claim to the truth by both
religions. The vigil which some keep on Muslim and Christian issues typically rests on man's inherent
infinitude nature. Smith in Gadaku said;
If we are honest, we know that there has been and is no one Christian position or Muslim position on
theological or any other matters; and if we are well informed, we know that in fact such positions
have been very much indeed and strikingly various, that Christian movement…”Christianity “and
the Islamic movement and all others have kept changing over time. And that been Christian or
Muslim means to participate in the ongoing movements. Nevertheless, despite such dynamism,
there is minimum core set doctrines on which human finitude does not infringe, and no which
variation is not permitted, a fixed pattern that throughout the historical changes has persisted
unchanged and that if one ventures to modify fixed patterns, one is no longer Christian/ Muslim. One
must not seriously innovate.
A civilized religion should be concern with peace, spiritual, and social security and how to inspire adherents
to relate to the Supreme Being as well as to fellow human beings in love despite historical, cultural or social
differences, whether the Supreme Being is referred to as ALLAH or GOD. Both Islam and Christianity are
referring to a Being that is the Almighty, the creator, and the ultimate judge of human beings. True religion is
aimed at achieving unity and harmony horizontally with fellow human beings and vertically with the
Supreme Being

CHRISTIAN/MUSLIM RELATION IN NIGERIA.

Rupert Brown in his concept hypothesis in social psychology said, the best way to reduce tension and
hostility between groups is to bring them into contact with each other in various ways and in order to be
successful, this contact must be of sufficient frequency; duration and closeness to permit the development of
meaningful relationship between members of the group concerned. The best way to break down negative
stereotypes and create peace in the community is to interact freely as possible with others from different
background. It helps to re-build trust and lay foundation for peaceful community relations. (Mc Cain 173).
The philosophical view that says 'I am because we are, since we are therefore I am and the Christian context
in Romans 12: 5, 'so in Christ we who are many form one body and each member belong to the others' has
posed a question that, Can Nigeria Christian Community maintain faithfulness to the mission of Christ
peace and contribute to the common good in the Nigeria of our time. Both religions (Christianity and Islam)
through their Holy Books, (the Bible and Qur'an) teach love, sincerity, integrity, tolerance, forgiveness,
humility, patience and peaceful co-existence. But it is clear today that what exist between the adherents of
these two great religions are suspicious relationships in Nigeria. The adherents of these two religions have
turned the teaching of their Holy books upside down. What exists among them is hatred, insincerity,
intolerance, unforgiveness, pride, impatience and conflicts of all kinds, the direct opposites of the teaching
of these two religious groups (Umaru 71). There is need to re-examine our ministry and how to realize it. The
ministry is faithfulness to the father and love to all. Peace in the theological since is not learn by reading or
listening to lectures but by engaging in practical context which found its ground on Christian tradition,
African tradition and contemporary socio-political situations. This three element have their places in the
Nigerian situation; Nigeria is a multicultural and multi-religious society that has lived together
harmoniously for many years. However, situation changed with the introduction of Sharia law in Zanfara
and other parts of the country. Attempts to bring back that harmony led to the effort of Christian Association
of Nigeria (CAN) and the Islamic supreme council of Nigeria coming together (Mavalla, transformation
16).
Several moves were made by different groups, individuals and associations to explore ways for a better
understanding between the two major religious faiths in Northern Nigeria. In October 1962 Christians from
different denominations contacted Muslims in Kano to establish a Christian –Muslim committee as a means
of enhancing mutual understanding and cooperation. Matthew 5:43, Romans 12: 18and Qur'an 60: 18 all
speaks of cooperation and kindness to each other. In 1963, the students of Ahamadu Bello University (ABU)
Zaria met to discuss the question of Ecumenism. In 1964, the then premier of Northern Nigeria, Sir Ahmadu
Bello said in his capacity as the Chancellor of ABU Zaria that, the task of the University was to bring a
dialogue between the Islamic culture from the East and the Christian culture from the West and a third
culture, that of the Ancient states and empires of Africa (Mavalla, transformation 85).
The first official Muslim – Christian dialogue was in November 1974 in Ibadan in Western Nigeria. The
agenda of the meeting concentrated on areas of similarities between the two religions and how both can stop
fighting each other. Another area of interest was the social decadence which included Nepotism, Abortion,
Bribery, Corruption and the concern for education. They were able to realize that both Christian and
Muslims were created by God and are both offspring's of Abraham and both profess submission to one God.
However, the only differences were on the divinity of Christ, salvation through Christ death and authenticity
of the Bible (Mavalla, transformation 86). Apart from the fact that there is the struggle for supremacy in the
spare of human life, Who has the right to say which is the right or wrong religious teaching of other people's
faiths ? There should be tolerance in such a way that each faith will have the space to present its facts and
appeal to others who may accept and be converted to their faith without any animosity. Accepting these
difference shall help each group appreciate them even celebrate them and capitalize on how they can make
their neighborhood a peaceful habitable environment for all adherents of these two faiths on both their holy
books. These faiths call for tolerance. Romans 5: 8, 'but God commanded his love toward us in that while we
were yet sinners Christ died for us'. Qur'an 42: 8 'if Allah had so willed, he could have made them a single

people but he admits whom he will have no protector or helper. According to Bishop Idowu Fearon, 'no
religion is inherently violent; it is the adherents who interpreted the scripture either violently or with a
peaceful motif (Mavalla, transformation 86).
AREAS OF CONTENTION
The role of religious fundamentalist and politicization of religion is creating the intensity and magnitude of
the violence recorded in the country. Dretke in Kajom reported that with the problem of increasing religious
intolerance as a recent development, substantial number of people did recall not long ago, how they used to
celebrate each other's religious festivals. This practice has disappeared due to increasing intolerance and
conflict between Muslim and Christians. A factor that contributed to this development is the politicization
of religion that occurred at both national, state and local, making one to wonder about the role of religion as
each of the Nigerian main religions claims to be a religion of peace. The primary thought of all religions is to
avoid violence. The main task is to avoid violence in other to have peace. Christ taught us that we must no
longer think in terms of an eye for an eye and tooth for tooth but rather; love your enemies and pray for
those who persecute you (Matthew 5:44) . It is in line with that, that the World Council of Churches (WCC)
has well-established approach to tackling conflicts and political differences which involved multilateral
consultation and extensive dialogues, even when the position held by different parties seems to be distant.
Upholding the interest of all parties with mutual respect can help to create a more positive climate of
tolerance, support and collaboration. What needs to be done is to seek the peace of God through his spirit.
Kajom cited Hans Kung that there will be no world peace without peace between the religions. His view is
that religious leaders of all world religions have a high responsibility to lead the nation toward peace. Kung
said we must not give up our religious identity or the reach for truth but we need a peaceful and pluralist basis
for this. All religions as well as political ideologies should begin from a universal ethic which recognizes the
criteria for what it means to be human. Dialogue and political agreement will replace violence (53). The
relationship between Muslims and Christians in Nigeria before the colonial epoch has been like that of cat
and rat. Islam was not friendly and opened to any religion since 1804. Lamak cited Musa Gaiya that:
Islam grew in the courts and in the markets. Ordinary Hausa and Fulani however continue to practice
traditional religion or at least syncretic Islam. This limited scope of Islam continued in the Hausa
states until the Jihad led by Othman Dan Fodio in 1800. Distinct marks of the Muslim societies in
post-jihad Northern Nigeria were establishment of the Emirate system and the entrenchment of the
shariah as the constitution of the states. Islam of this period which least in Northern Nigeria did not
have any contact with Christianity until 1900 when the first missionaries were seen as spies and the
Emir of Kano Aliyu, gave seventy two hours which to pull their loads and leave Kano (70).
The Islamic campaign in the North continued even after the death of Ahmadu Bello. The Nigeria Christians
and Muslims are so religious that they put religiosity in everything and that has brought lots of religious
crises and misunderstanding among them. Some Muslims will prefer to relate with other Muslim foreigners
than Christian in their neighborhood. The issue of peaceful co-existence should be based on the fact that no
man is an island. That human are inter-related. For what affects one person has the capacity to affect his
neighbor for in the peace of the neighbor he would have peace. Furthermore dialogue and Ecumenism are
potential sources of conflict transformation though they have been criticized for turning into a forum for
proselytizing. Moreover, there could be fear that dialogue may result in destructive self-criticism hence
understanding the work of the Christian Missions (Mavalla, transformation 87). Mavalla cited Idowu
Fearon that the prerequisite for meaningful dialogue should start with the understanding that dialogue is not
between Christianity and Islam but between Christians and Muslims. Both Christians and Muslims should
honestly see each other as humans and desire to each other as such. 'Our influences upon others depend not
so much upon what we say as upon what we are. Man may combat and defy our logic, they may resist our
appeals but a life of disinterested love is an argument which Gainsay A. Said 'is consistent life characterized
by the meekness of Christ power in the world '? (88).
Doctrinal differences between Christians and Muslims are crucial but should not be a hindrance to a

