Department of Computer Engineering

Module 1: Introduction to Mobile Computing

1. Differentiate between DSSS and FHSS.

Characteristics FHSS DSSS

Signal Transmission FHSS signal transmission speed DSSS signal transmission speed is
Speed is slow. high.

The size of the FHSS network is Size of DSSS network is large

Size of Network
small to medium.

Price Less Expensive More Expensive

Complexity Complexity is less Complexity is More

Reliable Less reliable More reliable

FHSS is suitable for single- point DSSS is suitable for point- to-point
Communications
and multipoint communications. communications.

Rate of Signal The FHSS signal transmission The DSSS signal transmission rate is
Transmission rate is 3 Mbps. 11 Mbps.

Frequency-hopping spread Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum

Abbreviation
spectrum

It is used in military and It is used in consumer applications

Examples industrial applications. such as wireless LANs, GPS, and
Bluetooth.

Prof. Manasi Chouk

2. Explain the Various types of antennas along with their radiation
patterns. OR Explain different types of antenna used in mobile
communication.

Soln: An antenna is a metallic structure that is used to transmit radio EM waves. It

is the launching of waves or radiations in space, which is efficiently accomplished
with dielectric structures called antennas. An antenna acts as a transducer that
converts the electrical power into EM waves. The electric charges are the source of
the EM or electromagnetic waves.

The transmitting antenna carries the electric current, converts it into the form of
radiation, and transmits it into space. The Antenna can be used as a transmitting
antenna or the receiving antenna. The antenna uses voltage and current from the
source (transmission line) to launch Electromagnetic waves into the particular
medium.
Types of Antenna

The antennas are categorized based on the direction of the radiations emitted by
them. The three major types of Antenna based on the direction are Omni-
directional antenna, semi-directional antenna, and directional antenna.

1. Omni-directional antenna

The Omni-directional antenna radiations radio power equally in all the directions.
The power emitted is perpendicular to the axis. It further declines to zero towards
the axis. It is commonly used in applications that require communication with
multiple devices.

2. Semi-directional antenna

Semi-directional antennas also radiate the power in a particular direction providing

the radiations across a large area. It is generally a point-to-point communication
used for short-to medium distance communications.

3. Directional antenna

The directional antenna radiations power in a specific direction. The power radiated
thus has a strong beam. It prevents the radiations from any interference due to the
radiations in a particular direction. It has a narrow beam and double gain as compared

Prof. Manasi Chouk

 to the Omi-directional antenna. The application of directional antenna includes GPS
(Global Positioning system), cellular networks, etc.

The radiation pattern is also called as the antenna pattern. It is the three-dimensional
plot of the radiations from the antenna at the far field. It means that the radiation
pattern of an antenna is also known as a far-field pattern.

The square of the amplitude E is called a power pattern.

Where, E is the voltage or field pattern when the amplitude of a particular field
component is plotted.

Consider the Hertzian dipole. The normalized E-plane pattern is shown below:

Similarly, its H-plane or Horizontal pattern is:

The H-plane pattern is the thee-plane pattern versus phi for a constant value of angle
at 90 degrees. The component of the Hertzian dipole is a sine. Hence, the maximum
value of the normalized E-plane is unity.

Prof. Manasi Chouk

3. Explain concept of frequency reuse with clustering.
The design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all of the cellular
base stations within a system is called frequency planning. The same set of
frequency is reused after a specific distance to ensure increase in capacity and
coverage.

In above fig , all cells marked as ‘Cell 1’ will be allotted the same group of channels.
i.e. cells which have been given the same number in the diagram have the same
group of channels. Cells which have been allotted the same group of frequency
channels are called Co-channel cells. Cells 1-Cell 7 have unique channels and there
are no repetitions. Group of cells in which every channel is unique is called as
a Cluster.
Since co-channel cells use the same set of channels, there is always possibility of
interference in these cells. Interference between the co-channel cells is called as Co-
channel interference. There should be a minimum Distance after which the same
channel can be reused with minimum interference. This distance is called as
Minimum safe distance and is given by,
D=√3N×R
Where N is the Cluster size and R is the Radius of each cell.
The number of cells after which a frequency channel can be reused is called as
the Frequency reuse factor (R.F). It is given by R. F=1/N, Where N is the cluster
size.

