Engineering Mathematics-I

Vinayak Sawant

Rizvi College of Engineering

August 17, 2023

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 Module-V(Matrices)

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Let us revise!

Definition of matrix
addition, multiplication and transpose of a matrix
Row/column matrix
Square matrix, Diagonal matrix, Scalar matrix
Trace of a matrix, Determinant of a matrix
Singular matrix, Non-singular matrix
Zero or Null matrix, Unit or Identity matrix
Upper triangular matrix, Lower triangular matrix

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Types of matrices
1 Conjugate of a matrix:
The matrix obtained from a given matrix by replacing each element by its complex
conjugate is called the conjugate of a matrix and is denoted by Ā.
2 Transposed conjugate of a matrix:
The transpose of a conjugate complex of a given matrix i.e. Ā′ is called the
transposed conjugate of the given matrix A and is denoted by Aθ .
3 Symmetric matrix:
A square matrix A = [aij ] is said to be symmetric if A = A′ .
4 Skew- symmetric matrix:
A square matrix A = [aij ] is said to be skew-symmetric if A = −A′ .
5 Hermitian matrix:
A square matrix A = [aij ] is said to be hermitian if A = Aθ .
6 Skew Hermitian matrix:
A square matrix A = [aij ] is said to be skew-hermitian if A = −Aθ .
Vinayak Sawant (RCOE) Engineering Mathematics-I August 17, 2023 4 / 29
Properties

If A is Hermitian matrix then iA is Skew-Hermitian matrix.

If A is Skew-Hermitian matrix then iA is Hermitian matrix.
If A and B are symmetric matrices then AB is symmetric iff AB and BA exists and
AB = BA.
If A is any square matrix then A + A′ is symmetric and A − A′ is Skew-symmetric.
If A is any square matrix then A + Aθ is Hermitian and A − Aθ is Skew-Hermitian.
Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as sum of symmetric matrix and a
skew-symmetric matrix [A = P + Q = 12 (A + A′ ) + 12 (A − A′ )]

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Properties

Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as sum of Hermitian matrix and a
skew-Hermitian matrix [A = P + Q = 12 (A + Aθ ) + 21 (A − Aθ )]
Every square matrix A can be uniquely expressed as P + iQ where P = 12 (A + Aθ )
1
and Q = 2i (A − Aθ ) are Hermitian matrices.
Every Hermitian matrix A can be written as B + iC , where B = 12 (A + Ā) real
1
symmetric and C = 2i (A − Ā) is real skew-symmetric matrix.
Every Skew-Hermitian matrix A can be written as B + iC where, B = 12 (A + Ā) is
1
real skew-symmetric and C = 2i (A − Ā) is real symmetric matrix.

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Orthogonal Matrices

Definition: A real square matrix A is called orthogonal if AA′ = A′ A = I.

For an orthogonal matrix A−1 = A′

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Properties

If A is an orthogonal matrix then |A| = ±1.

If A is an orthogonal matrix then A′ is also orthogonal.
If A is an orthogonal matrix then A−1 is also orthogonal.
If A is an orthogonal matrix then A−1 exists and is equal to A′ .
If A and B are two orthogonal square matrices of order n then AB and BA are also
orthogonal.

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Unitary Matrices

Definition:
A square matrix A is called unitary if the product of A and its transpose of conjugate i.e.
Aθ is a unit matrix.
OR
A is unitary if AAθ = Aθ A = I
For an unitary matrix A−1 = Aθ .

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Properties

Determinant of unitary matrix is of modulus unity.

If A is unitary then A−1 is also unitary.
If A is unitary then A′ is also unitary.
If A and B are two unitary matrices then AB is also unitary.

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Echelon form

A matrix is said to be in echelon form if it has the following two properties:

1 If any row has all elements zero then such a row appears at the bottom of the matrix.
If there are more such rows having all elements zero then they are grouped at the
bottom.
2 If there are some rows which do not have all the elements zero then they are arranged
in such a way that the number of zeros before the first non-zero element go on
increasing as we move down the matrix.
Note: By a series of finite number of row transformations a matrix can transformed into
an echelon form.

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To reduce a Matrix to Echelon Form by Row Transformation

1 If a11 is zero, use the row operation Rij and bring the first element in the first row
non-zero.
2 If now the first element in the first row is not unity divide the first row by suitable
number, so that the first element is unity.
3 Using suitable values of k and by substracting k-th times the first row from the
remaining rows,reduce all the first elements in the remaining rows to zero.
4 Repeat this procedure for other rows, so that the matrix A is reduced to echelon form.

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Rank in Echelon Form

The rank of a matrix in echelon form is equal to the number of rows containing non-zero
elements.

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Normal form

Every m × n matrix of rank r can be reduced to the form

 
Ir 0
0 0

where Ir denotes unit matrix of order r by a finite sequence of elementary transformations.

This form is called the normal form of the matrix A.

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Steps to convert a matrix into Normal form

1 If a11 ̸= 1 interchange suitably, two rows or two columns such that first element is 1.
If this is not possible divide the first row or the first column by a11 so that the first
element is 1.
2 By performing operations of the type R2 + kR1 , C2 + kC1 etc. bring zero everywhere
in the first row and first column.
3 Repeat the above two operations now on each of the remaining rows by using the first
row.