meaningful relationship. The cause of controversy in Kaduna was more to do with the unfair competition
and discrimination in areas such as education, politics and employment especially where they were used as
an instrument of conversion when they become real obstacles to a close cooperation between Christians and
Muslims (Mavalla, transformation 88).
The study observes the change in status of non –Muslim groups which could be a potential source of
conflicts in the sense that, the non- Muslim groups who were subordinated ethic groups could now challenge
the Hausa /Fulani on their right to rule over them. The Christian denomination saw that they were unable to
secure a platform in which to effectively respond to the subordination of Christianity by Islam in the post-
colonial Northern Nigeria so, they found it imperative to form an association that could unite the Northern
Christians for an effective response to these challenges.
Christian Teaching on Peace
Christianity is believed to be a religion of peace and Jesus is the prince of peace. Adherents of the
religion are to live in peace, prosperity, progress and development. Thus Christianity frowns at
violence, injustice and destruction of public property and killing of innocent souls or lives. This
position is made clear in the gospel of Matthew. Thus: 'Blessed are the peace makers for they shall be
called children of God, Matthew 5:9 (NIV). Jesus further says that, and do not resist him that is
wicket and whoever slaps you on your right cheek, turn the other also to him (Matthew 5:39) (NIV).
In another portion of the same book, Jesus said that; however I say to you; continue to love your
enemies and pray for those persecuting you' (Matthew 5:44) (NIV).
From Christ teaching, Christians are obliged to be loving and peaceful to one another and non -
Christians alike irrespective of their religious or cultural differences. Unfortunately, this
understanding of Christ teaching is fast dying. This is because modern Christian preachers,
particularly of the Pentecostal generation demonize the other, particularly Islam (Yahaya18).
Supporting this point, Udiodem in Yahaya observed that;
The Pentecostal fundamentalist could be likened to the Islamic fundamentalist. They spread their
messages through public crusades and revivals often in a predominantly Muslim area. Therefore,
Muslim resentment of them for violating their Sharia, a law which forbids Christians on their right to
profess and practice their religion often results to confrontation (22).
The labeling of Islam by Christian fundamentalists and Pentecostal as satanic religion has provoked
Muslims. Yahaya cited Udiodem that 'this type of blatant insensitivity to other religious sensitivity
constitutes an act of provocations'. It was this type of crusade that led to the Kano riot in 1991 between
Muslims and Christians. Sometimes the Pentecostal and fundamental groups feel that the mainstream
churches are too compromising in matters of faith and politics. Thus they often campaign to take the
leadership of Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) and use it as a political platform (39).
In another development, Achunike said, “Generally speaking, Muslim and Christian preachers are guilty of
unwholesome preaching and negative comments against each others' religion particularly in the Northern
Nigeria. In Eastern Nigeria, it is common knowledge that Christians engage in Iconoclasm against the
African traditional religion” (47).
The venomous atrocities, murder and corruption that was mostly associated with military rule has combine
to plant the ravaging seeds of bitterness, suspicion and terrorizing fear almost permanently in the already
afflicted hearts and assaulted minds of the vast majority of Nigerians (Morphe 28).Religion which has been
a cohesive force in many societies have proved extremely divisive and supremacy, disintegrative in Nigeria.
Religion has fallen back to prejudice, bigotry and parochial antagonism that only promote chaos and
anarchy. Many have taken advantage of religion to form the basis of political clearages, placement on key
posts in government service, award of contract and disbursement of economic benefits. (Ahmadu 21).The

current crisis in the religious industry has been considered by some scholars as global rebellion than war,
since few of the movement of some religious resistance to the secular state has an alternative government in
mind. They know what they are against but not exactly what they are for. Such religious activities are
modern in the sense that they are organization – minded and empirical in their outlook (Juergensmeyer
5).Perhaps it is useful then to think of the religion in two senses, in post and pre enlighten ways of thinking.
One is the narrow idea of religious institutions and beliefs that are set apart from secular social values in
modern west. The other is the broad idea of moral values; traditional customs and spiritual sensibility that
includes much of what the seculars west regards as public virtue and purposeful life – values shared by most
thoughtful and concerned citizens within the society (Juergensmeyer 18).
The present contemporary cultural context and ideological perspective has changed. The widespread
attitude is that everybody should be allowed to follow his conscience. Muslims say that all religions are of
equal value and Islam and Christianity are very closely related if not quit identical in terms of content. Some
Muslims support the idea of universal religion, even if in practice this would amount in the form of
syncretism. From the Christian perspective, Christianity is thus in its very essence a universal religion,
Christianity arose and was spread on the basis of the dynamic faith of the apostles and of the first Christians
generations. Faith in Jesus Christ must incarnate itself in each religion. Danie'lou in Troll concluded that by
accepting the Christian faith, human beings do not move from one religion to another but rather that their
own religion is reshaped and transformed (112). Faith is a free gift from God. To be freely received or
rejected by people, the issue of force which led to conflict does not hold ground in Christian teaching.
Troll posited Kamil Hussein an Egyptian medical doctor a man of letters and religious thinker, that the
essence of the message of Moses was the fear of God or Jesus' love. And of Muhammad, the hope of
paradise; He accordingly explains the meaning of Christianity as follows: to believe deep in one's soul, that
what calls us to do good is the love of God, which also calls us to love everyone whom God loves, and also to
avoid everything that harms other people, because God loves all without distraction and finally, to know that
we cannot love God if we harm his friend, that is the other people (129).
In spite of the teaching and common belief and faith of Christianity and Islam there remains discordant and
cacophonous relationship in Nigeria. Various reasons have been advanced for such strained relationship
some of which include:
( i) The missionary nature of Christianity and Islam, both seek to make converts each to his own side,
this necessarily generate tension and constantly makes one religious adherents suspect the other
especially on matters that may bring the different religions together.
(ii) The undue interferences of the press: sometimes the press hits reports that borders on people beliefs
which caused strife and riots that can constitute a serious hindrance to peaceful co-relation.
(iii) Unhealthy rivalry: people demand right and favor which may be political, social, economical or
religious. In such cases the religious affiliation of the group or individual automatically attracts the
interest of the religious opponents.
(v) Mutual distrust: lack of trust arising from various reasons may bring about tension between groups
in a country thereby leading to conflict (Ajibola 19).
(vi) Religious leaders, (and some religious youths wings) who are perceived rightly or wrongly as
embodiments of fanaticism and intolerance.
(vii) Religious bodies/institutions such as the Christian Association of Nigeria(CAN) and Jama'tuNasruil
Islam (JNI) which are seen as two main vehicles of religious bigotry and intolerance in Nigeria.
(viii) Religious practitioners, both Christians and Muslims that trigger and sustain a culture of intolerance
(Gwamna 279).
Looking at the position of scholars on the causes of conflicts it was however not until the 1977 – 1978
constituent assemblies that the issue of religion and politics became politically problematic (Gofwen77).
Abdu H. noted that, since the turn of the1980s, Nigeria has experienced series of either religious or ethnic

clashes whose main actors are mostly Hausa-Fulani, Muslim and Christian's ethnic minority groups. The
minority worried because since the colonial conquest, they have been subjected to the Hausa-Fulani feudal
forces that control political offices and the markets. They complain of long standing marginalization in
terms of representation and provision of basic rural and urban facilities, which results to crisis (17).
T. K Toure is of the view that religious conflict is a global phenomenon and is the major factor for this
undemocratic nature of governance the world over. To him the multi-ethno-religious character of the society
is not the problem, it's only when ethnicity has been used as a means of narrowing Political, Economic and
Social terrain. When this happens conflicts assume ethnic/ethno-religious identity. The situation worsens
when the state abandons responsibility to the citizenry (Gofwen 80).
There are some religious crises that arose due to exogenous factors, such as the Tafawa Balewa crisis of
April 1999 and the Zango Kataf crisis of May 1992. Others have an endogenous factor; these include the
Ilorin crisis of March 1986, Kafanchan crisis 19 March 1986, Kano crisis of October 1999 and Kaduna crisis
of April 2000 (Gofwen 83). Mavalla reported the submission of religious leaders who attributed the cause of
the crises in Northern Nigeria to the results of the colonial legacy. Thus he said:
There are historical antecedents, first of all colonial legacy of indirect rule whereby large area of
Northern Nigeria were carved out put under the emirs rule and some of the people hardly knew what
was going on. And they were seeded to the evidence; there is that legacy (sic). So the emirs continue
to exercise that spiritual leadership of a large area until in those areas, some of them became
Christians, some of them became educated and began to participate in governance. Now there is that
resistance between the ruled, formally ruled and those who are seeking to rule themselves. There is
also the issue of control of land and economy, their own economy and politics, whereas the feudal
lords want to continue to remain lords. So there is that conflict. Then there is the third aspect that the
majority of the people who were lorded over became Christians and the people who were feudal
lords are Muslims. So that in itself introduces another dimension to the conflict in Northern Nigeria
(74).
The coincidence of ethnicity and religion come about because the Southern Kaduna ethnic group converted
to Christianity as a reaction against past oppression and exploitation by the Hausa- Fulani in the colonial era.
Another factor of the crisis is on the doctrinal belief; the Muslim denied the crucial and core Christian
beliefs, such as the deity of Jesus Christ, the doctrine of trinity, salvation through Christ's death on the cross
for human sin. Some Christians are not even concerned with Islam as a religion. If adherents appreciate the
differences in their beliefs and deny the struggle for supremacy in the spare of human life, there will be
mutual understanding and crises will not have a place in our society.
ISLAMIC TEACHING ON PEACE

