Chemosphere 75 (2009) 1028–1034

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Chemosphere
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chemosphere

Mechanisms of heavy-metal removal by activated sludge

F. Pagnanelli *, S. Mainelli, L. Bornoroni, D. Dionisi, L. Toro
Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper investigates the chemical mechanisms operating in cadmium and lead removal by activated
Received 10 November 2008 sludge in sequencing batch reactors. Selective extraction and acid digestion of sludge samples denoted
Received in revised form 11 January 2009 that both Cd and Pb are mainly present as surface-bound metals. Characterisation of sludge samples
Accepted 13 January 2009
by potentiometric titrations and IR spectra suggested that carboxylic and amino groups are the main
Available online 10 February 2009
active sites responsible for the binding properties of the biomass. Simulation of metal speciation imple-
mented with complexation constants determined in biosorption tests, showed that cadmium predomi-
Keywords:
nates as biosorbed species, while lead was mainly removed by precipitation.
Biosorption
Heavy metals
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Activated sludge
Potentiometric titration
Metal speciation

1. Introduction is then primarily a physico-chemical rather than a biological pro-

Since 1970s heavy metals have been causing a growing concern
over their toxic effects on humans and aquatic ecosystems. A sig-
nificant part of anthropogenic emissions containing heavy metals
ends up in wastewaters treated by activated sludge processes,
affecting microbial biomass growth and thus the depurative effi-
ciency of the treatment. In fact biological wastewater systems
are mainly designed for organic matter removal and only side-ben-
efit can be observed in the treatment of heavy-metal-bearing
streams (Dionisi et al., 2007). As a consequence, effluents from con-
ventional biological wastewater treatment plants may contain
heavy-metal concentrations still above legal limits associated with
hazardous metal-bearing residues of activated sludge.
Microorganisms of activated sludges can remove heavy metals
by different mechanisms, which can be classified according to their
dependence or less on the metabolism activity as bioaccumulation
and biosorption, respectively.
Bioaccumulation is a metabolism-dependent process. Metal
sequestering process by living biomass can be characterised by
intracellular accumulation, which involves metal binding on intra-
cellular compounds, intracellular precipitation, methylation and
other mechanisms. Transport of metals across the cell membrane
can occur by diffusion across the outer wall through porins, but
in conditions of starvation for essential metals also specific trans-
port can be induced for heavy-metal internalisation (Ledin, 2000).
Biosorption is a passive uptake process, which is generally fast,
mostly reversible and independent from cell viability. Biosorption
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 06 49913333; fax: +39 06 490631.
E-mail address: francesca.pagnanelli@uniroma1.it (F. Pagnanelli).
cess based on ion exchange, complexation and surface micropre-
cipitation reactions involving a large variety of binding sites of
extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and bacterial cell surfaces
(Plette et al., 1995; Vegliò and Beolchini, 1997; Cox et al., 1999;
Guibaud et al., 2005).
In the literature the biosorbing properties of activated sludge
were widely investigated showing how these wastes can be used
to remove heavy metals by aqueous solutions (Gulnaz et al.,
2005; Al-Qodah, 2006; Wang et al., 2006; Hammaini et al., 2007;
Kumar et al., 2008).
On the other side the effect of heavy metals in biological depu-
ration plants was especially investigated for the inhibition of nitri-
fication (Hu et al., 2003; Juliastuti et al., 2003), and only generic
information about metal speciation in active sludge were obtained
by sequential extractions (Alonso et al., 2002; Solís et al., 2002;
Karvelas et al., 2003; Babel and Del Mundo Dacera, 2006). Never-
theless sequential chemical extractions suffer for several disadvan-
tages (Pagnanelli et al., 2004a) and can give only generic
information about the amount of metals bound to organic fractions
without isolating contributions due to biosorption and bioaccumu-
lation (Chipasa, 2003).
Information about metal-sludge interactions and metal
mobility from sludge residues are also fundamental for the dis-
posal of sludge generated in urban wastewater treatment plants,
whose potential application as fertiliser is often limited by metal
content.
Metal distribution among the different cell components
(extracellular and intracellular matrices) can also suggest possible
engineered changes in microbial physiology and EPS composition
to enhance metal removal efficiency (Leppard et al., 2003).

