CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 background of the study

The waste from paper industry can be produced in solid, liquid and gaseous state. Liquid

form is generally referred as waste water and its composition is highly dynamic depending

upon the type of raw materials and their physicochemical processing and in the making of

paper. Waste water effluent from paper industries is one of the major environmental

pollutants and therefore its remediation prior to the disposal in soil or aquatic ecosystems

has now become a mandatory concern (Sonali, 2012). Waste may be considered as any

material which though may no longer be needed somewhere but may become a feedstock or

raw material elsewhere (Adeyemo et al., 2013). Getting rid of household rubbish has always

been a problem but only recently has it reached epidemic proportions. For thousands of

years, people managed solid waste by gathering it up, carting it out and dumping or burying

it in isolated places. Crude as it was, this system worked because most of the waste consisted

of biodegradable organic compounds that composed easily. In addition, the volume of

rubbish was much lower than now because there were fewer people and less packaging

materials (Adeyemo and Sani, 2013). Over the last few decades, new synthetic and

hazardous materials have been introduced into the waste stream, this has complicated the

problem since many of these materials are not biodegradable and some produce toxic

residues that has led to tighter environmental controls on landfills and during incineration.

With open space in shortage, many communities are literally drowning in municipal solid

wastes. The conventional physicochemical methods, such as incineration, physical handling,

and isotopic destruction of pathogens and chemical treatment of waste paper suffer from one
or the other drawback. Chemicals are known to reduce pathogens with very little effect on

the total organic content of the waste, because of these constraints, microbial degradation is

an efficient method for the disposal of waste papers. As evident, biodegradation offers a

rapid, effective and convenient means of degrading waste paper in an eco-friendly manner.

Over several decades attempts have been made to remove the dark color from the effluents.

Of late industry follows either the chemical oxidation/precipitation methods or biological

methods for color removal. Chemical oxidation/precipitation methods are tedious, provides

an additional environmental load. Biological methods are often preferred since it has many

advantages like rapid biodegradation rates, low sludge yield and excellent process stability.

Biological methods are of particular interest because they can also reduce chemical and

biological demands (COD, BOD), which are also significant problem in pulp waste water

and so reduce holding times in aeration and sedimentation ponds prior to waste water

discharge into the environment. Biodegradation is the complete microbial breakdown or

mineralization of complex materials into simple inorganic constituents such as CO2, water

and mineral components. This allows the recycling of such necessary building blocks such

as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur which might be tied up as complex non-

biodegradable substances and thus unable to enter the natural cycles without the activities of

the microorganisms (Adeyemo et al., 2013). Biodegradable wastes can be commonly found

in municipal solid waste (MSW) as green wastes, food wastes, paper wastes, biodegradable

plastics and slaughter house wastes. They are wastes typically originating from plant and

animal sources which may be broken down by living organisms (Chinyere et al., 2013).

Microorganisms are capable of degrading various wastes and therefore have been developed

to be of use in recycling domestic solid wastes as well as toxic substances, the paramount
 role of microorganisms in the global recycling of carbon and other elements has long been

recognized (Adeyemo et al., 2013). The diverse metabolic activities of microbes and in

particular their ability to interact with complex organic and inorganic substrate are now

being exploited in the treatment of solid wastes (Adeyemo et al., 2013). Biological

technologies specifically those on the activities of microorganisms have been viewed with

increasing favor as a method for treatment of hazardous and domestic solid wastes. This

technologies have a number of advantages. Firstly, microorganisms tends to be specific both

with their respect to the reactions involved allowing a process based on their ability to be

fairly predictable; secondly, they are selective in allowing the treatment of a specific

component within heterogeneous wastes and thirdly, they are flexible in that they are

carryout their attack despite fluctuations in the waste composition organisms (Chinyere et

al., 2013).

1.2 Concept and Definition of Terms

 Biodegradation: Biodegradation is the natural process by which organic substances

are broken down into simpler compounds by the action of living organisms, such as

bacteria, fungi, or other microorganisms.

 BOD: BOD stands for Biochemical Oxygen Demand. It's a measure of the amount of

dissolved oxygen (DO) that microorganisms consume while decomposing organic

matter in water under aerobic conditions.

 Black liquor: Black liquor is a byproduct of the papermaking process, particularly in

the Kraft pulping method, which is widely used in the production of pulp for paper. It

is a thick, dark-colored liquid that contains lignin, hemicellulose, and other dissolved

organic materials removed from wood during the pulping process.

 CPCB: stands for the Central Pollution Control Board. The CPCB is responsible for

promoting cleanliness of streams and wells, improving the quality of air, and

preventing, controlling, and abating water and air pollution in the country.

 COD: stands for Chemical Oxygen Demand. It's a measure of the amount of oxygen

required to chemically oxidize organic and inorganic matter in water.

 Cellulose: is a polysaccharide, meaning it's a complex carbohydrate made up of long

chains of glucose molecules. It's one of the most abundant organic compounds on

Earth and is found in the cell walls of plants, where it provides structural support and

rigidity. Cellulose is particularly abundant in materials like wood, cotton, and other

plant fibers.

 Coliforms: are a group of bacteria found in the environment, in soil, water, and

vegetation, as well as in the intestines of warm-blooded animals, including humans.

They are gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria, and they can

ferment lactose to produce acid and gas within 48 hours at 37°C of incubation.

 Degradation: Is the process of breaking down or deteriorating something, often

resulting in a decrease in quality, functionality, or value.

 Enzymes: are biological molecules, typically proteins that act as catalysts to

facilitate and accelerate chemical reactions within living organisms.

 Lignin: is a complex organic polymer found in the cell walls of plants, particularly

in woody tissues.