The teachings of Islam invite people to live a peaceful life based on theism, justice and purity. Therefore,
peace in Islam is an eternal constitution. Even the nature of war in Islam is a defensive one, not an offensive
one, because the principle is peace and co-existence, not conflict, violence and war. In many verses of the
Quran, God has allow Muslims to fight only for defense. Therefore, war in Islam is a secondary principle
not a primary one. The Islamic teachings attempt to invite people to global and a peaceful life on the bases of
theism, justice and piety. So in Islam peace is an immortal and primary law. LO! “Allah Lovett not
aggressors”. (2:190). This interpretation of peace which is based on Quranic teachings can develop a wide
spread peace around world and terminate conflicts in many places. “Invite (all) to the way if your lord with
wisdom and beautiful preaching; and argue with them in ways that are best and most gracious: for your lord
knows best who has trade from His path, and who receives guidance”. (16:125) .
The Quran calls its way “the ways of peace” (Quran 5:16). It describes reconciliation as the best policy
(4:128) and states that God abhors any disturbance of peace (2:205). The first verse of the Quran breathes the
spirit of peace, it reads. “in the name of God, the most merciful the most compassionate”. The above verses

clearly demonstrate the peaceful nature of Islam as against the present extremist position being experienced
in Nigeria. People are killed on small provocation in the name of Islam, for example a butcher was stoned to
death in Sokoto in the name blasphemy just as Deborah was also killed Sokoto. One can easily ask where the
position of the teaching of peace as stated above is.
CONCLUSION
Peaceful co-existence does not require rivalry but mutual understanding among adherents. This can only be
achieved through modest teaching by the clergies. Both religious leaders claim that their religion is that of
peace and therefore must portray it as such continually. The rivalry model of sermons must be discarded
completely since God himself is patient with mankind despite so many atrocities being committed daily in
Nigeria. The summary of Christian teaching centers on “LOVE” and that of Islam centers on “PEACE” but
the two seem to promote violence at small provocation in Nigeria. The place of tolerance has been relegated
to the sky. Everyone wants to fight for God. Our journey of hope must start with Christian-Muslim relation
as it has been with our forefathers.
Works cited
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Thomas of Aquinas major seminary Makurdi 10/7/2001
Ahmadu, Ibrahim M .education and nationalism in Nigeria . A religious perspective.Jos bulletin o f
religion vol.3 no 1 1996.
Ajibola , G Lesanmi. Exploration of common religious heritage of Islam and Christianity in r e l i g i o u s
conflict resolution in Nigeria, Kakaki journal of religious studies Volume 2 no 2 Kajres 2009
Gadaku , Benjamin Tyerkase .Agony of crises. Achallenge to national development and
integration.Feb. Educational books Jos 2006
Gofwen, RotgakIliya .Religious conflict in Nigeria and nation building. The theories of two decades 1980-
2000, Kaduna human right monitors 2004.
Gwamna ,Dogara,J and Plangsat B, Dayil. Religiousfundamentalism in Northern Nigeria: towards an
interpretation, religion and post-conflict peace building in Northern Nigeria. John Arcers Ibadan
2011.
Juergenmeyer, Mark. Global rebellion, religious challenges to secular state from Christian Militians to Al-
quada. University of California press Berkeley -Los Angeles 2008.
Kajom, David H. Violence andpeace initiative in Nigeria.A theological assessment of the WCC's decade
to overcome violence and volatile Nigerian polity.Pyca-mark publishers Kaduna 2015.
Kaigama, Ignatius A. Dialogue of life, anurgent necessity for Nigerian Muslims and Christians. F e b
Educational books Jos 2006.
Lamak, Kefas .the impact of Islamist sect Boko Haram on the church in northern Nigeria : a case study
of some selected churches in Jos metropolis , unpublished ECWA theological seminary Jos
2015.
Mavalla, Ayuba . Conflict transformation churches in the face of structural violence in northern
Nigeria . Ragman books international 2018.
Mc Cain, Danny and Carman Mc Cain.A Christian blueprint for interreligious peace building in
northern Nigeria; religion and post conflict peace building in northern Nigeria( 2011 ) p 173.
Morphe, RendeeIjatuyi. Africa social and religious quest. A comprehensive survey and analysis of the
African situation .Logos quest Jos 2011.
Troll C.W . Muslim asks Christian answer. A seminar presentation of Christian answers to q u e s t i o n s
regularly asked by Muslims about the Christian religion worship and the way o f l i f e .
Pauline publication Africa press (2010) PP 117-118.
Umaru, linus Anan Peter.Conflict reconciliation in James 4:1-12. A contextual study in Nigeria (case
study of Bauchi diocese) Feb. Educational books 2018.
Yahaya , Along Lohn. Ethnic and religious conflict in Kaduna and plateau states.Unpublished ,
university of Nsukka (UNN) post graduate school 2011.

The Early Colonial Educational Influence And Social Class Strata In Nigeria
THE EARLY COLONIAL EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE AND SOCIAL

CLASS STRATA IN NIGERIA
Bot Polycarp Moses
1
Department of Political Science Faculty of Social Sciences
Bingham University Karu, Nassarawa State.
Phone: 07036025577
2
Rahila Timothy Dantong (Ph.D.).
2.
Department of Political Science Faculty of Social Sciences
Plateau State University Bokkos, Plateau State.
Phone: 08036182768
Abstract
The era of British rule in Nigeria made education terminally in that many Nigerians who embraced formal
education did so because it conferred on them a distinction from the rest of the society. It was not pursued
because it improved skills, but because it made them closer to the white men, as these early comers took
pride in being interpreters, clerk assistants, messengers to the white officials. They eventually emerged as a
distinct social class because going to school provided them a new status in the society. The study examines
the role of colonial education in the formation and consolidation of 'class' in Nigeria, it argues that, not only
does colonial education create a feelings of inferiority complex among locals to the essentialisation of the
white folks, it dislocated the psyche of locals to accepting alien values and orientations. The work relied on
secondary data from published and unpublished materials relevant to the study in books, academic Journals,
magazines, conference papers, seminar papers, government documents, dailies and internet. The study uses
content analysis to analyse data. Therefore, recommends unlearning the learned mentality of white
supremacy that rule the minds of political elites and restructure our educational system to suit our local
needs.
Keywords: Colonial, Social class, Consolidation, Class formation, Education
INTRODUCTION
Education was a way of enriching an individual's knowledge and enable him develop his personality. It is
also geared towards preparing people to undertake specific tasks and employment functions essential to the
transformation of society. The years of British rule in Nigeria made education terminally oriented in that
many Nigerians who embraced formal education did so because it conferred on them a distinction from the
rest of society. It was not pursued because it improved skills but because it made them closer to the white
man, as these pioneers took pride in being interpreters for white officials. They eventually emerged as a
distinct social class. Going to school provided a status. The terminal value of education tended however to
decline as it was demonstrated that instrumental content is highly rewarding. For instance, as those who
accepted western education and employment became visibly richer during the colonial era than the majority.
Many thus embraced western education with the hope of enhancing not only their social status but also
economic standing, itself a factor in social status.
CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS
Social class
Classis a set of concepts in the social sciences and political theory centered on models of social stratification
in which people are grouped into a set of hierarchical social categories. However, there is not a consensus on
the best definition of the term "class", and the term has different contextual meanings. In common parlance,
the term "social class," is usually synonymous with “socio-economic class”, defined as: "peoplehaving

thesame social, economic, or educational status. They are generally classified into:
Upper Class Members of the upper class generally wield much greater political power than members of the
lower or middle class. The upper class is the social class composed of those who are wealthy, well-born, or
both. They usually wield the greatest political power. In some countries, wealth alone is sufficient to allow
entry into the upper class. In others, only people born into certain aristocratic bloodlines are considered
members of the upper class, and those who gain great wealth through commercial activity are looked down
upon as nouveau riche. In the United Kingdom, for example, the Upper Classes are the aristocracy with
their wealth playing a less important role in class status. In the case of Nigeria Distinction insociety is mostly
determined by ones wealth or family's influence. In a few cases, like in the North, the ruling houses have a
distinct class.
The upper class is generally contained within the wealthiest 1 or 2 percent of the population. Members of the
upper class are often born into it, and are distinguished by immense wealth which is passed from generation
to generation in the form of estates.
Middle Class- The middle class are the most contested of the three categorizations, the broad
group of people in contemporary society who fall socio - economically between the lower class and upper
class. One example of the contestation of this term is that in the United States "middle class" is applied very
broadly and includes people who would elsewhere be considered lower class. Middle class workers are
sometimes called "white-collar workers".
Lower Class- Working class people often live in decaying, crime-ridden urban areas with low-quality civil
services. Lower class (occasionally described as working class) is those employed in low-paying wage jobs
with very little economic security. The working class is sometimes separated into those who are employed
but lacking financial security, and an underclass—those who are long-term unemployed and/or homeless,
especially those receiving welfare from the state. Members of the working class are sometimes called blue-
collar workers.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Marxist Theory
"(Classes are) large groups of people differing from each other by the place they occupy in a historically
determined system of social production, by their relation (in most cases fixed and formulated in law) to the
means of production, by their role in the social organization of labour, and, consequently, by the dimensions
of the share of social wealth of which they dispose and the mode of acquiring it."
In Marxist theory, the class structure of the capitalist mode of production is characterized by the conflict
between two main classes: the bourgeoisie, the capitalists who own the means of production, and the much
larger proletariat (or 'working class') who must sell their own labour power. This is the fundamental
economic structure of work and property, a state of inequality that is normalized and reproduced through
cultural ideology.
Marxists explain the history of "civilized" societies in terms of a war of classes between those who control
production and those who produce the goods or services in society, in the Marxist view of capitalism, there is
a conflict between capitalists (bourgeoisie) and wage-workers (the proletariat). For Marxists, class
antagonism is rooted in the situation that control over social production necessarily entails control over the
class which produces goods—in capitalism this is the exploitation of workers by the bourgeoisie.
Elite Theory
This theory starts from the premise that there are two groups in any society: the elites and the mass. The
theory argues that in all human societies, from the most primitive to the most modern or from the pre-
industrialised to the industrialised, it is the elites that rule and they cannot be displaced from power, no
matter how democratic the rule of the game is. The elites are a small group of people who are united ,
cohesive and closely knit, and are distinguished from the mass, who are not as equally organised and