0045-6535/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.01.043
 F. Pagnanelli et al. / Chemosphere 75 (2009) 1028–1034
In this scenario, a different methodological approach was used
to investigate the interactions between heavy metals and activated
sludge using a sequencing batch reactor (SBR) apparatus (Dionisi
et al., 2001).
Selective extractions using polluted biomass samples were pre-
liminary used to discriminate between bioaccumulated and bio-
sorbed metals (Solís et al., 2002; Hu et al., 2003).
Acid–base and binding properties of the active sites of the sludge
were then characterised by a methodological approach already ap-
plied to different contaminated natural composites such as cultivated
ad hoc biomasses (Pagnanelli et al., 2000, 2004b), soils (Pagnanelli
et al., 2004c), and agricultural wastes (Pagnanelli et al., 2003).
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sequencing batch reactors: apparatus and tests
Two lab-scale reactors (defined as reactor A and reactor B) were
operated in a computer-controlled sequencing batch mode accord-
ing to the following sequence: unaerated feed, unaerated reaction,
aerated reaction, aerated sludge withdrawal, settling, effluent
withdrawal. Further details about reactor running can be find else-
where (Dionisi et al., 2007).
The reactors were regularly sampled (usually three times per
week) at the end of the reaction phase for analytical determina-
tions of the biomass as volatile suspended solids (VSS) (measured
after filtration on GF/C filters, according to standard methods
(Apat, 2003)) and of the residual concentrations of cadmium and
lead by an inductively coupled plasma spectrophotometer (ICP).
2.2. Biomass: sampling and treatment
Biomass samples were taken from both reactors at the end of
aerated phase, lyophilised and stored for selective extractions
(reactor A), potentiometric titrations, IR spectra and heavy-metal
biosorption tests (reactor B).
2.3. Selective extractions of heavy metals
Biomass samples from reactor A were analysed for surface-
bound metals and for total metal concentrations (Hu et al.,
2003). Surface-bound metals were determined by an EDTA wash-
ing procedure: 20 mL of biomass suspension taken from reactor
A were centrifuged at 1600 rpm for 5 min. The pellets were sus-
pended in 30 mL of washing solution (1 mM EDTA at pH 7 in
0.1 M NaCl solution) and agitated for 30 min at 150 rpm to remove
surface-bound metal. Pellets was separated by centrifugation and
washed other two times with the washing solution. Metal released
in all supernatants were analysed by ICP. Total metal concentra-
tions were determined by digestion of pellets (separated as for sur-
face-bound metal) using concentrated nitric acid. Digested pellets
were quantitative transferred in glass reaction tube and digested
using 4 M nitric acid at 100 °C for 24 h. After cooling and filtration
metal concentration was determined by ICP.
2.4. Potentiometric titrations
Biomass suspensions (0.1 g of lyophilised biomass from reactor B
in 20 mL of deionised water) were fluxed by N2 to remove CO2, and
titrated by standard solutions of NaOH 0.1 N (basic branch) and
HCl 0.1 N (acid branch) (Pagnanelli et al., 2004b). After each addition
of titrant (NaOH or HCl) the pH of suspension was allowed to reach
the equilibrium under magnetic stirring and then measured by a
pH meter. Potentiometric titrations were performed in duplicate
and average values were reported in figures and used for modelling.
1029
2.5. IR spectra
IR spectra were performed by using KBr as transparent compo-
nent for the dilution of solid biomass samples. The signals of CO2
and aqueous vapour in the air and possible impurities of KBr were
subtracted from all the spectra by collecting a background spec-
trum. Eight scansions between 400 and 4000 cm1 were performed
for each spectrum. IR spectra were performed by using biomass
samples from reactor B without xenobiotics, and after biosorption
of Cd and Cd–Pb (see Section 2.6).
2.6. Heavy-metal biosorption
Cadmium and lead isotherms at pH 7.5 were determined by
conventional equilibrium biosorption tests in single and binary
metallic systems. 2 g L1 biomass suspensions from reactor B were
rehydrated for 1 h and then different initial metal amounts were
added as known volumes of concentrated solutions of single metal
systems of CdCl2 and PbCl2, and binary systems with equal molar
ratio. Metal-bearing suspensions were kept under magnetic
stirring and at constant pH (7.5) by 0.1 N NaOH additions until
equilibrium conditions were reached (30 min). Solid–liquid sepa-
ration was performed by centrifugation and equilibrium concen-
tration in liquid phase was determined by an inductively coupled
plasma spectrophotometer. Initial metal concentrations were
determined by blank tests without biomass.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Heavy-metal removal in SBR
SBRs were run for approximately 11 months. In this work the
attention was specifically focused on the mechanisms of metal re-
moval on activated sludge. General performances of reactors was
reported elsewhere (Dionisi et al., 2007).
Steady-state profiles for cadmium and lead concentration, even
though with significant fluctuations, was obtained after approxi-
mately 30 d from the start up. From these profiles, the average
steady-state concentrations of cadmium and lead at the end of
the aerobic phase can be calculated: 0.45 and 0.07 mg L1 for cad-
mium and lead, respectively. Using these values cadmium and lead
removal (QMe, mg gVSS1) can be calculated by the metal material
balances in the reactor:
F  ðC 0  CÞ ¼ F W  X  Q Me ð1Þ
1 1
where F (L d ) and Fw (L d ) are the influent and the sludge with-
drawal flow-rates, respectively, C0 (mmol L1) and C (mmol L1) are
the influent and residual metal concentration at steady state, and X
(g L1) is the biomass concentration at the end of the aerobic phase
in the sludge withdrawal stream.
With a steady-state biomass concentration of 1.74 g L1, QMe re-
sulted 1.01 mmol g1 for cadmium and 0.58 mmol g1 for lead.
3.2. Operative speciation of heavy metals in activated sludge from SBR
Heavy metals can interact with activated sludge biomass by
metabolism-independent surface mechanisms (biosorption) and
by metabolism-dependent mechanisms of internalisation (bioac-
cumulation). Contributes of biosorption and bioaccumulation in
metal removal can be estimated by selective extraction of sur-
face-bound metals (using EDTA) and acid digestion (using HNO3)
of biomass samples, respectively.
In particular 1.03 ± 0.07 mmol g1 of cadmium and 0.63 ± 0.06
mmol g1 of lead were released by acid digestion, while
1030 F. Pagnanelli et al. / Chemosphere 75 (2009) 1028–1034

