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    Botany Cell Bio Sem2

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    someone medico

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    CELL AND CELLULAR TECHNIQUES 1.6.1. THE PROKARYOTIC CELL The bacteria, cyanobacteria or blue-green algae and mycoplasmas belong to prokaryotes. A typical prokaryotic cell shows the following structure (Fig, 1.1) : (1) Glycocalyx : The prokaryotic cell possesses an outermost homologous colourless or pigmented, thin or thick, lamellated or smooth gelatinous sheath, called glycocalyx. This layer protects cells and helps in adhesion. In case of some bacteria, glycocalyx occurs in the form of loose sheath, called slime layer. In others, it forms a thick and tough covering known as capsule. (2) The cell wall is rigid and may be differentiated into 2-3 layers. The chief chemical substances present in the cell wall are-peptides, amino sugars, polysaccharides and teichoic acids, The innermost layer is chiefly composed of mucopeptides and muramic acid, CELL WALL, MUCILAGE et RNA MESOSOME: GLYCOGEN ovbattes NUCLEOD Pou. RESPIRATORY ribosome RESPIRATOR HOSE Ss So RIGURE LTS shes EES A diagram showing structure of a typical bacterial cell (3) The cell wall is followed by a thin small amount of polysaccharides, The cellular respiration, In case of some b: _ (4) The most characteristic mitochondria and nucleus (5) Incase of blue-green algae the photo: , synthetic in the form of parallel stacks or dispersed irre there are vesicular infoldings of cell merce oe Photosynthesis. Plasma membrane composed of phospholipids, proteins and a Plasma membrane possesses Tespiratory enzymes and performs acteria, the membrane gives rise infoldings called mesosomes. c feature of prokaryotic cell is the absence of well organised chloroplast, sac like structure; S Comy i fis pucfucee The iposed of two unit membranes. The lamellae bear © The thylakoids are Phycobilisome particles over t i : ; Particles contain phycocyanin and phycoerythrin pigments in blue-green algae, BRVBLILS CELL ANO CELLULAR TECHNIQUES. z wuclear material, [Plasma membrane Vacuolar membrane microns 000 miro Citosol Catt watt Endoplasmic reticulum Mitachondtia ‘Typical Plant cel Cytoplasm: Plastids Ribosomes anules measuring about 10-25 nm in diameter, Most of feet Hs contain large nuuber of gas vacuoles Protplast ‘Nuclear Envelope plan cell i composed of mainly two parts: (A) i (B) protoplast }—Nucleus Nucleoplasm into protoplasm and ergastic substances. A. rammatic representation. Mince Thandie ven in Figure, 12. Lea {_Eragastic substances (Cytoplasmn + Nucleus» Protopasm) (®) PROTOPLAST The art that consists of living and non-living components surrounded by cell 3 i FIGURE 1.2; Diagrammatic representation ofa ypical plant cll reconstructed from the studies in electron microscopy: fs the plasma membrane and all that extends from cell membrane tothe nuclear envelope, ins a variety of cell organelles, such as endoplasmic somes, microbodies and microtubules. The ribosomes like organelles, tYOTIC CELLS 1.6.3, SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKAR i ipoproteini brane which acts as 1, Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are bounded by ee cell mem! selective barrier to the passage of substances into and out a cell. pe 2. Both kinds of cells possess cytoplasm which functions as the seat of me packet bn 3. The prokaryotic as well as eukaryotic cells possess genetic meterial DNA whi genetic information to the offsprings. 4, Both kinds of cells possess ribosomes which help in protein synthesis. 5. Me{abolic activities (anabolic and catabolic) occur in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells; They also om to external stimuli and adapt to environment by the similar mechanism. TABLE1.2, Differences Between Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cells rokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells 1, Cell wall, if present, is not made up of cellulose. Bacterial cell walls are made up of peptidogly can. murei), 2, The nucleus js absent, ie. there is no nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm and nucleolus. ‘The nuclear material is diffused and, therefore, it is called nucleoi . i cular prochromosome which lies direly inthe eyiopleang Without histones or basie proteins. However, recent findings indicate the presence of atleast ‘wo proteins Which bind DNA. 5. Mitochondria, chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi bodies are absent. The respiratory eizymes are located in cell membrane, 6. Ribosomes are small, 10.3 7. Duris ng replication of prokaryotic nucleoid, the mitotic apparatus is not seen. Cell division i: 8, Replication daughter cel membrane, 9. Cell_eysle is short and com letes withis eee pletes within 10. There.is no streami 11. Flagella, if present, fF. flageltin.-It i ameter 12. Many prokaryotic cells pos * plasmids. 