 Metabolism: refers to all the biochemical processes that occur within an organism to

maintain life. These processes involve the conversion of nutrients into energy and the

synthesis of molecules needed for growth, repair, and reproduction.

 Microbiota: refers to the community of microorganisms that inhabit a particular

environment, such as the human body, soil, water, or other ecosystems.

 Mixotrophic organisms: are those that are capable of obtaining energy and nutrients

through multiple methods, including both autotrophic (self-feeding) and

heterotrophic (other-feeding) modes of nutrition.

 Pollution: refers to the introduction of harmful or undesirable substances into the

environment, which can cause adverse effects on living organisms, ecosystems, and

human health.

 Toxic: refers to substances or conditions that have the potential to cause harm,

illness, or death to living organisms.

 Waste: refers to any material or substance that is discarded or no longer useful and is

intended to be disposed of.

 Recycling: is the process of converting waste materials into new products to prevent

the disposal of potentially useful materials into landfills or incineration, reduce the

consumption of raw materials, conserve natural resources, and lower energy usage

and greenhouse gas emissions.

 Xenobiotics: are chemical substances that are foreign to living organisms and are not

naturally produced or metabolized within their bodies.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW AND DISCUSSION

2.1 History of Paper

The history of paper spans thousands of years and involves the evolution of writing materials and

communication technologies across different civilizations. The use of paper-like materials dates

back to ancient civilizations in Egypt, China, and Mesopotamia. Early writing materials included

papyrus in Egypt, made from the pith of the papyrus plant, and parchment in Mesopotamia, made

from animal skins. These materials were durable but relatively expensive and labor-intensive to

produce. The invention of true paper is credited to the Chinese during the Han Dynasty (around

200 BCE). Traditional accounts attribute the invention to the eunuch Cai Lun, who is said to

have developed a process for making paper from mulberry bark, hemp, and other plant fibers.

This early papermaking process involved soaking plant fibers in water, pounding them into a

pulp, and then pressing the pulp into thin sheets. The invention of papermaking spread from

China to other parts of Asia, including Korea, Japan, and Central Asia, where it gradually

replaced traditional writing materials such as bamboo strips, silk, and parchment. Papermaking

techniques continued to evolve, leading to improvements in paper quality, texture, and durability.

Papermaking reached the Islamic world via trade routes and was further refined by Arab scholars

and artisans. The first paper mill in the Islamic world was established in Baghdad in the 8th

century. Papermaking spread to Europe during the middle Ages through the Arab-controlled

regions of Spain and Sicily, eventually reaching other parts of Europe by the 12th century. The

invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century revolutionized the

production of books and printed materials. Gutenberg's printing press, which used movable type
and oil-based ink, made it possible to mass-produce books more efficiently and economically

than ever before, leading to the rapid expansion of literacy and the dissemination of knowledge

across Europe. The Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries brought significant

advancements to papermaking technology, including the invention of the Fourdrinier paper

machine, which enabled continuous paper production on a large scale. Industrialization also led

to the development of wood pulp as a primary raw material for papermaking, replacing

traditional plant fibers such as cotton and linen. In the modern era, papermaking has become a

highly industrialized process, with large-scale paper mills producing a wide range of paper

products for various applications, including printing, packaging, hygiene products, and specialty

papers. Environmental concerns about deforestation, pollution, and sustainability have prompted

efforts to develop more eco-friendly papermaking practices, including recycling, sustainable

forestry, and alternative fiber sources.

2.2 Paper Manufacture Processes

Paper manufacturing involves several processes that transform raw materials into the final paper

product. Most paper is made from wood pulp, which is obtained from various tree species. The

process starts with debarking and chipping the wood into small pieces. Recycled paper can also

be used as a raw material. In this case, collected paper is sorted, cleaned, and de-inked before

being processed into pulp. The main processes are called mechanical and chemical processes.

Mechanical pulping involves physically grinding or refining the wood to separate fibers. It

retains more lignin and yields a lower-quality pulp but is more energy-efficient. In chemical

pulping, wood chips are treated with chemicals (usually sulfurous chemicals or sodium

hydroxide) to break down lignin and separate the fibers. This process produces higher-quality

pulp but has environmental considerations. After pulping, the pulp may undergo a bleaching
process to remove color and residual impurities. Common bleaching agents include chlorine,

chlorine dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, or oxygen. The pulp is mixed with water to form a slurry,

and any remaining impurities are removed through screening and cleaning processes. The slurry

is then poured onto a moving mesh screen or wire, allowing water to drain away, leaving a mat

of fibers. The mat is pressed to remove more water, and additional rollers or felts help further

compress the fibers into a thin, continuous sheet. The formed sheet is passed through a series of

heated rollers to remove the remaining water and complete the drying process. Heat and pressure

help to set the fibers and produce a cohesive paper sheet. Sizing agents may be applied to control

the paper's absorbency and improve its printing properties. Common sizing agents include starch

or synthetic materials. The paper may pass through calendering rollers to smooth and finish the

surface. Calendering enhances the paper's appearance, texture, and printability. Some papers,

such as glossy or coated papers, undergo an additional coating process. Coatings can include

clay, latex, or other materials to achieve specific characteristics like improved print quality or

water resistance. The finished paper is cut into sheets or rolls, depending on its intended use. The

final product is packaged and prepared for distribution and use.

2.3. Types/Grades of Waste Paper

This contains lists of various types of wastes paper, recycled paper, and recycled fiber, secondary

fibers. Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries, Inc (ISRI), Washington DC, USA provides

guidelines for waste paper classification for domestic use and export. Waste paper is classified

into different types or grades based on its quality, composition, and suitability for recycling into

new paper products. The grading system may vary depending on regional standards and

industry practices.