surface-bound metal extraction gave 1.01 ± 0.04 and 0.59 ±
0.08 mmol g1 for cadmium and lead, respectively.
These metal concentrations are in excellent agreement with the
estimates by mass balance in the system Eq. (1), namely 1.01 and
0.58 mmol g1 for cadmium and lead, respectively.
Operative metal speciation in biomass phase can be obtained by
comparing the amount of metals by selective extraction and by
acid digestion. Experimental results denoted that both cadmium
and lead were mainly concentrated onto biomass rather than in-
side it. In particular a t-test for means showed that there is no sig-
nificant difference between metals extracted by HNO3 and EDTA,
meaning that metals are localised on sludge surface. This finding
indicated that main mechanisms operating in metal removal by ac-
tive sludge are metabolism-independent biosorption mechanisms.
The predominance of biosorption phenomena in metal removal by
activated sludge has been already reported in the literature (Law-
son et al., 1984; Hu et al., 2003). In this study further details about
the physico-chemical mechanisms operating in such surface inter-
actions were obtained by the following biomass characterisation.
3.3. Biomass characterisation by potentiometric titrations
Metal biosorption occurs by specific interactions between ac-
tive sites on biomass cell wall and metallic species in solution. Ac-
tive sites generally involved in metal biosorption are characterised
by acid–base properties (amino, carboxylic, hydroxyl and phos-
phate groups of proteins, polysaccharides and phospholipids).
These functional groups can dissociate as a function of pH and gen-
erate a negative surface charge on cell biomass, attracting positive
metallic species and interacting with them.
Identification of active sites can be performed by potentiomet-
ric titrations of biomass suspensions and IR spectra of solid sam-
ples of biomass before and after metal binding.
Titration data were reported in Fig. 1 as charge concentration in
the solid phase (QH, mol g1) versus bulk pH:
  þ
 
