HOLY CHILD HIGH SCHOOL OF CLARIN, INC.

Old National Highway, Poblacion 2, Clarin, Misamis Occidental

School ID: 405122

PHYSICAL SCIENCE - 11
Teacher: Ms. Karen Faith C. Clamohoy (09558032662) Date: March 25 – April 08, 2022

8 UNIVERSAL LAWS OF PHYSICS

The works of the scientists and philosophers have made a remarkable impact on our understanding of the different
occurrences in nature (such as gravity) and had been the bases for formulating laws and principles. Nowadays, these laws
and principles help us to see beyond the physical world of matter-its motion and behavior in small distances and even on a
cosmological scale. This module thoroughly discusses the different theories on motion as well as the conservation of
momentum and energy.
READING 1: HOW OBJECTS MOVE
Understanding the concept of speed, velocity, and acceleration is essential in explaining the motion of an object.
While speed, velocity, and acceleration are commonly used in everyday language, they have important differences when
used in physics.
A. Distance and Displacement
Distance and displacement are two quantities that may seem to mean the same thing yet have distinctly different
definitions and meanings.
 Distance is a scalar quantity that refers to "how much ground an object has covered" during its motion.
 Displacement is a vector quantity that refers to "how far out of place an object is"; it is the object's overall change in
position.
 Scalars are quantities that are fully described by a magnitude (or numerical value) alone.
 Vectors are quantities that are fully described by both a magnitude and a direction.

Example:
A man moves from point A to point B then to point C and finally stops at point D. Find the
distance and displacement traveled by the man?
Answer:
Distance = AB + BC + CD Displacement = 5 m to East
Distance = 3 m + 5 m + 3m
Distance = 11 meters
B. Speed and Velocity
When describing the motion of objects in terms of distance, time, and direction, physicists use the basic quantities of
speed and velocity. Two terms, two distinct meanings. Yet, not uncommonly, we hear these terms used interchangeably.
So, what’s the difference? Why is it incorrect to use the terms speed and velocity interchangeably?
 Speed is a scalar quantity that refers to "how fast an object is moving." It is the time rate at which an object covers
distance.
 Velocity is a vector quantity that refers to "the rate at which an object changes its position." It refers to the speed of an
object in a particular direction.
 Instantaneous speed tells how fast an object is moving at a given instant.
 Speedometer is a device that measures instantaneous speed.
 Instantaneous velocity tells how fast an object is moving at a given instant and have a direction corresponding to that of an
object’s motion at that instant.
 Average speed is the total distance an object travels divided by the time it takes to travel that distance.
 Average velocity is the change in displacement divided by the time interval required for the change.

Equation: Average speed Which is expressed in the symbol as:

Distance traveled d
Average speed= v=
Time of travel t
Equation: Average velocity
 Change∈displacement Which is expressed in the symbol as:
Average velocity=
Elapsed time
∆d
C. ν= Acceleration
t
If you are driving a car and you step on the gas pedal, the car speeds up. We normally associate this with acceleration.
Acceleration does not only refer to speeding up' but also to slow down.
Acceleration actually refers to the change in velocity of a moving object per unit of time. The change in velocity can be
achieved in three ways:
a. by increasing its speed while traveling in a straight line
b. by decreasing its speed while traveling in a straight line; and
c. by changing its direction even while traveling at a constant speed.

Change ∈Velocity
In equation, Acceleration=
Elapsed time
Which is expressed in the symbol as:
∆v
a=
t
v f −vi
a= where Vf is the final velocity
t
Vi is the initial velocity

Negative acceleration is known as deceleration.

