Memory of past searches, personal experiences, and

low-involvement learning
Personal sources, such as friends, family, and
others.
Independent sources, such as magazines,
consumer groups, and government agencies
Marketing sources, such as sales personnel,
websites, and advertising
Experiential sources, such as inspection or product
trial

Reference group influence can take three

forms:
1. Informational Influence: occurs when an
individual uses the behaviors and opinions of
reference group members as potentially useful
bits of information
2. Normative Influence (a.k.a. utilitarian
influence): occurs when an individual fulfills
group expectations to gain a direct reward or
to avoid a sanction
3. Identification Influence (a.k.a. value
expressive): occurs when individuals have
internalized the group’s values and norms
 Two useful motivation theories:
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Physiological: Food, water, sleep, and, to an extent, sex, are
physiological motives.
• Safety: Seeking physical safety and security, stability, familiar
surroundings, and so forth are manifestations of safety needs.
• Belongingness: Belongingness motives are reflected in a desire for
love, friendship, affiliation, and group acceptance
• Esteem: Desires for status, superiority, self-respect, and prestige are
examples of esteem needs. These needs relate to the individual’s
feelings of usefulness and accomplishment.
• Self-Actualization: This involves the desire for self-fulfillment, to
become all that one is capable of becoming
2. McGuire’s Psychological Motives
• A fairly detailed set of motives used to account for
specific aspects of consumer behavior.

1. Cognitive
Preservation

Need for Consistency (active,

internal)

Need for Attribution (active,

external)

Need to Categorize (passive,

internal)

Need for Objectification (passive,

external)
 Cognitive Affective

Preserve Growth Preserve Growth

Active Internal Consistent: desire to have Autonomy: Tension Assertion: seek success,
all facets of oneself independence and reduction:
and dominance
consistent with each other. individuality preserve balance

External Attribution: determine Stimulate: often Expression: Affiliation: develop mut

seek variety and express identity
who or what causes the helpful and satisfying rel
difference out of
things that happen
with others
a need for
stimulation

Passive Internal Categorization: categorize Teleological: Ego defense: Identification: seeking to

and organize the vast Consumers protect one self-
various roles
array of information and concept and
are pattern
experiences they utilize defensive
matchers who
encounter in a meaningful behaviors and
have images
yet manageable way attitudes
of desired
outcomes or end
states with which
they compare their
current situation

External Objectification: needs for Utilitarian: Reinforcement: Modeling: a tendency to

observable cues or consumer as a act in certain
behavior on that of other
symbols that enable problem solver
ways because
people to infer what they
who approaches they were
feel and know
situations as rewarded for
opportunities to behaving that
way in similar
acquire useful
situations in the
information or
past.
new skills
 2. Cognitive Growth Motives

Need for Autonomy (active,

internal)

Need for Stimulation (active,

external)

Teleological Need (passive,

internal)

Utilitarian Need (passive,

external)

3. Affective Preservation
Motives

Need for Tension Reduction (active,

internal)

Need for Expression (active,

external)

Need for Ego Defense (passive,

internal)

Need for Reinforcement (passive,

external)
4. Affective Growth Motives

Need for Assertion (active,

internal)

Need for Affiliation (active,

external)

Need for Identification (passive,

internal)

Need for Modeling (passive,

external)
 Dimensions of Brand Personality

Three important advertising tactics:

1. Celebrity Endorsers
2. User Imagery
3. Executional Factors: Tone, media,
logo
 Attitude Components and Manifestations

ELM
Model
• Compared to attitudes formed under the peripheral route, attitudes formed under the central
route tend to be
 stronger
 more resistant to counter-persuasion attempts
 more accessible from memory, and
 more predictive of behaviors
• Peripheral Cues (PCs) influence persuasion under LOW INVOLVEMENT but not HIGH
INVOLVEMENT
• Central Cues (CCs) influence persuasion under HIGH INVOLVEMENT but not LOW
INVOLVEMENT