 QH ¼
C a  C b  H þ ½OH  V
QH ¼
m
where Ca (M) and Cb (M) are the acid and base concentrations for
each titrant addition, V (L) is the total suspension volume after each
titrant addition (V = Vo + Vt, where Vo and Vt are the initial volume
and the titrant volume, respectively).
Two vertical flexes shows the pH ranges (5–6 and 9–10) where
groups are dissociating. Equilibrium constants of proton complex-
ation reactions can be better evidenced as maximum points of the
first derivative plot of smoothed data, indicating the maximum
buffering capacity of the system where pH = log KH (Fig. 2).
Experimental data of potentiometric titration of the biomass
samples here investigated denoted the presence of two main kinds
of heterogeneous sites, whose nature and concentration can be
estimated by developing and regressing ad hoc mechanistic mod-
els. Such models aim to describe the effect of pH on acid–base
properties of the biomass suspension by the hypothesis of a spe-
cific set of reactions between active sites and protons, which in-
clude the chemical mechanism determining the variation of
negative charge on the biosorbent. In particular the chemical
mechanism used here assumes that there are two different kinds
of weakly acidic sites, each one able to bind proton according to
the following generic equilibrium of association:
K H;i
Ri þ Hþ $ Ri H ð3Þ
Heterogeneity of acid–base groups in natural matrices can be repre-
sented by a continuous approach (Koopal et al., 2001) introducing a
probability density function for the logarithm of the protonation
equilibrium constant (KH) of the active sites, such as the quasi-
Gaussian distribution of Sips
lnð10Þ sinðmpÞ
f ðlog K H Þ ¼  m  m ð4Þ
p eK H þ 2 cosðmpÞ þ K H
eK H
KH
where Ke H is the median value of the distribution and m (0 < m < 1) is
a parameter related to the shape of the distribution (Sips, 1948).
Charge concentration in the solid phase can be then represented
by the following model in which 2-types of distributed acidic sites
were hypothesised:
X
2
Q Max;i
ð5Þ
e H;i ½Hþ Þmi
1 þ ðK
i¼1
ð2Þ
where QMax,i (mol g1) is the maximum charge on solid for the ith
site type characterised by a median value of protonation constant
e H;i and a shape parameter mi.
K

0.8
1.4 dQH/dpH
0.7
f(logKH)
1.2
0.6
dQH/dpH, f(logKH)

1.0
0.5
QH (mmol g )
-1

0.8
0.4

0.6 0.3

0.4 0.2

Experimental data
0.2 0.1
Model

0.0 0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
pH pH, logKH

Fig. 1. Experimental data and model simulation of potentiometric titration Fig. 2. First derivative from experimental data (dQH/dpH) and Sips distribution by
reported as density of negative charge (QH) versus bulk pH. titration modelling (f(log KH)) versus bulk pH and log KH, respectively.
 F. Pagnanelli et al. / Chemosphere 75 (2009) 1028–1034 1031

Table 1 pared in Fig. 2. A good agreement was observed not only for exper-
Regressed parameters and standard deviations for titration model. imental data representation, but also for buffering capacity
Regressed parameter Value Standard deviation distributions. The sum of active sites concentration is in agreement
1
QMax,1 (mmol g ) 0.499 0.009 with Gran’s estimates of total site concentration (1.7 mmol g1).
e H;1
log K 5.56 0.07 Ke H;i follow in the two ranges of values reported in other works
m1 0.74 0.03 investigating acid–base properties of EPS and corresponding to car-
QMax,2 (mmol g1) 0.81 0.01 boxylic–phosphoric groups and amino–phenolic groups (Guibaud
e H;2
log K 9.80 0.05
m2 0.71 0.03
et al., 2005).
Comparing the total concentration of titrable sites
(QMax,1 + QMax,2 = 1.31 mmol g1) with the sum of metal removal
evaluated by mass balance in reactor A (QCd + QPb = 1.59 mmol g1)
A non-linear regression of the experimental data was performed a surplus of metal abatement was observed in the reactor.
to obtain the adjustable parameters for each one of the two sup-
e H;i : affinity constant;
posed active sites: QMax,i: site concentration; K 3.4. Biomass characterisation by IR spectra
mi: shape of the affinity distribution. Non-linear regression was
performed simultaneously regressing titration data by Eq. (5) and IR spectra of solid samples of biomass before and after metal
derivative data by Eq. (4). Parameters were allowed to be changed binding (Fig. 3) can be used to confirm site assignment by titration
only in selected reasonable ranges: the sum of QMax,i was estimated modelling. IR spectrum of biomass is highly complex, reflecting the
by the graphical method of Gran (Gran, 1950); K e H;i is allowed to complex nature of the lyophilised biomass. Despite this complexity
range in the investigated interval of pH generally (2 < K e H;i < 12); some characteristic peaks can be assigned. The broad peak at
mi was changed in the range 0 < mi 6 1, according to Sips 3390 cm1 can be attributed to the O–H and N–H stretching vibra-
distribution. tions. The peaks at 2920 and 2850 cm1 are due to C–H stretching
Regression parameters were reported in Table 1. Model predic- vibrations of CH, CH2 and CH3 groups. Two peaks at 1625 and
tions were compared with experimental data as Q versus pH in 1530 cm1 were attributed to asymmetric and symmetric stretch-
Fig. 1, while first derivative plot and Sips distribution were com- ing of carboxylate, respectively. The intense peak at 1050 cm1