cohesive.
According to Robert Mitchell, the elite rule on permanent basis such that they only thing possible is the
circulation of elites (a situation in which one set of elites are supplanted by another). This is the basis of what
Mitchell's calls 'the Iron Law of Oligarchy'.
Weberian Theory
Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification that saw political power as an interplay
between "class", "status" and "group power". Weber believed that class position was determined by a
person's skills and education, rather than by their relationship to the means of production. Both Marx and
Weber agreed that social stratification was undesirable; however where Marx believed that stratification
would only disappear along with capitalism and private property, Weber believed that the solution lay in
providing "equal opportunity" within a competitive, capitalist system.
Weber noted that contrary to Marx's theories, stratification was based on more than simply ownership of
capital. Weber introduced three independent factors that form his theory of stratification hierarchy; class,
status, and power.
Class: A person's economic position in a society. Weber differs from Marx in that he does not see this as the
supreme factor in stratification. Weber noted how managers of corporations or industries control firms they
do not own.
Status: A person's prestige, social honour, or popularity in a society. Weber noted that political power was
not rooted in capital value solely, but also in one's individual status. Poets or saints, for example, can possess
immense influence on society with often little economic worth.
Power: A person's ability to get their way despite the resistance of others. For example, individuals in state
jobs, such as an employee of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, or a member of the United States
Congress, may hold little property or status but they still hold immense power.
Today, concepts of social class often assume three general categories: a very wealthy and powerful upper
class that owns and controls the means of production; a middle class of professional workers, small business
owners, and low-level managers; and a lower class, which rely on low-paying wage jobs for their livelihood
and often experience poverty.
HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

Pre-colonial education(Informal Education)
Pre- colonial education in Nigeria was informal. Indigenous education represents the type of education
offered in the pre-literate era, within the community, by community members who possessed specialized
skills or abilities in various fields of human endeavour. In most communities, prior to the introduction of
formal education, boys were brought up to take to whatever occupation their fathers engaged in. In some
other cases, the boys were sent to other masters as apprentices to learn various vocations and life etiquette.
Although occupations varied according to the geographical areas in Nigeria, the major ones were farming,
trading, craft work, fishing, cattle rearing, wine tapping, traditional medicine and black-smiting. The boys
also engaged in such other training activities as archery, tree climbing and wrestling. Intellectual training for
them consisted of their sitting quietly beside their fathers at meetings and listening attentively to learn the
process of such tasks and skills as arbitrationof cases, oratory, wise sayings and use of proverbs. All these
stimulated their sense ofrationality. Girls were often expected to stay back at home to learn domestic and
other chores such as cooking, sweeping, weeding the farmlands, hair weaving, and decorations of the body,
dye production; and the like from their mothers. As in the case of the boys, the girls did almost exactly what
their mothers trained them to do. Generally, therefore, in spite of geo-political variations, traditional or
indigenous education in most parts ofNigeria trained individuals to fit usefully into their society by learning
and practicing economic skills for self-sustenance; adapting to their role expectations and contributing to
the development of their society. Although the traditional education offered by the community
wascomprehensive such that it provided training in physical, character, intellectual, social and vocational

development, it however had its limitations. First, in the absence of writing, people depended on the power
of their memories to facilitate the retention and transmission of all learned ideas to future generations. But
memory could fail, and in the event of the death of a custodian of some useful information or skill, all was
lost- There were, however, little or no cases of unemployment.
Islamic Education
Records show that Islamic education in the northernNigeria dates back to 1085-1097 in kanem Bornu
th
during the time of UmmeJilmi such that by the end of the 13 century, it was the centre of Islamic learning.
Islamic learning had formal writing in Arabic. Islamic learning was introduced to Hausa land in early
14thcentury by traders and scholars who came from Wangarawa to Kano. The Jihad by Dan Fodio helped
revive and spread Islamic education and access to women. Thus, before the arrival in Nigeria of the Western
type education in the 19th Century, Islamic learning had been established. Islamic studies had also
penetrated the Western parts of Nigeria before the arrival of the Jihadists; but the Jihad strengthened the
religion where it was weak. Support for Islamic education came from some Northern Nigerian leaders,
especially AbdullahiBayero, (Emir of Kano), who, on his return from Mecca in 1934, introduced new ideas
by building a Law School for training teachers of Islamic subjects, and Arabic as well as English and
Arithmetic. The Almajiri system of education is still in Northern part of Nigeria.
THE HISTORY OF WESTERN EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

Wesleyan Christian Missionaries arrived at Badagry in 1842. With their arrival it was obviously the most
successful in meeting the overall formal educational needs of the consumers for the present and the future.
Between 1842and 1914, about ten different Christian missions had arrived and begun intensive missionary
and educational work in Nigeria. Schools were built and the missions struggled for pupils/members such
that there was a proliferation of primary schools established by differentmissions. Although literary
education in the 4Rs (reading, writing, arithmetic and religion) was predominant, this new missionary
education prepared the recipients for new job opportunities, as teachers, church evangelists or pastors,
clerks and interpreters. Emphasis was also on charactertraining. Most of the missions established primary
schools and, initially, little emphasis was laid on secondary and higher education. But following agitations
by influential church members, rich merchants and emigrants living in Lagos, the CMS Grammar School
Lagos, for example, was established in 1857. The western-type education developed faster in the South than
in the North of Nigeria because of the skepticism of the Muslims about the impact of Christian missionary
education. By 1914, it was estimated that about 25,000 Quranic schools were already in existence all over
Northern Nigeria. Thus, the arrival of Christian Western education met stiff opposition. However, in some
parts of Northern Nigeria, the Christian missionaries did succeed to establish schools, at times, in
collaboration with Government.
Colonial Era-Much of the educational work in Southern Nigerian, prior to 1882, was done by the
missionaries almost without government assistance. However, from 1882, the Government began a bold
intervention bypromulgating codes and regulations, guidelines and policies on organisation and
management of schools. Government also began to appoint inspectors and to make grants to schools to
ensure quality. Thus, between 1882 and 1950, many codes and regulations were issued by Government to
regulate the quality of education in various parts of the country.
The process of colonisation involves one nation or territory taking control of another nation or territory
either through the use offorce or by acquisition as a byproduct of colonisation. The colonising nation
implements its own form of schooling and personnel management within their colonies. At the advent of
colonisation, Britain transplanted its system of administration generally. With the status of general
Application (1900), it was able to transfer its Pre-colonial status which became effective in Nigeria on
January 11 1900.This implies that all the statutes dealing with matters of employment, education and
industrial relations were applied in Nigeria.

scholars on colonial education, Gail P Kelly and Philip G, Altbachhelped defined theprocess as an attempt
'to assist in the consolidation of foreign rule'.
The idea of assimilation is important when dealing with colonial education. Assimilation involves those
who are colonised being forced to conform to the culture and traditions of the colonisers. Gauri Viswanathan
points out that 'cultural assimilation is the most effective form of political action', she continues with the
argument that cultural domination works by consent and often precedes conquest by force.
Colonisers' -government realise that they gain strength not necessarily through physical control but through
mental control. This mental control is implemented as a central intellectual location. The school system
Kelly and Altbach state that 'colonial schools sought to extend foreign domination and economic
exploitation of the colony. They find that education in the colonies seems directed at absorption into the
metropole and not separate and dependent development of the colonised in their own society and culture.
The process is an attempt to strip the colonised people away from indigenous learning structures and draw
them towards the structures or system of the colonisers.
CLASS STRATIFICATION IN NIGERIA

The history of class formation in Nigeria can only be traced back before or during colonisation. Class
formation was still under the feudal mode of production where land was regarded as the major factor of class
formation. During colonisation in Nigeria, the colonial state underlined this fact by imposing the colonialist
representative of the British national bourgeoisie as the imperialist ruling class in colonial Nigeria. These
colonial governors, residents, district officers, military and police officers, merchants, financiers, shipping
managers and other British imperialists constituted the bulk of the imperialist-bourgeoisie in Nigeria. The
predominantly British ruling class in Nigeria monopolised the colonial state apparatus, controlled political
power and dominated economic and social structures with their imperialist accomplices.
Far below the imperialist-bourgeoisie was the sub-ordinate Nigerian indigenous petty-bourgeoisie, some of
which were in hierarchic collaborate with the foreign exploiters. Their members have been variously called
the colonial inter-mediators,political class, middle class and interdent class. Some of the strata include: first
the feudal chiefs or natural rulers called the Emirs in the north, Obas in the South-West and Obis in the
South-East of Nigeria. Though some of them like King Jaja of Opobo, the Oba of Benin, Emir of Kano and
the Caliphate of Sokoto were heroes of the resistance against imperialist colonial aggressors, their
descendants and some of the colonial contemporaries became the best agents of imperialism to this day.
Some intermediaries also include coastal aristocrats of Lagos, Brass, Calabar, Bonny, etc.
The professional groups of lawyers, doctors, teachers, engineers, journalists etc formed another stratum of
the indigenous colonial petty bourgeoisies. They were an aspirant group who quickly joined the nationalist
movement and used colonial politics as a base for primitive accumulation of wealth, often through klepto
cracy, especially when Nigeria ran regional government after 1952. Finally, the petty bourgeoisie also
included the salary paid workers comprising minor colonial functionaries, sometimes called rational
functionaries. They include the clerks in the public and private sectors, indigenous soldiers and policemen,
operators of the technical adjuncts of the colonial state such as railways, power plants, hospitals, harbours
etc.
The lowest class in the colonial setting was the masses or peasants, students and workers. These peasants
were the small, individual producers who often hired out their labour-power as seasonal or migrant workers
in mines, plantation, construction sites etc. The workers consisted of the core of the working class, Marx
'wage-slaves' who had lost any independent means of livelihood and preferably torn themselves off from
their rural origins. Thus classes began to emerge in Nigeria.

