Unit 5: Global Environmental Issues and Policies

1. Climate change and Global Warming Climate Change: A Global Challenge

Climate change refers to shift or change in average weather conditions of a region or earth
like temperature, humidity, rainfall, cloudiness and wind patterns which further leads to
changes in the frequency or severity of these conditions over decades or over a long period.
For example, increase in the frequency and severity of floods and droughts in a region with
increased rainfall and temperature with time.

Recent example from India-Northern India Floods July-August 2023. This is because of in
recent years, India has witnessed intensified weather patterns, with the monsoon season
becoming more erratic and less dependable over time. The current period of heavy rainfall is
occurring closely on the heels of an intense heatwave that also affected much of northern
India. While various factors contribute to flooding, experts point to climate change as a
significant driver of increased occurrences of heavy rainfall.

The Earth’s climate has changed throughout its history, in cycles that occur over very long
periods of time. This is a natural process. However, rapid industrialization and urbanization
have intensified the climate change through increased emissions of gases like carbon dioxide
(CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4) and fluorinated gases like sulphur hexafluoride
(SF6), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and Nitrogen trifluoride (NF 3).
These gases are also called as greenhouse gases as they act as a blanket over the earth surface
and function as the glass panels of a greenhouse which allows all the incoming solar radiations
to pass but trap the outgoing heat producing long wave infrared radiations resulting into
warming of the earth surface. This phenomenon is called as greenhouse effect.

Figure 1: Greenhouse effect

The natural greenhouse effect is essential to maintain the temperature of the earth to support
life but increasing quantities of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere have intensified
the greenhouse effect leading to the phenomenon of global warming. CO2 contributes
maximum i.e., about 60% of the total warming followed by CH4 with 20%, chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) with 14% and N2O with 6% of total warming. As per 5th Assessment Report of
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC-AR5), the CO2 has increased by 40% (from
278 ppm to 390.5 ppm); CH4 has increased by 150% (from 0.72 ppm to 1.803 ppm) and N 2O
has increased by 20% (from 271 ppb to 324.2 ppb) over the time period of 1750-2011. As IPCC
(AR5), due to this global warming, the global averaged combined land and ocean temperature
of the earth has increased from 0.65 to 1.06 °C showing the warming of 0.85 °C over the
period of 1880-2012 which can have widespread impacts on human health and natural
ecosystem.

Man-made activities responsible for increased greenhouse gas emissions and therefore,
increased global warming and climate change include:

 Fossil fuel burning with 49% contribution to greenhouse gas emissions

 Agriculture with 13% contribution to greenhouse gas emissions
 Deforestation with 14% contribution to greenhouse gas emissions
 Industrial processes with 24% contribution to greenhouse gas emissions

Impacts of global warming and climate change

1) Global temperature increase and human health: It is estimated that if the

concentration of greenhouse gas emissions continues to rise at present rate, earth
average temperature will rise between 1.5 to 5.5 °C by 2050 badly affecting human
health and wellbeing. Extremes in climate and rainfall leading to drought and floods
will affect freshwater supply reducing the availability of clean water for drinking,
bathing, washing and other household purposes. Water can be contaminated and
sewage systems may be damaged during flood and storm conditions increasing the
risk of spreading the infectious diseases like diarrhoea and bringing new unexpected
diseases.
Warm temperature and more water stagnation would favour breeding of mosquitoes,
snails and some insects which further lead to increased cases of vector borne diseases
like malaria and dengue. Higher temperature and humidity will also aggravate
respiratory and skin (fungal/bacterial) diseases.

2) Rise in sea level: Sea level rise is caused by the expansion of sea water as it warms in
response to climate change and the widespread melting of land ice. One-meter rise in
sea level will inundate low lying areas of cities like Shanghai, Cairo, Bangkok, Sydney
as well as agricultural lowlands and deltas in Egypt, Bangladesh, India, China and will
affect rice productivity.
 This will also disturb many commercial spawning grounds and coastal fisheries by
accelerating the coastal erosion, salinity of estuaries and coastal aquifer disturbing the
global import and exports of aquatic food, thereby, global economy.
Rise in sea level would probably increase the frequency of storm damage to lagoons,
estuaries and coral reefs and affect the human communities in neighbouring areas. In
India, Lakshadweep Islands with a maximum height of 4 meters above the sea level
will be more vulnerable. Further, life of millions of people who have built homes in the
deltas of the Ganga, the Mekong and the Mississippi will be badly affected.