Fig. 3. IR spectra of lyophilised biomass, Cd-loaded and Cd–Pb-loaded biomass.

1.4 0.16

1.2 0.14

0.12
1.0
qCd [mmol g ]

qPb [mmol g ]
-1

-1

0.10
0.8
0.08
0.6
0.06
0.4
Cd 0.04 Pb
0.2 Cd-Pb Pb-Cd
0.02
0.0 0.00
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
-1 -1
Ceq [mmol L ] Ceq [mmol L ]

Fig. 4. Experimental data of biosorption for Cd, Cd–Pb, Pb and Pb–Cd metallic systems at pH 7.5; continuous lines are simulations by Langmuir models regressed using the
whole set of data obtained for each metal (adjustable parameters in Table 2: Cd + Cd–Pb for cadmium and Pb + Pb–Cd for lead).
1032 F. Pagnanelli et al. / Chemosphere 75 (2009) 1028–1034

Table 2 teristics changes can be observed in the relative intensities of

Regressed parameters and standard deviations fitting Langmuir model to isothermal carboxylate peaks at 1621 and 1418 cm1, and the shift towards
data.
lower wavenumbers of C–O stretching peak at 1225 cm1.
Data sets qmax ± rqmax (mmol g1) KMe ± rKMe (L mmol1) Both these changes are characteristic of carboxylic groups
Cd 1.4 ± 0.3 1.9 ± 0.9 involvement in metal removal. In fact the interaction among met-
Cd–Pb 1.28 ± 0.07 3.0 ± 0.5 als and carboxylic adsorbent sites causes a global diminution of the
Cd + Cd–Pb 1.3 ± 0.1 2.5 ± 0.6 distance between C@O and C–O stretching peaks ( Figueira et al.,
Pb 0.146 ± 0.006 (10 ± 3)  10
Pb–Cd 0.15 ± 0.01 (8 ± 2)  10
1999; Pagnanelli et al., 2003).
Pb + Pb–Cd 0.14 ± 0.01 (9 ± 3)  10
3.5. Heavy-metal biosorption

Biosorption properties of dead biomass samples from reactor B

along with the peak at 1225 cm1 are due to C–O and C–N stretch-
ing vibrations.
These assignments are consistent with the presence of carbox-
ylic and amino groups. Both these groups are characteristic of bac-
terial cell wall of both Gram+ and Gram bacteria (Plette et al.,
1995; Cox et al., 1999) that generally coexist in biological plants
for water treatment (Dionisi et al., 2007).
In order to isolate the groups involved in metal sorption IR spec-
tra Cd- and Cd–Pb-loaded biomass samples were determined. Main
peaks and wavenumbers observed for biomass samples were pre-
served even in metal-loaded samples. Nevertheless some charac-
were determined in single and binary metallic systems at pH 7.5
(Fig. 4).
The range of investigated concentrations for cadmium and lead
was chosen according to their speciation. In particular cadmium
species are completely soluble in the investigated range of condi-
tions as evidenced by simulations obtained by a dedicated soft-
ware for metal speciation (not reported here). On the other side
at pH 7.5 lead tends to precipitate as hydroxide even for very
low total metal concentrations. Several solubility products for solid
Pb(OH)2 were found from the literature with observed initial pre-
cipitation for Pb concentration ranging from 0.1 to 1 mM (Liu