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Reduction of a matrix A to Normal Form P AQ

If A is a matrix of rank r, then there exist non-singular matrices P and Q such that P AQ
is in normal form
i.e.  
Ir 0
= P AQ
0 0

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Steps to convert given matrix A to normal form P AQ

1 If A is an m × n matrix, write A = Im AIn .

2 Now, apply only row operations on A on left hand side and the same row operations
on the prefactor Im in such a way that a11 = 1 and all other element of first column
of Im are zero.
3 Then, apply only column operations on A on left hand side and the same column
operations on the post factor In in such a way that all elements in first row of In
except a11 (= 1) are zero.
4 Repeat the same type of operations on the remaining rows and columns of A and also
on Im and In so that A reduced to
 
Ir 0
0 0

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Vectors

Definition- An orderd n−tuple (x1 , x2 , x3 , ...., xn ) of numbers is called an n−vector.

The numbers x1 , x2 , x3 , ...., xn are called components of the vector.

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Linear dependence,Linear independence

1 A set of r vectors X1 , X2 , X3 , ...., Xr is said to be linearly dependent if there exist

r numbers k1 , k2 , ...., kr not all zero such that
k1 X1 + k2 X2 + k3 X3 + ...... + kr Xr = O
Here, O denotes zero vector whose all components are zero.
In this case at least one vector can be represented as a linear combination of others.
2 A set of r vectors X1 , X2 , X3 , ...., Xr is said to be linearly independent if every
relation of the type
k1 X1 + k2 X2 + k3 X3 + ...... + kr Xr = O
implies that k1 = k2 = .... = kr = 0

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Linear combination of vectors

A vector X which can be expressed in the form

X = k1 X1 + k2 X2 + k3 X3 + ...... + kr Xr
where k1 , k2 , ...., kr are any numbers is said to be a linear combination of the vectors
X1 , X2 , X3 , ...., Xr .

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Remark

1 If a set of vectors is linearly dependent then at least one member can be expressed as
a linear combination of the remaining vectors.
2 If a set of vectors is linearly independent then no member of the set can be expressed
as a linear combination of the other members.

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Steps to check linear dependency/independency

1 Write the given set of vectors in matrix form.

2 Consider a matrix equation.
3 Perform row operations and transform the given matrix in upper triangular form.
4 Equate the two sides of the equations and get the required result.

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Linear Equations

The general form of a set of m linear equations in n unknowns is

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ...... + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ...... + a2n xn = b2
.
.
.
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + ...... + amn xn = bm (1)

Such equations are called non-homogeneous equations.

If all b1 , b2 , ....., bm are zero, the equations are called homogeneous equations.

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Matrix form

If the matrix of coefficients is denoted by A, the matrix of unknowns by X and the matrix
of the constants on the right hand side by B then the equations can be written in matrix
form as     
a11 a12 . . . a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 . . . a2n   x2   b2 
    
 . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . = . . .
    
 . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . .
am1 am2 . . . amn xn bm
i.e. AX = B

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Augmented matrix

The matrix [A, B] i.e. the matrix formed by the coefficients and the constants is called the
augmented matrix.
Thus, the matrix of the coefficient and the augmented matrix are:
   
a11 a12 . . . a1n a11 a12 . . . a1n b1
 a21 a22 . . . a2n   a21 a22 . . . a2n b2 
   
A=  . . . . . . . . . . . .  , [A, B] =  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
  
 ... ... ... ...   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
am1 am2 . . . amn am1 am2 . . . amn bm

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Consistent/ Inconsistent systems

The set of n numbers s1 , s2 , ..., sn such that if we put x1 = s1 , x2 = s2 , ..., xn = sn in left

hand side of (1), and if we get right hand side then the set (s1 , s2 , ..., sn ) is called the
solution set.

A finite set of linear equations is called a system of linear equations.

If the system has a solution set, i.e., if we able to solve the equations and get s1 , s2 , ..., sn ,
then the set is called consistent otherwise it is called inconsistent.

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Consistency in Echelon form(Non-homogeneous system)

1 Write the given system of m linear equations in n unknowns in the matrix form
AX = B.
2 Apply row transformations on A as well as on the column matrix B till you get an
echelon form.
3 Then rewrite the equations as a set of linear equations.
4 Determine rank of A and the rank of augmented matrix [A, B].

Case I: Rank(A) < Rank[A, B].

In this case the equations are inconsistent i.e. they have no solution.

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Continued...

Case II: Rank(A) = Rank[A, B]

In this case the equations are consistent i.e. they have a solution.

Further,
(a) If r = n, i.e. if the rank of A is equal to the number of unknowns, the system has
unique solution.
(b) If r < n, if the rank of A is less than the number of unknowns the system has
infinite solutions.
In this case n − r unknowns called parameters can be assigned arbitrary values. The
remaining unknowns then can be expressed in terms of these parameters.

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Consistency in Echelon form(Homogeneous system)

1 Write the given system of m linear equations in n unknowns in the matrix form
AX = O.
2 Apply row transformations only and reduce the coefficient matrix A to echelon form.
3 Then rewrite the equations as a set of linear equations.
4 If r = n i.e. the rank of matrix A is equal to the number of unknowns then only
trivial(zero) solution is the possible solution.
5 If r < n i.e. the rank of the matrix A is less than the number of unknowns then the
system has non-trivial solutions.
The number of independent solutions i.e. the number of parameters= n − r.

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 THANK YOU!

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