Educational Factor
Prior to the introduction of western education in Nigeria by the missionaries, education was not regarded as
a factor of class formation in Nigeria. The class was based on the social relations of production. Thus, under
feudalism, productive forces were in a very rudimentary stage of development and land was the major
means of production. The social relations of production, notably that between feudal lords and the peasants
evolved around land. Obligation and right were defined in terms of land and the feudal lord was dominant in
the social relations of production (over the peasant) because he owned the (and. With the development of
technology and industrialisation, land became less important as the means of production. The focus of
production shifted from land to the factory and in this way capital became the means of production. These
changes in production forces have given rise to new relations of production especially that between
capitalists and workers. At pre-colonial era, the administration of various empires, caliphates and kingdoms
were essentially personnel management and class formation.
The evolution of the western education in Nigeria, which can be traced back before colonialism, with the
establishment of CMS School in Lagos and the provision of some health facilities by the missionaries.
These all lubricated and facilitated the process of colonialism. Having identified the rich abundant resources
and cheap labour in Nigeria for their industries in Britain, they used different methods in other to gain the
control of both the natural and the human resources. The indirect rule helped tremendously in penetrating
most parts of the country in spite of some resistance in some parts of the country.
During colonisation period, some Nigerian elites were sent abroad to attend courses in different disciplines
of academic learning which include Law, Administration, etc who became pioneers in those fields. This was
the beginning of education being used as a factor for class formation in Nigeria. The British trained these
elites for future use. The elites on completion of their training changed their orientation and ways of thinking
to that of the British. The Nigerian elite were trained for a purpose, to be used as collaborators or semi-
bourgeoisie to act on behalf of the British.
It is very important to note that upon acquisition of Western education, the ideologies and orientations of the
colonial masters were transplanted to the Nigerian elites that make them to behave like the British. The
awareness created by the Western education facilitated the nationalist movements for independence. With
Nigeria gaining independence, these educated elites became the upper class of the Nigerian society
(together with the Aristocrats)."By virtue of their position, they were able to gain both political and
economic power over the masses. This further created an avenue for the rich to further exploit and oppress
the poor.The importance of Western education in capitalist societies, Marx believed is a means of attaining a
position of authority where one will not be relegated to the background. Marxists believe that so long as the
means of production belonged to the ruling class, therewould be oppression over the poor masses.
CLASS CONSOLIDATION AND ITS EFFECT

After independence, the upper class who held political and economic power in order to ensure the
consolidation of the power decided to come up with deliberate options in the educational system as a means
of ensuring the consolidation of their class. This they achieved by deliberately neglecting or destroying the
public educational system which today is characterised by poor funding, unpaid and unqualified teachers,
dilapidated infrastructures, unequipped libraries etc., which the children of the masses attend and thus
cannot have access to quality education. On the other hand, their own children attend best private schools in
and outside the country. Such schools are characterised by qualified and well groomed teachers, high school
fees, expensive and up to date infrastructure and equipment etc which helps in using education as a factor in
consolidating their class and that of their children.
Marx's 'The Poverty of Philosophy' [1847] distinguishes between a 'class-in-itself (an objective
determination relating to class position} and a 'class-for-itself (a subjective appreciation of class
consciousness). The Communist Manifesto explicitly identifies the formation of the proletariat into a class

as the key political task facing the communists. Marx observes,
"In so far as millions of families live under economic conditions of existence that divide their mode
of life, their interests and their cultural formation from those of the other classes and bring them into
conflict with those classes, they form a class. In so far as these small peasant proprietors are merely
connected on a local basis, and the identity of their interests fails to produce a feeling of community,
national links, or a political organization, they do not form a class" (Marx).
The process (and conceptual category) which links economic and social class is that of 'class
consciousness's' with each class trying to consolidate and hold on to its position for the benefit of its
members to the detriment of others. Marxists assert that there is a common identity of interest between these
strata. The class conflict arising from class consciousness and class struggle is fundamental to
understanding economic, political and educational change.
Often, the implementation of a new education system leaves those who are colonized with a lack of identity
and a limited sense of their past. The indigenous history and customs once practiced and observed slowly
slipped away. The colonised become hybrids of two vastly different cultural systems. Colonial education
creates a blurring that makes it difficult to differentiate between the new, enforced ideas of the colonisers
and the formerly accepted native practices. NgugiWaThiong'O, a citizen of the once colonised Kenya,
displays his anger toward the isolationist feelings colonial education causes. He asserts that the process
'annihilate(s) a peoples belief in their names, in their languages, in their environment, in their heritage of
struggle, in their unity, in their capacities and ultimately in their sense of worth. It makes them see their past
as one wasteland of non-achievement and it makes them want to distance themselves from that wasteland. It
makes them want to identify with that which is furthest removed from themselves" (Decolonising the Mind)
(NgugiWaThiong'o, 1981).
Not only does colonial education eventually created a sense of wanting to disassociate with native heritage,
but it affects the individual and the sense of self-confidence. Thiong'o believes that "...education, far from
giving people the confidence in their ability and capacities to overcome obstacles or to become masters of
the laws governing external-nature as human beings tends to make them feel their inadequacies and their
ability to do anything about the condition of their lives”.
CONCLUSION
Postmodernists explain contemporary developments in society and the restructuring of schooling and
education systems, as reflecting the increased diversity of society, the increased position and self-perception
of people as consumers. They see, for example, the end of mass provision in schooling (such as the
comprehensive school) and the emergence of educational niche-marketing with a variety of types of school
as both welcome and inevitable — reflecting economic and social changes.
Many recipients of forma education believe that they should not have to work with their hands, because
greater pecuniary and non-pecuniary advantages i.e. status; power and prestige are attached to
administrative and clerical positions. Also there is the notion that education is a privilege for only a few;
hence the objectives of Free Primary Education are thwarted by reactionary policies and measures from the
same government that introduce such schemes.
Attempts to develop a functional education have not met with much success not because itis too difficult but
because the people in the positions to initiate and implement the measures (who are direct beneficiaries) act
in accordance to their own consciousness which is a function of social and economic position. Thus, to
produce and operate a rational and functional education system, there is the need to first decolonise the
mentality of the educated elite who hold power and authority and wish to consolidate their positions in
society.

REFERENCES
Aithusser, L. (1971).'Ideology and ideological state apparatuses', in A. L. Lenin, Philosophy and
Other Essays. London: New Left Books.
Ake, C. (1981) Apolitical Economy of Africa, Longman, Essex.
Bourdieu, R. (1990). 'The school as a conservative force in scholastic and cultural inequalities', in, Dale, R.
Schooling and Capitalism, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Bowles, S. &Gintis, H. (1976).Schooling in Capitalist America. London:Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Cole, M. B. &Gintis H. (1998).Revisited: Correspondence and Contradiction in Educational
Theory. Lewes: Palmer Press.
Duffield, J. (1998). Unequal opportunities or don't mention the (class) war. Paper to the Scottish.
Harvey, D. (1993).'Class relations, social justice and the politics of difference', in Squires, J. (ed.)Principal
Positions.London: Lawrence &Wishart.
Henderson A. & Persons, T. (1964). The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation, New York: F r e e
Press.
Hill, D. & Cole, M. (1999). Schooling and Equality: Social Class, Factual and Conceptual Issues.
London: Tufnell Press.
Jensen, K. (1984)."Civilization and Assimilation in the Colonized Schooling of Native Americans. 1 '
Education and the Colonial Experience.Ed. Gail P. Kelly and Philip G.Altbach. New Brunswick:
Transaction.
Kelly, G.P. & Philip G. A. (1984). Introduction: "The Four Faces of Colonialism." Educationand t h e
Colonial Experience.Ed. Gail P. Kelly and Philip G. Altbach. Mew Brunswick: Transaction, 1-5.
Ademolekun, L. (1999).Politics and Administration in Nigeria, Ibadan: Spectrum.
Nduka, O. (1976). 'Colonial Education and Nigerian Society', in Nigeria: Economy and Society.
London:RexCollings.
NgugiWaThiong'o. (1981).Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature.
Portsmith, IMH: Heinemann.
Viswanathan, G. (1984)."Currying Favour: The Politics of British Educational and Cultural Policy i n
India, 1813-1854." The Oxford Literary Review 85-104. (unknown volume and date).