Since the velocity is increasing or decreasing uniformly with time, we can express the average velocity as the arithmetic
average of the initial and final velocity.
We can obtain an expression for the displacement of an object using the following equations.
1 2
Eq. (1) d=vt Eq. (4) d=v i t+ a t
2
υi −υ f V f −V i
Eq. (2) υ= Eq. (5) t=
2 a
1
Eq. (3) d= ( V i+V f ) t
2
Sample Problem 1: A car starts from rest and accelerates at a constant rate of 2.5 m/s2 for 5 s. What is the velocity of the
car after 5 s?
Given: Vi = 0 ; a = 2.5 m/s2 ; t = 5 s
Required: Vf = ?
Equation: a = (Vf - Vi)/ t
Vf - Vi + Vi = a t + Vi
Vf = a t + Vi
Solution: Vf = (2.5 m/s2) (5 s) + 0 m/s
Answer: Vf = 12.5 m/s
Sample Problem 2: An airplane with all engines at full thrust accelerates at 2.5 m/s2. Its minimum takeoff speed is 75 m/s.
a. How much time will the plane need to reach its takeoff speed?
b. What minimum length of the runway is required for a safe takeoff?
Given: Vi = 0 ; a = 2.5 m/s2 ; Vf = 75 m/s
Required: (a) t = ? ; (b) d = ?
Equation: (a) t = (Vf - Vi)/ a
1 2
(b) d=v i t+ a t
2
Solution: (a) t = (75 m/s - 0 m/s) / 2.5 m/s2 (b) d = (0 m/s) (30 s) + (1/2) (2.5 m/s2) (30 s)2
t = (75 m/s) / (2.5 m/s2) d = 0 m + 1125 m
Answer: t = 30 seconds d = 1,125 meters
D. Graphing Motion
Graphs are important and useful tools for physics. A graph provides more efficient information than words. If the graph is
interpreted correctly, a great deal of information can be extracted quickly. Motion graphs are a useful tool for visualizing and
communicating information about an object’s motion.

a) Position – Time Graph

The motion of an object can be described by plotting the distance moved by the object against the time it moved.
The position-time graph can tell a lot about motion.

The position vs. time graph is linear with a slope that is equal to the
4 m/s velocity and an intercept that is equal to the 2 m initial position. The
graph crosses position 10 meters at time 2 seconds.

The slope of the position-time graph is equal to the average speed of the object. That is
Rise ∆ d d 2−d 1
Slope= = =
Run ∆ t t 2−t 1
b) Velocity – Time Graph
Graphs can also be drawn to illustrate how the velocity of an object changes as time passes by.

The velocity vs. time graph is linear with a slope equal to the
2 m/s/s acceleration value and an intercept equal to the initial velocity value of
4 m/s. If the velocity is changing at a constant rate, then the slope of the
position graph, which represents the velocity, must also be changing at a
constant rate.

READING 2: NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

Aristotle, a philosopher, and Galileo, a mathematician, have developed an explanation of motion that lasted for many
years. Aristotle's ideas were mostly based on common experiences that agree with most people's common sense. On the
other hand, Galileo made use of experimental techniques to explain motion.
A. Motion According to Aristotle and Galileo
Similarities and differences in the ideas of Galileo and Aristotle on motion are shown in this table.

Aristotle Galileo
Vertical Motion  Any object not in its natural place will strive to  Any two objects that are dropped
get there. Ex. a stone falls, smoke rises together will fall together regardless of
 Objects fall at a rate proportional to their their weight if air resistance is
weight. Heavier objects fall much faster than negligible.
lighter objects.  Objects fall at the same rate.
Horizontal Motion  Force is needed to start and sustain the motion  Force is not needed to sustain ·motion
of an object. of an object.
 Force is required to change motion (to
accelerate).
Projectile Motion  A force is needed to start an object to move  A projectile is influenced by vertical
through the air until its natural motion motion due to the force of gravity and
eventually brings it to earth. horizontal motion that is uniform.
B. Newton’s Law of Motion
Aristotle's idea that a force is required to keep an object in motion was widely accepted for many centuries. Galileo
challenged this idea and argued that force is not required to maintain an object in motion.
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) made a systematic study of motion and extended the ideas of Galileo by formulating the three
laws of motion.
C. Law of Inertia
The first law incorporates Galileo's idea of inertia and the concept of force. Inertia is the intrinsic property of a material
body that resists a change in its state of rest or of uniform motion along a straight line. The mass is the quantitative measure
of inertia of a body." Thus, the larger the mass of a body, the more difficult it is to change its state of motion.
A force is an action exerted upon a body that changes its state, either of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line. In
Newton's First Law, the force is an unbalanced force.
The first law which is also known as the law of inertia states that an object remains at rest, or in uniform motion in a
straight line unless acted on by an external unbalanced force.
Galileo reasoned that if the surface is perfectly smooth, an object will travel indefinitely until encountered by another
object. According to Newton, with no forces acting on the object, it continues to move along a straight line with constant
speed.
The following situations illustrate the law of inertia.
 A passenger standing or sitting in a moving vehicle is thrown forward when the vehicle suddenly stops because the
lower part of the passenger comes to rest with the vehicle while the upper part of the body continues to move
forward due to inertia. Safety devices such as a headrest, seatbelt, and automatic inflating bags that help reduce
danger to passengers are designed based on the first law of inertia.
 A runner who suddenly stops at the finish falls flat on his face because his body has the tendency to continue
moving along the directions of motion.
D. Law of Acceleration
Newton's first law tells what happens to the state of motion when there is no unbalanced or net force.
Newton's second law deals with the effect of the net force on the change in velocity or acceleration. The second law
which is called the law of acceleration describes the relationship between a net force and the resulting acceleration.
The second law states that the acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the net force acting on the body and
inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
This verbal statement can be expressed in equation form as follows:
a = Fnet / m
The above equation is often rearranged to a more familiar form as shown below. The net force is equated to the product of
the mass times the acceleration.
Fnet = m • a The SI unit of force is (Newton) N = kg · m/s².