3) Effects on agriculture: Climate change can have positive or negative effects on various
types of crops in different regions of the world. Tropical and subtropical regions will
be more affected since the temperature in these regions is already on the higher side.
Under high temperature conditions, soil moisture will decrease and evapo-
transpiration will increase which may further drastically affect wheat and maize
production. Increase in temperature and humidity will increase pest growth and
reduce crop yield threatening the food availability or security of a country.

4) Loss of biodiversity and nature: In the ocean, the rise in water temperature is putting
pressure on ocean life. The Great Barrier Reef, where the coral population is in shallow
water, has recently declined by up to 50%. Migratory and resident animals such as
birds and fish may lose their important natural feeding and breeding grounds which
can in turn affect the size of the population of these species. As climate change
affecting nature on land, with many species of plants and animals shifting to new areas
due to warming.

2. Ozone layer Depletion

1. Ozone layer: It is a thick layer of ozone gas which extends from 15 to 30 km in the
stratosphere layer of the atmosphere. It absorbs harmful UV radiations of sun reaching the
earth surface and protect the life from its damaging effects. It was first discovered by a pair
of French scientists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson in 1913.
Figure 1: Structure of the atmosphere showing ozone layer

2. Ozone layer depletion

Chemicals like Choloroflurocarbons (CFCs) released by supersonic aircrafts or jets, ACs, and
refrigerators gets accumulated in the atmosphere and deplete ozone layer.

The CFCs decompose under the influence of UV radiations and release chlorine (Cl) atoms
which react with ozone (O3) to form oxygen (O2). O3 is continuously being converted into O2
by these CFCs through a chain reaction leading to thinning of ozone layer. This thinning of
ozone layer is called as Ozone layer depletion and is measured in Dosbon Units (DU).

Normally, the average thickness of ozone layer at subpolar regions was around 450 DU (4.5
mm) but due to the rising pollution of CFCs it’s thickness has reduced to 300 DU (3 mm) in
2022-23. This sharp drop in the ozone layer forms the ozone hole. The first ozone hole was
discovered by Dr. Joe C. Farman and his colleagues in the British Antarctic survey over
Antarctic zone in 1979.
Figure 2: Ozone layer depletion

3. Impacts of Ozone layer depletion

Ozone layer depletion can cause skin cancer, skin burns, skin ageing, leukemia (blood cancer),
visual impairment, lung cancer and DNA breakage.

Acid Rain

Various industries, automobiles, and combustion of fossil fuels release acidic oxides such as
sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and Hydrochloric acid gas (HCl) into the
atmosphere. These oxides get dissolved in the water vapour present in the atmosphere to
form corresponding acids, which then fall slowly on earth as acid rain.

SO2 + H2O H2SO3 (Sulphurous Acid)

SO3 + H2O H2SO4 (Sulphuric Acid)

4NO2 + 2H2O +O2 4HNO3 (Nitric Acid)

HCl (g) + H2O HCl (Hydrochloric Acid)

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (Carbonic Acid)

Clean or natural rain water has a pH of 5.6 at 20°C. Rainwater is turned acidic when its pH falls
below 5.6 because of the formation of carbonic acid by the dissolution of CO 2 in rain water.
Strong acids like sulphuric acid and nitric acid dissolved in rain water, dissociate or release
hydrogen ions thereby increasing the acidity in rain drops. Generally, sulphuric acid forms the
major fraction of acid rain followed by nitric acid and a very small fraction of other acids. Acid
rain in India has been noticed from certain places (Table 1).
TABLE 1: Acid rain in India

Name of the place pH of rain water

Mohanbari (Assam) 4.77
Nagpur 4.87
Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu) 5.19
Allahabad (Now Prayagraj, UP) 5.32
Minicoy Island (Lakshadweep) 5.52