Prof. Manasi Chouk

If D is the minimum safe distance and R is the radius of each cell, then the ratio
of D/R is termed as Reuse factor Q and is given by
Q=D/R=√3×N
The Reuse Factor Q has a very important significance in deciding the capacity
improvement techniques.

4. What is spread spectrum?

In the spread spectrum, signals from different sources are combined to fit
into larger bandwidth.
Most stations use air as the medium for communication, stations must be able to
share the medium without an interception and without being subject to jamming
from a malicious intruder. To achieve this, spread-spectrum techniques add
redundancy means it uses extended bandwidth to accommodate signals in a
protective envelope so that more secure transmission is possible. The spread code
is a series of numbers that looks random but are actually a pattern. The original
bandwidth of the signal gets enlarged (spread) through the spread code as shown
in the figure.

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Principles of Spread Spectrum process:
1. To allow redundancy, it is necessary that the bandwidth allocated to each
station should be much larger than needed.
2. The spreading process occurs after the signal is created by the source.
Conditions of Spread Spectrum are:
1. The spread spectrum is a type of modulation where modulated signal BW
is much larger than the baseband signal BW i.e. spread spectrum is a wide
band scheme.
2. A special code (pseudo noise) is used for spectrum spreading and the
same code is to be used to despread the signal at the receiver.
Characteristics of the Spread Spectrum are:
1. Higher channel capacity.
2. Ability to resist multipath propagation.
3. They cannot easily intercept any unauthorized person.
4. They are resistant to jamming.
5. The spread spectrum provides immunity to distortion due to multipath
propagation.
6. The spread spectrum offers multiple access capabilities.

5. What is Co Channel Interference.

Co-channel cells are those cells that use the same frequency in a given coverage
area. Interference from these cells is called co-channel interference. In co-channel
interference, the cells are clustered as close together as possible to reduce the co-
channel interface and provide sufficient isolation. Increasing the co-channel reuse
ratio improves the transmission quality because of the smaller level of co-channel
interference.

Prof. Manasi Chouk

An example of co-channel interference is when a radio transmitter is operating on
the same frequency.

The reasons behind Co-channel interference are:


Bad weather condition
 Poor frequency planning
Ways we can reduce co-channel interference in cellular communication are:
 Proper planning and implementation.
 The frequency reuse technique increases overall system capacity.

6. Compare various telecommunication generations OR

Write a short note on different generations of telecommunication
Compare between 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G generations.
Generations of wireless communication
0th Generation:
 Pre-cell phone mobile telephony technology, such as radio telephones
some had in cars before the arrival of cell phones.
 Communication was possible through voice only.
 These mobile telephones were usually mounted in cars or trucks.
1G (1st Generation):
 First-time calling was introduced in mobile systems.
 It used analog signals.
 It used an FDD scheme and typically allocated a bandwidth of 25 Mhz.
 The coverage area was small.
 No roaming support between various operators.

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  Low sound quality.
 Speed: - 2.4 kbps.
2G (2nd Generation):
 Shifted from analog to digital.
 It supported voice and SMS both.
 Supported all 4 sectors of the wireless industry namely Digital cellular,
Mobile Data, PCS, WLAN,
 Moderate mobile data service.
 2G WLAN provided a high data rate & large area coverage.
 Speed: - 64 kbps.
2.5G came after 2G which used the concept of GPRS. Streaming was also
introduced and mail services too. Then came 2.75G or EDGE which was faster in
providing services than 2.5G. It gave faster internet speed up to 128kbps and also
used edge connection.
3G (3rd Generation):
 The Internet system was improved.
 Better system and capacity.
 Offers high-speed wireless internet.
 The connection used was UMTS and WCMA.
 Speed: - 2mbps.
4G (4th Generation):
 IP-based protocols.
 LTE (Long term evaluation) was mainly for the internet.
 Vo-LTE (Voice over LTE) is for both voice and the internet.
 Freedom and flexibility to select any desired service with reasonable
QoS.
 High usability.
 Supports multimedia service at a low transmission cost.
 HD Quality Streaming.
 Speed: -100mbps.
5G (5th Generation): It is yet to come in many countries but here are some
notable points about 5G.
 Higher data rates.
 Connectivity will be more fast and more secure,
 Data Latency will be reduced to a great level.
 Massive network capacity.
 It is 30 times faster than 4G.
 There would be more flexibility in the network.

Prof. Manasi Chouk