m F

a The diagrams show the relationship among force

Sample
(F), mass (m), and acceleration (a).
4m F Problem 1:
What net force

a
is required to give a 135-kg box an acceleration of 1.50 m/s²?
Given: m= 135 kg ; a = 1.5 m/s²
Required: Fnet = ?
Equation: Fnet = m a
Solution: Fnet = (135 kg) (1.5 m/s²)
Answer: Fnet = 202.5 N
Sample Problem 2: What is the mass of a skydiver who has a net force of 260 N and acceleration of 4 m/s²?
Given: Fnet = 260 N ; a = 4 m/s²
Required: m=?
Equation: m = Fnet / a
Solution: m = 260 kg · m/s² / 4 m/s²
Answer: m = 65 kg
E. Law of Interaction
Newton's first and second laws describe the effects of balanced and unbalanced forces. Newton's third law deals with
forces due to the interaction between two objects.
The third law which is called the law of interaction states that when one object exerts a force on another, the second
object exerts an equal but opposite force on the first.
 The law always applied to two different bodies. The forces are equal and in opposite directions, and are called the action
and reaction forces.
The following situations show the laws of interaction:
 The tennis ball is forced forward while in contact with the racket while the ball exerts a backward force on the racket.
 A diver exerts a downward force on the diving board while the diving board exerts an upward force on the diver.

The three laws of motion were first compiled by Sir Isaac Newton in his work Philosophiœ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. His theory of motion which was discussed in the Principia is very much similar to a conventional axiomatic
system such as Euclidian geometry. Newton started from undefined terms like mass, position, time, and force which were
presumed to correspond to measurable physical quantities associated with objects.

READING 3: NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

Newton proposed a law called the law of universal gravitation which states that every object in the universe is attracted
to another object with a force that is directly proportional to the product of the mass of each object and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between the centers of their masses.
m1 m2 −11 m
2
In equation, F g=G 2
, G=6.67 × 10 N∙ 2
d kg
Where: Fg is the force of gravity
m₁ and m₂ are the masses of two objects
d2 is the distance between the centers of the two objects
G is the gravitational constant that was determined experimentally by Henry Cavendish.
Newton's law of universal gravitation is related to his law of action and reaction. If object A exerts a gravitational force
on object B, object B exerts an equal and opposite gravitational force on object A.
The law of universal gravitation is also related to Newton's second law of motion. The acceleration due to gravity on
earth is 9.8 m/s². This can be derived using Newton's law of universal gravitation and the second law of motion.
Sample Problem: Calculate the force of gravitational attraction between the earth and a 50-kg man who is standing at a
distance of 6.38 x 106 m from the earth's center.
Given: m1 = 5.98 x 1024 kg (mass of the earth) ; m₂ = 50 kg (mass of the man) ; d = 6.38 x 106 m
Required: Fg = ?
m1 m2
Equation: Fg = G 2
d

(
m ( 5.98 x 10 kg ) (50 kg )
)
2 24
−11
Solution: Fg = 6.67 ×10 N∙ 2 2
kg ( 6.38× 106 m )
Answer: Fg = 489.95 N