THEFT AND MUTILATION OF LIBRARY RESOURCES IN PLATEAU STATE
UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BOKKOS: A QUALITATIVE APPROACH
Ajala James Aloli CLN

Library Department, Plateau State University, Bokkos.
ZainabNankyerMaren CLN
Esther Nimlang CLN
Addas Matsunde CLN
Library Department, Federal University Wukari, Taraba State.
Abstract
Libraries are service based institutions; they provide information resources and services to
their patrons and the entire members of the institutions they serve. Theft and mutilation of
library resources are posing a big threat to the provision of effective and quality library
services to users. The research was conducted to ascertain the extent of theft and mutilation
of library information resources, the factors responsible, and the strategies employed to
reduce theft and mutilation of information resources in Plateau State University library. The
causes of theft and mutilation includes Selfishness, Expanded Student Enrolment and
shortage of library materials, Internal and external factors, Financial Constraints and high
cost of learning materials, among others. The qualitative research method was adopted for
the study, interview, observation and documents were used to collect data for the study. The
participants of the study include three heads of sections and nine library staff. The findings of
the study indicated that during accreditation exercise, unprocessed books were mixed up
with processed books, making the unprocessed books accessible for thieves. Fake IDs were
used by some students to register with the library; students were used as Adhoc library staff
during examination period, giving them access to steal with ease. The library building is
without burglary proofs. The recommendation made includes; Burglary proof should be
fixed in the windows, more staff should be employed in the library so the shift duty can be
properly observed. Books should be properly processed before putting them on shelves.
Keywords; Theft, Mutilation, Academic Library, Library resources
INTRODUCTION
Academic libraries invest enormously in developing their robust collection (Books,
journals, and other materials). The security of these huge investments is sine qua non to the
success of the libraries effort to remain relevant and in providing good information services.
Salaam and Onitade (2010) expressed that human beings as agents of destruction in libraries
have been the most difficult to control. They recommended that library security personnel as
well as reader's services staff and indeed all library staff should be exposed to short training
course in library security at least once every four years.
Idakwo, (2019) defined library as an institution that acquires, organizes preserves and make
available the recorded knowledge to users. It can also be defined as a collection of book and

non-book materials organized and kept for reading, studying and consultation. A library can
be seen as a system that is charged with the responsibility of selecting, acquiring, processing,
storing and disseminating information resources in different forms and formats to users
without discrimination.
Library resources vary but they can be broadly categorized into graphic and non-graphic
materials. Libraries that are found in institutions of higher learning such as colleges of
education, and other colleges, polytechnics, mono-technics and Universities, are referred to
as Academic libraries.
Academic libraries are established to cater for the information needs of their
individual parent bodies. That is, the academic community. The academic community
includes lecturers, undergraduates, postgraduates, faculty specialists and researchers.
Academic libraries usually have rich collections covering variety of subjects. All types of
libraries face the problem of theft and mutilation of their library materials, but academic
libraries, seem to suffer more than other libraries, which is caused by their popularity and
intensity of usage by patrons for different purposes (Crayery, 2001). Most of the times theft
and mutilation of library materials have been done by library patrons and staff also. The acts
are mostly influenced by scarcity of materials, also because some users don't have enough
money to buy books since most of those books are very expensive, poor security system in
these libraries is also a reason that contributes to the problem of mutilation and theft of
library materials (Ajala, 2008 in Athuman , 2019). Prevention of library materials is one of
the library's basic functions, to prevent the library materials from theft and mutilation so that
they can be available for use by all users (Udoudoh, 2013in Athuman , 2019).
Hart (2003) asserts that mutilation of information resources could include such acts as
cutting pages, highlighting, underlining, marking notices in margins and adding materials,
such as stickers or letters that are not meant to be part of the materials. Memidex (2019) sees
mutilation as the act of destroying, cutting up, or altering, physically harming, to impair use
by disabling or cutting off vital parts, such as pages. To destroy beyond recognition or use, or
to render imperfect. While Theft as defined by Criminal Find Law, (2019) is the act of taking
something that belongs to another, without the person's consent, with the intent of depriving
the rightful owner of the property.
The graphic materials are books, pamphlets, newspapers, periodicals and reference
resources. While the non-graphic materials are grouped into three categories namely audio,
visual and audio-visual. Popoola and Haliso (2009) define library information materials as
those information bearing materials that are in both printed and electronic formats, such as
textbooks journals, indexes, abstracts, newspapers and magazine, reports, computers ,CD-
ROM databases, internet/e-mail, videotapes/cassettes, diskettes, magnetic disc e.t.c. out of
which printed materials are more vulnerable to theft and mutilations. Libraries in respective
of its type whether national, academic, school, public or special are all service oriented
institutions. Their activities are geared towards serving the needs of library clientels.
Libraries play an important role in the organization they serve. (Vijeyaluxmy, 2015)

Objectives of the Study
The main objective of the study is to examine the effect of theft and mutilation on the use of
library collection in Plateau State university library. The specific objectives are to:
1. Know the extent of theft and mutilation of information resources in academic
libraries;
2. Ascertain the factors responsible for theft and mutilation of library resources in
Plateau State university library
3. Give recommendations that can be employed by the library management, to reduce
theft and mutilation in the library.
Research Question
The following research questions have been raised to guide this study:
1. What is the extent of theft and mutilation of information resources in Plateau State
university library?
2. What are the factors responsible for theft and mutilation of library resources in Plateau
State university library?
3. What are the strategies that can be employed by the library management to reduce
theft and mutilation in the library?
A Brief on Plateau State University Bokkos

Plateau state university library Bokkos was established in 2005. It started as a small library
occupying six classrooms on the 2nd floor in an arm of the faculty of sciences building. In
November 2016, movements of the library materials from the former temporary structure
started into an ultra-modern new library building adjacent faculty of management sciences
building began. The phase one of the library building was commissioned on 2nd February,
2017. It has a total holding of over 32,000 volumes of books and 283current periodical titles,
with a seating capacity of 992 readers. When completed, the new library building will sit
about 1,850 readers, and accommodate about 750,000 volumes of books and bound
periodicals. The library serves the academic communities of the faculties of Arts, Social
Sciences, Management Sciences and Natural and Applied Sciences (Know your library
Pamphlet, 2023)
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Librarians in all types of libraries desire to serve their users with quality information,
academic libraries aim to provide quality information in line with the school's curriculum
and to support research needs of staff and students and the faculty (Isebe, 2014). But the
problem of theft and mutilation of library materials has been hindering librarians from
achieving their set goals. Literature has revealed that, in time past and up till date,
researchers did not offer permanent solution to theft and mutilation of library material. Theft
and mutilation is still a problem in academic libraries. Theft and mutilation of library
materials reduce the quality of services offered by libraries and also frustrates users, because
they fail to get needed information to solve their problems. (Mwantimwa, 2007). This is also
an existing problem in Plateau State University, Bokkos. There is the urgent need to find a
lasting solution to this problem, in order to improve library services. This study is aimed at

addressing the problem of theft and mutilation of library materials in Plateau State
University Library Bokkos.
Causes of Theft and Mutilation of Library Resources.

There are many reasons why library users engage in theft and mutilation of library materials.
Some of the reasons as highlighted by Idakwo, (2019), &Athuman, (2019) includes:
(i) Selfishness.
(ii) Expanded Student Enrolment and shortage of library materials.
(iii) Internal and external factors
(iv) Financial Constraints and high cost of learning materials, among others.
Effect of Theft and Mutilation of Library Materials in Nigerian libraries.

It is noted that libraries have impact on quality teaching, learning and research. The effect of
theft and mutilation include the following:
(i) Cost in terms of time and money

Theft and mutilation of library materials is costly to the University Community and to
taxpayers. Replacement costs of lost or damaged material is far more expensive than the
original cost of the item since incidents of mutilations are on the increase and library budgets
cannot afford the consequences of widespread abuse. For example in the UK in 1987, losses
amounted to100 million per year for replacement of mutilated materials imposing a
substantial financial drain on limited library budgets. Library materials are costly not only in
a monetary sense but as well as in an intellectual sense (Jackson, 1991; Keele, 1987 in
Idakwo, 2019). A study conducted at the University of Oregon library found that the library
replaces over a thousand pages each month, many of them are deliberately damaged. That's
why a lot of staff effort, time, and commitment is needed in identifying and locating
damaged library materials and borrowing such titles, from other institutions library, to
photocopy and insert into original damaged volumes (Idakwo, 2019).
(ii) Low quality services and frustration

Adomi (1981) and Oni (1984) in Idakwo, (2019) have observed that abuse of library material
reduces the quality of library services. Abegunde (1988) in Idakwo, (2019) also states that
library materials mutilation result into frustration of staff and students because they can't
find what they need. According to Idakwo, (2019) mutilation frustrates readers and is an
embarrassment to librarians because the non-recovery of missing or torn material is an
indication of inefficiency and inadequate provision of library services on the part of librains.
Consequently, accountability, quality education services and effective communication is
reduced by the abuse of library materials through mutilation (Kabudi, 2003; Wamunza,
2003; Idakwo, 2019). This view is shared by Matefu (2002) who argues that academic
libraries are meant to support teaching, learning, research and consultancy but mutilation of
library materials reduce efficient, quality and effective provision of library services
managed by librarians. Sloane (2005) in Idakwo, (2019) argues that inevitably a financial
constraint imposed upon most academic libraries do not allow the library to meet a full range
of user requirements.

(iii) User and library staff dissatisfaction.
Misuse practices do not only affect users but also library staff satisfaction. Library staff get
demoralized because innocent clients feel that if the library staff were doing their work
properly, mutilations would not occur (Idakwo, 2019).
(iv) Shortages of library materials

Teferra as cited in Idakwo, (2019) found that losses and mutilation are experienced in all
libraries regardless of the size of their user population. For example collections in most
academic libraries in Ethiopia are dismally small and yet 93% of these libraries lose too
many volumes every year, thus creating shortage of library materials in all type of libraries.
Literature Review
Book theft and mutilation has of late become a canker worm, which has eaten deep into the
academic library system without distinction. These problems have remained unabated even
though a lot of efforts and resources have been expended by librarians and information
centre managers to stop these unwholesome acts (Isebe, 2014).
Theft and mutilation of library materials dates back to ancient time. To Support this,
Akinfolarin (1992) states that in ancient Egypt, writings on papyrus and leather were
restricted to tombs and Temple archive rooms under lock and key to prevent them from being
stolen. This clearly indicates that theft of library materials has been an age long act. No
library is absolved from having its share of these anti-social behaviours of library patrons.
Studies conducted in the past, such as that of Alokun (1993) stated that in a study of
Maastricht public library in Netherlands in 1981, it was observed that some materials were
removed from the library without registering the transaction, while some books were
borrowed on tickets containing false or incorrect information about the owners and others
were borrowed and never returned. The New York time reposts of 11th September, 1969,
stated that the Lenin state library in Moscow had to replace over one thousand pages of
library books damaged by students in the month of April of that year alone. From the above
practical cases cited on how books and other information materials are lost from the libraries
through theft and mutilation, one can easily deduce that these acts occur in every library and
in every country of the world. These unpopular and deviant behaviours of library clients are
seen as a setback to library development especially now that the country has been in
recession, with the high cost of information resources amidst scarce resources and the
importance of library and its resources are being recognized and utilized as major partner in
the educational development of any higher institution (Isebe, 2014).
All types of library are affected by the incidence of book theft and mutilation, however, the
academic libraries seem to suffer these scourge more than others. This is probably because
academic libraries are more popular than other types of libraries and even used more by
patrons for their reading and research purposes. Mutilation is to remove part of, to deform by
stealing, borrowing or removing part of it. Mutilation refers to the act of rendering a thing or
book imperfect by cutting off or destroying a part of it. (Crayey 2001).