13. Location of genes is continuous, 14. Examples of prokaryotes are Cyanobacteria, Mycoplasmas, Rit Spirochactes, products of chromosomes between are made up of a protein — tis simple and about 20 nm. in sess pili and Bacteria, ickettsias, te. 4. Nuclear material consists of naked DNA, i.e, | ls are distributed with the help ofcell | ing movements of cytoplasm, | 1 3. 4. 6 Ribosomes are large, 80s type, 7 Mitotic apparatus 4ppears during nuclear division, The cell division is both mitotic gat meiotic type, 8 Cell membrane has no role in distributi replication products. whe eo % Cell eyleis long and completes in 12 to 24 hours. It Cytoplasm shows streaming movement. | 1}. Flagella, if present, | > fwbulin. Bach tage |, Mistotubiles. It is about 20 12. Plasmids and pili are absent, 13, Location of ii i iz vies eee discontinuous, ie, split type. Ben “ean Tons cells are — Algae (except True nucleus is present. It consists of well organized nucleolus, Mitochondria, endo; Plant cell walls are made up of cellulose. nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, chromosome and There are several linear kind of true chromosomes which are present inside the nucleus, ‘Thechromosomes aremade up of DNA and histones ‘€ nucleoproteins). plasmic reticulum and Golgi bodies are present, Chloroplasts are present in green cells of plants 28 and 10% pr Each macrofibril measures about Diagrammatic representation 18 ‘CELL WALL AND CELL MEMBRANE" 24 ‘valls of adjacent cell ae often opposite to each other. These pits are separated by a pit membrane which js permeable and: age of materials, ‘gymnosperms, the secondary wall partly zai sans or han ease i fi led with water. Sometimes Physiologically the primar Jute mo amount of pectin, terial at maturity | eRe) em) OUTER VER) me oriented along the phragmo ich olecule is a polysaccharide consisting ofa long chain of glucose units. the form of gels and cement the adjoining cells a eclllos toform an unbranched and long cellulose molecule (Fig. 2.2). in all the cells. Most cells have thin areas - ‘ hed or unbranched polysaccharide rich in galacturonic acid Pectin uch areas ate known a8 pts, The pits in the holds water and forms age where secondary wal is not deposited on pri ly dened the spaces between the fibrous elements. When a plats attacked by 2 tis afaik substance deposit makes the exposed surface of the 1 tis deposited in cell FUNCTIONS OF CELL WALL (vse, bacteria, fungi, protozoans). er pri aerial pans ofthe nlats are able to keep erect and (yates the materials to passin and out ofthe cll tis associated with hanical support to the plant ors EEE BOTAN VoL) “ager a defensive response by the plant ce sand jolie. js hydrated and 60 to 70% ofits mass usualy comprises water, ‘composed of aldehydes and eonifery! iy plants. Lignin cements and strength od surface ofthe cel as distinct ayer called rely impermeable to water and checks surface of some grases. ‘and maintains the shape ofthe cells. Argos halo mesh ny ney ofall chal and atch of patos that thy remain in proper positions. The leaves to sunlight, expo jt metabolism are known ta.gecur in the cell wall ferences between Primary and Secondary Cell Wall [ PRIMARY CELL WALL. SECONDARY CELL WALL is formed ina growing cel. internal tothe middle lamella, is present in all plant cells. 7._ Its water content is about 60% 8, Ithas relatively low cellulose content. has relatively high hemicellulose, protein and lipid contents. ind capable to expansion in a | 4. is formed in a mature cel imernal to the primary present in certain cells only such as sclerenchyma, tracheids, vessels, cork, etc igi and incapable of expansion. I. 5. Itis $10 um thick 6, Iscellulose macrofibrils are long, straight and ‘compactly arranged, Its water content is about 30-40%, has relatively high cellulose content. 9. Ithas relatively low hemicellulose, protein and lipid contents | pe ‘CELL WALL AND CELL MEMARANE™ Tasae Mexbrang 38 differences also exist among the plas own that the two surfaces ofthe same membrane are difleret because lipids on each side dir, ODELS SHOWINGSTRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF PLASMA MEMBRANE iGmfbranes are composed of spec interaction and arrangement of lipid and protein molecules been proposed from ine and active transport. a + | TT eee JULY UE Hee see) FIGURE. 2.5. ‘Teilamellar *Sandoiteh model” of uembrane structure (After Darson and Dani “UNIT MEMBRANE MODEL (Fig. 2.6): This ms of studies made by him onthe ul frvctre ofa num yes and singe membrane far ai perl nmophiic protein yer are Fees 3035 Attick Thickness of Po frophilic and hy lipid molecules cause the membrane to become a bilayer. roren 0h i N/STSINTSTNSINTSTSI PSE TARR TARTANA wronamane YU UUUY UYU UU UMN U the membi ‘drophobic JE MODEL (Fig 2.7, 2.8 and 29) + Recent higher resolution electron microscopic FIGURE. 2,6. model of Robertson. uted throughout the membrane rather than restricted 103 Based on these findings Singer and Nicolson fates that membranes are made up ofan oriented ‘embedded (called integral or intrinsic) or are ‘The lipid bilayer forms a fluid matrix and the PERIPHERAL, agree Ga ee cm eee SAMOA WOVNYWO Qa FIGURE. 