READING 4: MOMENTUM AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

In the previous reading, Newton's laws tell us that force is needed to change an object's motion. A larger force is
necessary to change the motion of an object with a large mass even if it is moving slowly. In the same manner that it is also
difficult to change the motion of an object with a small mass moving very fast.
These ideas are expressed in a quantity known as momentum.
A. Linear Momentum
The concept of inertia was introduced previously as the tendency of a moving object to keep moving or stationary object
to remain stationary. We also know that it is harder to get a more massive object moving from rest than a less massive
object. For example, a slow moving ten wheeler truck requires a lot of force to be stopped. In the same manner that a small
fast moving object to remain in motion depends on the mass of the object and its speed. The physical quantity that
describes the motion of an object considering mass and velocity is known as momentum.
Momentum is a vector quantity and defined as the product of an object's mass and velocity. This product is also known
as linear momentum.
In equation, which is expressed in symbols as
Momentum = Mass x Velocity p = mv

The SI unit of momentum is kg · m/s. The relationship among

mass, velocity, and momentum is shown in the diagrams.

Momentum is not the same as inertia because inertia depends

only on the mass of the object.
Sample Problem 1: Find the momentum of a 5.5 kg bowling ball rolling toward the pins at 12 m/s.
Given: m = 5.5 kg; v = 12 m/s
Required: p=?
Equation: p=mv
Solution: p = (5.5 kg) (12 m/s)
Answer: p = 66 kg · m/s

Sample Problem 2: How fast must a 1,500 kg car move to have the same momentum as a bus with a momentum of 62,500
kg·m/s?
Given: m = 1,500 kg; p = 62,500 kg·m/s
Required: p=?
Equation: v=p/m
Solution: v = (62,500 kg · m/s) / (1,500 kg)
Answer: v = 41.67 m/s
B. Impulse
Newton's second law can be used to have a better understanding of how forces act to change the momentum of an
object. Momentum of an object changes if its velocity or its mass changes. If an object changes its velocity, its acceleration
∆v
is given as: a=
∆t
∆v
In Fnet = ma, the acceleration can be rewritten in terms of velocity. Thus F net=a=
∆t
Since m Δv = Δp , then Fnet = Δp
Multiplying the net force by the time, we can isolate the change in momentum. Fnet t = Δp
The product of the total force on an object and the time in which the change takes place is known as impulse and is
equal to the change in momentum. This is the Impulse-Momentum relationship.
Impulse Formula: I = F t
Where I is the impulse ; F is the force of the object ; t is the time in which the change takes place

Sample Problem: A football player kicks a ball with a 45 N force. Find the impulse if his foot stays in contact with the ball for
0.01 s.
Given: F = 45 N; t = 0.01 s
Required: I=?
Equation: I=Ft
Solution: I = (45 N) (0.01 s)
Answer: I = 0.45 N · s

C. Conservation Laws
Antoine Lavoisier discovered that in a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed, thus the quantity of
mass is conserved.
Robert Mayer discovered the Law of Conservation of Energy which states that created nor destroyed. energy is neither
created nor destroyed.
Albert Einstein merged the Law of Conservation of Mass and the Law of Conservation of Energy that resulted in his
famous equation E = mc² which means that the total amount of mass and energy in the universe is constant!

D. Conservation of Momentum and Energy in Collision

Newton's third law tells us that when two interacting objects collide, they exert forces on each other. If we consider F₁,
the force that mass m, exerts on mass m, and F, the force that the mass m, exerts on mass m₂, then F₁ = -F₂.
For two objects with mass m' and m² colliding, the kinetic energy is:

Where m1 = mass of first object

m₂ = mass of the second object
v₁ = velocity before collision of the first object
v₁' = velocity after collision of the first object
 v₂ = velocity before collision of the second object
v₂' = velocity after collision of the second object
and the kinetic energy is given by KE
This equation is an expression of the law of conservation of momentum which states that the total momentum of an
isolated system before collision is equal to the total momentum after collision.
E. Elastic Collision
An elastic collision is an interaction between two bodies in which the total kinetic energy of the two bodies after the
interaction is equal to their total kinetic energy before their interaction.

The image on the side shows elastic collision of two objects of different
masses and velocities. The two objects bounce after collision and they
move separately. The momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.