Isebe, (2014) in his study revealed that, the University of Calabar, Nigeria is not spared from
these acts of anti-library development. The 1984/85 annual report of the university carried
the Library committee investigation report of cases of the students who illegally removed
some books from the library. In the University of Jos, the JULIA bulletin as stated by Isebe
(2014) reported that incessant theft and mutilation of serial collections forced the library to
carry another report of the theft of library books by non-students of the university.
(Nweke, 2019). This plague of theft and mutilation in academic libraries has prompted many
librarians to carry out various studies on the extent to which theft and mutilation of
information resources has affected provision of effective services to users. Consequently,
Maidabino, & Zainab, (2012) studied theft and mutilation of print collection in university
libraries: a critical review of literature and proposed framework for action. The findings of
the study revealed that the major forms of theft and mutilation identified from the literature
review includes theft by patrons, insider theft, tearing of book pages, writing on the pages of
books, marking of book content which has tampered with the actual subject matter of the
affected books. Isebe (2014), studied causes and effects of theft and mutilation of
information materials in academic library services in Delta State. The findings of the study
revealed that the three selected institution libraries have been affected by the twin problem of
theft and mutilation.
In a study by Adekunle, Adekunjo and Unuabor (2018) on theft and vandalism: Effect and
control mechanism on information resources in academic libraries in Osun State, Nigeria.
The findings of the study revealed that theft and vandalism has affected the quality of
research of students, caused students to desist from going to the library and have led to
frustration to a large extent. However, Oyedum, Sanni and Udoakang (2014) asserted in their
study that due to security breaches in the form of theft and mutilation in academic libraries,
users sometimes are not able to get information materials needed and this makes the library
ineffective in satisfying users' information needs. Holt (2007) observed that libraries are
faced with the problem of physical materials theft, data theft and money theft to a large
extent. The study of Ugah (2007) identified theft and mutilation, vandalism, damages and
disasters, over borrowing or delinquent borrowers and purposeful displacing arrangement of
materials as some of the main security issues. It is however disheartening that previous
studies have shown that no strategies have proven 100% efficient in the total stoppage of
theft and mutilation in academic libraries across the globe. In the study of Isebe (2014),
findings revealed that expulsion/rustication of students, handling of offenders to the police,
and dismissal of staffs among others are some of the strategies that can be employed by
librarians to put to a stop to the menace of book theft and mutilation in the library.
A study conducted by Nweke, (2019) revealed that the extent of theft and mutilation of
library collection in the form of stealing of books and journals, tearing off of books and
journal pages, underlining text in a book or journal with pen, pencil or maker, bending of
book spine, hiding of books in different location from its original location in the library,
refusal to return long overdue books to the library is very high in academic libraries in
Nigeria. And the factors that are responsible for the high rate of theft and mutilation in
academic libraries in Nigeria include: high cost of books, lack of photocopying machine,

porous library security system, lack of electronic security measures, lack of proper
monitoring of students, unavailability of online databases and lack of electronic resources
are all factors responsible for the high level of theft and mutilation in academic libraries
among others. The researcher emphasised that, if theft and mutilation of information
resources in the library is not properly checked, it will ruin the image of academic libraries as
it is already having negative effect on the collection and services rendered by academic
libraries.
Methodology
Research design;
The design selected for this research study was qualitative in nature using interviews,
observations, and documentation. Qualitative research provides an understanding of a
situation or phenomenon that tells the story rather than determining cause and effect
(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003; Glesne, 1999; Yang, 2004).Techniques for conducting qualitative
research include observations, interview, and document analysis.
Data Collection Data were collected using the following methods: interviews, observations,
and document analysis. Multiple sources for data collection allowed the researchers to use
different data sources to validate and cross check findings (Yang, 2004). Documents were
collected and evaluated as additional resources for the study. Each participant in this study
engaged in two interviews. One of the interviews was structured and the other was
unstructured. An observation was conducted on the entire library collections and operations.
Documents were collected from all participants. These documents were printouts and other
information to substantiate information that was already collected and witnessed during the
observations and interviews process. Data were analysed to answer the research questions
and to cross reference similarities and differences among participants.
Observations; Observations were conducted from February 2018 to April 2023 after ASUU
strike of 2022. An integral part of qualitative research, observations allow the researcher to
determine if what the participant has said in the interview is transferred into action in real life
experience. Participant observation “gives a first-hand account of the situation under study
and, when combined with interviewing and document analysis, allowed for a holistic
interpretation of the phenomenon being investigated (Yang, 2004). During the observation
process, field notes were made and transcribed.
.Documentation Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) indicated that documents refers to any kind of
information that exists in some type of written or printed form intended for private or public
consumption, and are available to the researcher for analysis. Thus, the charging and
discharging records of clients, the book overdue records were made available for the
researcher from the circulation desk.
The purpose of implementing observations, interviews, and documents was to provide

trustworthiness and accountability to the data. The researchers were attempting to determine
whether the participants' actions and interview responses were the same. The researchers
examined how closely what the participants said in the interview, and observations were

aligned with what actually happened in the typical library setting.
Participants The sample for this research study were three heads of sections, namely
circulation, serials and systems unit, and nine staff from the circulation unit, in charge of the
three reading areas, three from each reading area.
Fraenkel &Wallen (2003) have concluded that purposive sampling is based on the
assumption that one needs to “select a sample from which they feel will yield the best
understanding of whatever it is they wish to study “However, convenience sampling was
used in this study. Two category of library staff where used for this study, the heads of
sections are librarians, while the staff in charge of the reading areas are library officers and
senior library attendants. The heads of circulation and serials are female staff while the head
system unit is a male and among the library officers and senior library attendants, three are
females' staff, while the remaining six are males. These participants are all members of staff
of the Plateau State University library
Procedures The initial step in the procedure was the selection of study participants.
Convenience sampling was done because the participants were known to the researchers.
Participants' interviews and observations were then conducted during 1st&2nd semester of
2023. Structured interviews with the participants were first conducted separately.
Conversations were recorded during the entire interview processes. Following, the
participants engaged in unstructured interviews two weeks later. The interviews were
conducted in different places to accommodate the needs and convenience of the participants.
Six participants were interviewed twice in their reading area. One participant was
interviewed twice in her home. The other five participants were interviewed in their offices
in the library.
After the completion of interviews, data were organized and preliminarily analysed. The
first observation was then scheduled upon the participants' consent to see how they attends to
their clients, and the activities that take place in their various sections in the library. A week
later, the second observation was scheduled with participants to confirm whether or not there
had been any change in participants' experience with clienteles when the participants
became familiar with the research process. During the process of the first and second
observations, various documents were collected such as; charging and discharging records,
date due records, list of library defaulters
Data Analysis Data analysis is a key component of qualitative research. Transcripts Data
analysis was also conducted simultaneously with data collection. Extensive coding of the
interview and observation transcripts was conducted by researchers. The researchers
examined the interviews, observations, and archival data for similarities and differences.
Findings and Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine theft and mutilation of library resources in Plateau
state university library. The extend of theft and mutilation of library resources in Plateau
state university library is reported to be high, this is due to the following factors

The new library building was done without burglary proofs in the windows. All the reading
areas in the library do not have burglary proofs to discourage book theft. There have not been
library porters in the library for a very long time; it was recently that a porter was employed
to the library.
During accreditation exercise, unprocessed books, without ownership stamp that are
supposed to be kept in the new arrivals section for the team to see there, were taken to the
reading areas and mixed up with processed books(books with call numbers) on the shelves
in the different reading areas, while students were still using the reading areas and by the time
the exercise was over, most of the books could not be accounted for because students easily
carried them out, and immediately wrote their names on them, claiming ownership. Some
library staff do give out library books to their friends and relatives without following due
process, and most of such books cannot be accounted for.
Records available in the circulation unit have shown that some students previously when
corps members where used as circulation officers, have been registering with the library,
using fake credentials, and have been using those borrowers tickets to borrow books from the
library. Such books borrowed cannot be accounted for because after following up with the
various departments for overdue books, it was discovered that those students are not in
existence. There is no penalty put in place for book theft and mutilation, defaulters are left to
go free, so the menace continues.
In time past, students were used as library staff for shift duty during examination period
without proper supervision. Anything that happens to books and other information resources
during that particular period cannot be accounted for. The photocopying services put in place
within the library are not always functional for students to easily patronise, mostly due to
lack of light and faulty photocopiers that haven't been serviced.
The library porter is the personnel that man the library reception; he is the first person to
interact with library users, or visitors. The porter provides information to library users, and
visitors. He check library users who pass with information materials, the porter plays an
important part in the care and security of the library building and collection. The importance
of the porter in libraries cannot be over emphasized, and an individual cannot effectively
execute that role, at least two persons should be executing that role at a time. The porter
placed at the library entrance has recorded some high degree of success in stopping users
f r o m g o i n g o u t w i t h s t o l e n l i b r a r y m a t e r i a l s .
Conclusions and Recommendations