Fig. 5. Simulations of metal distribution for Cd and Pb at pH 7.5 and [Cl] = 0.002 M; surface complexes with active site R are obtained using Langmuir parameters from Table
2 (set Cd + Cd–Pb for cadmium and set Pb + Pb–Cd for lead) for site concentration and metal complexation constants.
 F. Pagnanelli et al. / Chemosphere 75 (2009) 1028–1034
and Liu, 2003). Isothermal data of lead biosorption reported in this
work (Fig. 4) denoted a maximal residual concentration of
0.094 ± 0.003 mM, which was then the upper limit investigated
in lead biosorption tests.
Experimental data of metal biosorption obtained for lead con-
centrations lower than 0.094 mM were fitted by using the classical
Langmuir model (Eq. (6))
qmax K Me C eq
q¼
1 þ K Me C eq
where q (mmol g1) is the metal concentration in solid phase and
Ceq (mmol L1) is the equilibrium metal concentration in liquid
phase obtained by batch biosorption tests (Section 2.6), and the
adjustable parameters are estimates of maximal adsorption capac-
ity (qmax, mmol g1) and affinity constants (KMe, l mmol1).
Langmuir parameters were fitted regressing only single metal
system data, only binary metal system data and the whole set of
data for each metal (Table 2).
The analysis of the values of the adjustable parameters denoted
that:
– cadmium biosorption was not affected by the presence of
lead, and in the same way lead biosorption seems not to
be influenced by the presence of cadmium. Consequently
both metals adsorb independently.
– maximum biosorption capacity found for cadmium was in
agreement with total concentration of active sites estimated
by titration modelling and metal balance in SBR. On the
other side maximum capacity for lead was one order of mag-
nitude lower. Then it seems that cadmium can react with all
titrable sites, while lead only with a fraction of them but
with a very high affinity.
According to the first observation single and binary data were con-
sidered as replicates and used all together for parameter estima-
tion (data set Cd + Cd–Pb for cadmium and Pb + Pb–Cd for lead in
Table 2).
3.6. Simulated speciation of heavy metals in activated sludge
Simulated speciation of metal in solid phase as adsorbed species
was obtained by implementing in Medusa database the complexa-
tion reactions between active sites and metal according to Lang-
muir hypotheses (Langmuir, 1918):
K Me
 R þ Me2þ $ RMeþ
Maximum concentration of active sites and affinity constants were
those estimated by Langmuir model for the sets Cd + Cd–Pb (KCd)
and Pb + Pb–Cd (KPb) (Table 2).
Simulations of metal distribution as adsorbed species were re-
ported in Fig. 5. It can be noted that in the whole range of concen-
tration the predominant fraction of cadmium is present in the
system as biosorbed species. On the other side, lead due to its low
solubility as hydroxide tends to precipitate and biosorbed species
are present only in the low range of the investigated concentrations.
4. Conclusions
Experimental data and theoretical analyses reported in this
work proposed an original methodological approach to isolate
and quantify metal-sludge interactions depending on both metal
solution chemistry and sludge sites.
In particular using two heavy metals generally present in waste
waters, one with low solubility in the range of investigated condi-
tions, it was possible to quantify the different mechanisms in-
1033
volved in their removal by independent experimental tests
(selective extractions, acid digestions, potentiometric titrations,
IR, isotherms) and their modelling (mechanistic titration modelling
and Langmuir isotherms).
Simulations of metal speciation implemented by using experi-
mental data and their modelling confirmed the relative importance
of different mechanisms operating in metal removal, namely bio-
sorption for cadmium and chemical precipitation for lead (Leppard
et al., 2003).
ð6Þ
This methodological approach can guide further treatment and
disposal of sludge coming from the treatment of metal-bearing
effluents as a function of the specific metal and range of concentra-
tion. Indeed, according to the mechanism predominating in metal
removal different extractive procedures can also be attempted
for the recovery of specific metals.
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