Sample Problem: Two ice skaters with masses of 50 kg and 60 kg respectively are initially at rest and facing each other
over a surface of ice. Find the final velocity of the 60-kg skater if the 50-kg skater moves with a velocity of
5 m/s.
Given: m1 = 50 kg; m2 = 60 kg; V1 & V2 = 0 m/s; V1' = -5 m/s
Required: V2' = ?
Equation: m1 V1 + m2 V2 = m1 V1' + m2 V2'
m1 V1 + m2 V2 - m1 V1' = m1 V1' + m2 V2' - m1 V1'
(m1 V1 + m2 V2 - m1 V1' ) / m2 = (m2 V2') / m2
V2' = (m1 V1 + m2 V2 - m1 V1' ) / m2

Solution: '
V 2=
( )
( 50 kg )( 0 )+ ( 60 kg ) ( 0 )− ( 50 kg ) −5
m
s
60 kg
m
0+250 kg ∙
s
V '2=
60 kg
Answer: V2' = 4.17 m/s

F. Inelastic Collision
An inelastic collision is one where the final kinetic energy of the system is less than the initial kinetic energy. Some of the
kinetic energy is lost to some other forms such as heat, sound, etc.
The figure shows inelastic collision of two objects
of different masses and velocities. The two
objects deform during collision and the total
kinetic energy decreases, but the objects move
separately after the collision. Only the
momentum is conserved.

G. Perfectly Inelastic Collision

A perfectly inelastic collision is one where two objects collide and move together as one mass after collision. Their
combined momentum before collision is the same as their combined momentum after collision in an isolated system. An
isolated system consists of objects with constant total mass with no external forces acting on them.

Figure shows perfectly inelastic collision of two objects of

different masses and velocities. The two objects stick
together and move as one with a common velocity after
the collision. Both objects are deformed. Only the
momentum is conserved.
Momentum is given as: m₁v₁ + m₂v₂ = (m₁ + m₂) v
where m, = mass of the first object m₁
m₂ = mass of the second object
v₁ = velocity before collision of the first object
v₂ = velocity before collision of the second object
v = common velocity after collision

NOTE: DETACH THIS ACTIVITY SHEET AND SUBMIT IT ON APRIL 08, 2022.

PHYSICAL SCIENCE - 11
Name: ____________________________________________ Grade & Section: _____________
Teacher: Ms. Karen Faith C. Clamohoy (09558032662) Date: March 25 – April 08, 2022

8 ACTIVITY SHEET
I. IDENTIFICATION: Identify the term described in each statement. Write your answer in the space provided before the
number. 1 point for each item.

_______________________1. This refers to the product of an object's mass and velocity.

_______________________2. This refers to the product of the total force on an object and the time in which the change
takes place.
_______________________3. This refers to a collision where the final kinetic energy of the system is less than the initial
kinetic energy.
_______________________4. This law states that a body at rest remains at rest and a body already in motion continues to
be in motion with a constant velocity in the absence of an unbalanced applied force.
_______________________5. This scientist merged the Law of Conservation of Mass and the Law of Conservation of
Energy that resulted in his famous equation, E = mc².
_______________________6. This law states that when an object exerts a force on another object, the second object
exerts on the first a force of the same magnitude but in the opposite direction.
_______________________7. This law states that the total momentum of a system does not change if there are no net
external forces acting on it.
_______________________8. This refers to the intrinsic property of a material body to resist a change in its state of rest or
of uniform motion along a straight line.
_______________________9. This refers to the rate of motion.
_______________________10. The law states that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net external
force acting on the object and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
II. CALCULATION: Identify the term described in each statement. Write your answer in the space provided before the
number. 5 points for each item.
1. Anna Litical and Noah Formula are experimenting with the effect of mass and net force upon the acceleration of a lab
cart. They determine that a net force of 50 N causes a cart with a mass of 4 kg to accelerate at 12.5 m/s2. What is the
acceleration value of a cart with:
a. a mass of M when acted upon by a net force of 2F?
b. a mass of 2M when acted upon by a net force of 3F?
2. An airplane accelerates down a runway at 3.20 m/s 2 for 32.8 s until is finally lifts off the ground. Determine the distance
traveled before takeoff.

3. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly over a time of 5.21 seconds for a distance of 110 m. Determine the
acceleration of the car.

4. A 50 kg mass is sitting on a frictionless surface. An unknown constant force pushes the mass for 2 seconds until the
mass reaches a velocity of 3 m/s.
a. What is the initial momentum of the mass?
b. What is the final momentum of the mass?
c. What was the force acting on the mass?
d. What was the impulse acting on the mass?