2,7. “Fluid mosaie model” of membrane structure (after Singer and Nicolson, 1972) forces in (CELL WALL AND CELL MEMBRANE SELWALANO CEN MEMERANE Sts A three-dimenstor ‘The membrane prot of three main sy pre 8 ‘Some proteins are imbedded inthe bilayer of| both. These are called integral oteins. They are bound tight oe coro or srgpongance CZ eee oe uP INTERIOR SURFACE OF PERIPHERAL OR ruwle MEMRANE EXTRINSIC PROTEIN PROTEN FIGURE. 2.9. Fluid Mosaic medel showing side attachments, “) raalate Rots be ‘of membrane via an towards teraction ins (especially the protein moecules also have oigosacharde chains (esesic Tes ests Ana Sa gens Ae zp oes tote, Ta ie meric in i bility to tansport ‘membranes obtained from plasma membrane include espe oie ans prion fis (at 5-57 plasma apg i) Neutral phospholipids and (if) Acidic efoural spalis amples cde tesphalpds are porphin phosphatidyl erin, craigs Tse ppd ota cost be sural Came ero lipid derived from squalene, forming a major ‘These are carbohydrates attached to glycerol end of phos uptoabout $% of total lipids in animal cells. These molecules hel te 20 to 70% of the membrane by mass. They occur in different types are common — (A) es or with surrounding water. Intrinsic ams acids of these proteins frm hydrophobic bonds These proteins are soluble inorganic solvents. Due to differential distribu to surfaces of a membrane are always asymmetc, Besides structural proteins, the plasma membranes possess several enzymes which regulate cellular metabolism. more than 30 differen types of enzymes are known to occur in association with plasma = The most commonly og ne phosphatase a ie Sees ae Fcccoidss, Mg? ATPase, NTR potatoe The carer proteins, embedded in he mem ATPase, brane, help in transport of solutes, 3. CARBOHYDRAT of carbohydrates (about yl eylase and RNAse, ‘occur outside » elyeoprotins) or lipids (Le, glycolipids). 22.3, UNCTIONS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE: ‘The main fanetiony of plant membranes DCE non matin te LO potrancroneae a LIF They constitute a numberof sub-celalar seu ple i lular structures ndorganli like onoplastendopatnic ) )) 3 in solute transport across @ © membranes. The exact nature of °° : SaHEN SPICE carrier molecule (s) is still not ‘OUTER SPACE clearly known, but it is visualized FIGURE 2:10. thot these are some transport Diagram to illustrate the carrier concept. enzymes (proteins) located here and there in the membrane extending from one surface to the other (Fig. 2.10). ii Bridging proteins acting as channels through membranes. The model of solute transport was proposed by Singer (1974, 75). The model proposes that the integral proteins that occur in the form of bridge in the entire membrane act as channel through which the substance is transported. The peripheral (xtensic) proteins bind specific ions or molecules the peripheral protein then attaches to an integral protein (containing a hydrophilic pore). Finally a conformational change in the protein takes place that causes release of the solute across the membrane, For explanation see figure 2.11. BINDING outer sing SOLUTE PROTEINS Coe Ne wei ay ta _ an WU ieaie FIGURE 2:11; A diagram showing bridging proteins acting as channel through membran e. Waa = ‘the total ATP of cell is CYTOPLASMIC CELL ORGANELLES 3.a- ENDOPLASMIC RETICULM (ER) 33.1 MISTORICAL BACKGROUND observed for the first oss ox Vrough santa Tra a ‘membrane-bound network syste nd vesicles extending from nuclear membrane to the ‘PSI COMPLEX A diagram showing localization of PSI, Abbreviations : CC= Cs ‘A detailed examination of the distribution of PS I and PS Il complexes shows that PS Il is mainly located in the appressed regions of thylakoids whereas PS li located inthe stroma lamellae, end-membranes and margins (Anderson and Anderson, 1981), This is represented in Figure 3.6. PSICQPLEX — THYLAKOK Owe ‘01D PS u COMPLEX Sstonttréortem tons, ATPase comp plexes between appressed ng to Anderson and Anderson, 1 331 1). suctio 39 Chloroplasts areSubcellular sites of phy photonic energy into chemeal energy a fea TY a mostinpotantergnciswhicheonvert | 60, +124, x amespherc carbon donde to evolve molecular oxygen, Lig = 2° Sinan? Ce Hy2 06+ GH,O +60, steps—(i) Light reaction and (i) Dark ceactica. The nin the stroma of chloroplasts, Visible light is centres tke part in photo-chemical act. enzymes to donate eoctvonsioFS II, protons to lumen of ts) non-eyelic and cyclic electron transport to syn ———— fs inlatory power in the form of NADPH and INTO { CELL METABOLISM r thesized in thylakoids, moves to stroma wi sedup inthe Calvin syle Al oie re located in the stroma where carbon dioxide is fixed to Hexose, FORMATION OF CHLOROPLASTS Ile, Like other membrane bound cell ors y grow by division of pre-existing chlor not synthesized de novo are alsonot sy light, Proplatis are minute, sub-microscop from pre-existing proplastids in 40 amoeboid structures ‘envelopes. They are tr

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