The purpose of this study was to gain an understanding on Theft and mutilation of library
resources in Plateau State University Library, Bokkos. Qualitative research method is
adopted for the study. The depth of information gained through the analysis of interviews,
observations and archival data(gotten through documents) have provided a level of
understanding that quantitative methodology could not have. According to Gupta, &
Margam, (2019) Library security is a broad term and can be defined as the arrangements

provided for safe and secure facilities for library staff, library resources, equipment, and
library users. It is also important that these security systems should perform their functions
as seamlessly as possible, without interfering with the primary objective of any library i.e.
providing user services with ease and simplicity. It includes protection of personnel (both
staff and users), collections, equipment, physical facilities, and information from harm such
as mutilation, theft, physical attack, accident damage, and other acts of God. In the words of
the author, “The security of books and other material is necessary (Kale, 2004). In view of
generally accepted subjects of library security, the protection of books or other collections
materials was among the earliest recognized security problems, so this should be taken more
seriously. Ali (2016) studied Library Book Theft and Audits in University Libraries of
Pakistan. The study highlighted that technologies such as RFID, 3M, or EM Tags for the
security of books are not used by most librarians. An effective technological book security
system minimizes loss and provides relief for librarians from audit issues and financial
penalties.
Wallace (2008) argued that there should be the use of security theatre in the library to
improve the library security. In using library security theatre the library will put in place
various security measures to ensure that the library is properly secured and monitored. Other
studies also recommended further that theft and mutilation of library collection and other
security breaches can be checked by staff being vigilant and also carrying out security patrols
to curtail and reduce to the lowest rate the problem of theft and mutilation which has in the
past had negative impact of the use of library resources by users of the library.
The library windows need to be properly fortified with the required burglary proofs to
safeguard the library resources
The libraries collect, hold, organise, manage and display documents e.g. books,
periodicals, journals, maps, theses and dissertations for the readers to use. The
libraries want their readers to make maximum use of their holdings by borrowing,
whenever they have time and want to. In this context, the circulation section of any library is
of great importance. It is this section which is responsible for connecting/linking the
documents with the users of the library. The documents are circulated among the users for
use within and out side the library. An efficient circulation system controls the movement of
the documents. The circulation section links the library collections to the readers and thus
supports the first two laws of library science (i. books are for use, ii. Every user his book).
This section ensures the use of books by readers by offering them issue/return facilities. It is
responsible for giving books to the users, keeping records of what has been given out, and to
whom; what has been returned or what is overdue now. When the books, documents are
returned to the library, it is the duty of the circulation section to put them back on shelves, at
the right places, and also get them repaired if the need arises. This section has record
of all the books which are issued to the users, and which are still on the shelves.
The circulation work includes the: Registration of new members, Maintenance of database
of users, Charging and discharging, Renewal, Recall, Reservation, collection of overdue
fines. When registering new members, emphasis should be laid on getting valid means of
identification from users, to avoid fake registration. Staff orientation and re-orientation

should be taken seriously newly employed staff should be trained and given orientation on
their duties and responsibility at work, with close monitoring to ensure quality service
delivery to users. More staff should be employed in the library so that the use of students as
library staff during examination periods for shift duty should stop. The pages removed,
defaced, from mutilated books should be looked for from other libraries photocopied and
rebounded. Library resources should be properly processed before being displaced on the
shelves for use.
Reference
Adekunle, F. A., Adekunjo, O. A., &Unuabor, S. O. (2018). Theft and vandalism: Effect and Control
mechanism on information resources in Academic Libraries in Osun State,Nigeria. IOSR Journal of
Humanities and Social Science, 23(7)
Akinfolarin, W.A (1992). "Towards Improved Security Measures in Nigeria University Libraries." African
Journal of Library, Archival and Information Science 20, 1 (1992)
Alokun, N.A.T. (1985) "Theft and Mutilation of Library Materials in Adeyemi College of Education
Library OndoState : MLS Thesis, University of Ibadan.
Athuman , I. N, (2019) Prevention of theft and mutilation of library materials at the university of dares
Salaam library: A dissertation submitted to the Information Studies Programme, University of Dar
es Salaam in partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Library and Information
Studies
Crayery B. (2001). The Problem of Library Theft, Why do People Steal from Libraries
http/www.libraryuced.ac.uk.
C r i m i n a l F i n d L a w, ( 2 0 1 9 ) r e t r i e v e d f r o m h t t p s : / / c r i m i n a l . f i n d l a w. c o m / c r i m i n a l -
charges/theftoverview.html
Fraenkel, J. R. &Wallen, N. E. (2003).How to design and evaluate research in education (5th Ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Gupta, P&Margam, .M (2019) Security of Library Materials: Challenges and Solutions, research gate:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322962889
Holt, G. E. (2007). Theft by library staff.The Bottom Line Managing Library Finances, 20(2):Idakwo, I. S
(2019) Theft and Mutilation on the Use of Library Resources in Nigerian Academic
Libraries.Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal)
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335857644
Isebe, L. E. M. (2014). Causes and effects of theft and mutilation of information materials in
Academic library services in Delta State. Information and Knowledge Management,
4(10) Know your library Pamphlet, (2023) Plateau State University, Bokkos, compiled by Asso. Prof
Victor Chucks Nwokedi, University Librarian
Maidabino, A. A., & Zainab, A. N. (2012). Collection security management at university libraries:
Assessment of its implementation status. Malaysian Journal of Library & Information Science,
16(1)
Memidex (2019) mutilation of library materials, http://www.memidex.com/mutilate
Nweke, A. C (2019) effect of theft and mutilation on the use of library collection in an Academic library in
Lagos state. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal)
Oyedum, G. U., Sanni, A. A., &Udoakang, I. O. (2014). Security and crime challenges in academic libraries
in Nigeria. Information Impact: Journal of Information and Knowledge Management, 5(2)
Ugah, D. (2007). Evaluating the use of university libraries in Nigeria: A case study of Michael Okpara
University of Agriculture.http://www.web pages.uidaho.edu/~mbolin/ugah2.htm
Yang, Y (2004) Students' Perceptions towards the Quality of Online Education: A Qualitative Approach;
Electronic Registration Information Centre (ERIC)http://fileseric.edu.gov

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VOL. 3 ISSUE 1.

SCIENTIA PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES

AN INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT

AN INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL STUDIES, PLATEAU STATE

© DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL STUDIES,

All Rights Reserved

Printed in Nigeria by Fobur Millennium Printers Jos Plateau State

PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES

Prof. Sarwuan Daniel Shishima

Prof. Kingsley Ifeanyi Owete

Prof. Sati Fwatshak

Prof. Chentu Dauda Nguvugher

Assoc. Prof. Jurji N. Gomos

PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES

SCIENTIA: PLASU Journal of General Studies is an interdisciplinary Journal of the Department of

CALL FOR PAPERS

4. Manuscripts should be presented and submitted electronically as an attachment to

For further enquiries, contact:

PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES iii

MESSIANIC CONCEPT IN THE BIBLE: ITS DEVELOPMENT THROUGH THE AGES

EFFECT OF JOB STRESS ON COUNTERPRODUCTIVE WORK BEHAVIOUR AMONG ACADEMIC

THE ROLE OF COMMUNITY RADIO IN THE PROMOTION

THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF HISTORY AND HISTORIOGRAPHY TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF A NATION

GLOBALISATION AND LANGUAGE CHANGE

JOURNALISTS' PERCEPTION OF BROWN ENVELOPE ACCEPTANCE AND ITS IMPLICATION ON

MIGRANT'S IDENTITY AND RIGHTS OF POLITICAL PARTICIPATION: AN EXAMINATION OF

THE DIALECTICS OF CONFLICT AND TRANSGENERATIONAL TRAUMA: THE

PERSPECTIVES FROM AFRICAN MENTORING: METHODOLOGIES, CHALLENGES, AND

CHRISTIANS IN GOVERNANCE IN NIGERIA AND SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION

PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES iv

EXPERIENCE OF THE CHURCH IN NORTHERN NIGERIA: A REFLECTION OF 1 PETER IN ASIA MINOR

ECONOMIC IMPLICATION OF ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS AMONG WOMEN IN PLATEAU STATE: A

AN APPRAISAL OF THE NEW INNOVATIONS IN THE ELECTORAL ACT, 2022

ECCLESIASTICAL CONFUSIONS, THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN

WOMEN, AGRICULTURE AND RURAL POVERTY IN PLATEAU STATE

A REVIEW OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES FOR NEW GEOGRAPHY

EFFECT OF THUNDER STORMON FLIGHT OPERATIONS IN YAKUBU GOWON AIRPORT HEIPANG,

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF RADIOACTIVITY CONCENTRATION IN IRISH POTATOES GROWN IN BAGS

CHRISTIAN /MUSLIM RELATION IN NIGERIA: JOURNEY OF HOPE

THE EARLY COLONIAL EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE AND SOCIAL

THEFT AND MUTILATION OF LIBRARY RESOURCES IN PLATEAU STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES v

ACCOUNTABILITY IN GOVERNANCE AS A SURE WAY TO

Umar Habila Dadem Danfulani

Key words: Accountability, Governance, Democracy, Development, and Peace

PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES 1

PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES 2

PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES 3

PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES 4

Accountable Organizations and the Actions they ought to take

Figure 1: Stylized Time-Line of Accountability

Transfer of A acts using P requests information A adheres P sanctions or Not

Source: Lindberg (2009:11)

· Establish relevant internal governance, structures, policies and processes

PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES 5

Accountability in Good Governance and Democracy

PLASU JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES 6

Good Governance, Democracy and Peace