Effects of acid rain

1. It causes deterioration of buildings especially made of marble like Taj Mahal in Agra,
UP. Sulphuric acid present in the acid rain reacts with the calcium carbonate (marble)
causing discolouration or yellowing of the white marble surface.
2. It damages stone statues. For example, priceless stone statues in Greece and Italy have
been partially dissolved by acid rain.
3. It damages metals and car finishes.
4. Aquatic life especially fish are badly affected by lake acidification induced by acid rain.
Aquatic animals may suffer from toxicity of metals such as aluminium, mercury,
manganese, zinc and lead which leak from the surrounding rocks due to acid rain.
5. It dissolves the salts and metals present in the soil and these pass into ponds, lakes
and rivers where they cause toxic effects to aquatic life
6. It reduces the fertility of soil
7. It causes direct damage to the leaves of the plants in the mist form and also cause
damage to seed germination and plant reproduction
8. It harms skin of humans and animals and irritates the eyes
9. It damages cloth, paper, leather and buildings.

Environmental legislation

Environmental legislation has been evolved to protect our environment as a whole, our health
and the Earth resources. Once a legislation is made at the global, national or state level, it has
to be implemented through an effective agency which collect the data, process it and pass it
on to a law enforcement agency. If a law or rule is broken by an individual or institution at
regional level or by a country at global level, they have to be punished through a legal process.
For this, various national laws exit and various international agreement and programmes have
been signed by different countries to protect the regional as well as the global environment.

Environmental legislation in India

India supported environmental legislation in India soon after the U.N. Conference on Human
Environment held in Stockholm on 5th June 1972. It was first time when environment
discussed as an item of the international agenda and thereafter, 5th June is celebrated as
Environment Day all over the world.

Provisions for environment protection in the constitution of India were made in 1976 with in
four years of Stockholm Conference via 42nd Amendment as follows:

Article 48-A of the constitution: “The state shall endeavour to protect and improve the
environment and to safeguard forests and wildlife of the country.”

Article 51 A (g) of the constitution: “It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and
improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have
compensation for living creature.”

Soon after the conference, India established 6 laws related to environment protection in India
which include:

1. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (See Below)

2. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 (See Below)

3. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (See Below)

4. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (See Below)

5. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (See Below)

6. The Scheduled Tribes and Other traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of forest rights)
Act, 2006

1. Passed on 18 Dec. 2006

2. Also known as The Forest Rights Act (2006) or The Tribal Rights Act (2006) or The Tribal Bill
(2006) or The Tribal Land Act (2006)

3. It preserves the rights of forest dwelling communities to land and other forest resources
which were denied to them over decades as a result of the continuance of colonial forest laws
in India.

4. As per this law eligibility criterion is as follows:

According to 2 (C), three conditions must be satisfied by an applicant to be eligible of rights

under this act:

a) Must be a scheduled tribe in the area where the rights are claimed.
b) Primarily resided in forest or forest land prior to 13.12.2005.
c) Depend on the forest or forest land for bona fide livelihood needs.

Under 2 (O), which refers to “any member or community”, if any other traditional forest
dweller village establishes, its eligibility under this act particularly outside the claimed area
says that there is no need for every individual to do so separately and only two condition need
to be fulfilled:

a) Primarily resided in forest or forest land for three generations (75 years) prior to
13.12.2005.
b) Depend on the forest or forest land for bona fide livelihoods needs.
 314 Chapter 6
of India is 3.4
The table shows that although the population use and waste
mes more than that off US.A. Its overall energy
more consumerism
5Cieration are less than /8th that of USA. Thus
leads to more waste production.

Consumerism highlights (after Paul Ehrlich)

consumes 50times as much as
Onan average, a U.S. citizen
an Indian.
A US. born baby due to high consumerism will
damage the
planet earth 20-100 times more in a lifetime than a baby born
in a poor family of LDC.
A Japanese with a similar lifestyle as that of an American
causes half the impact on environment. This is due to better
technology. By adopting energy efficient and eco-friendly
technologies and by following 3'R principle of Reduce, Reuse,
Recycle they have minimized the waste generated due to
consumerism.

6.16 ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS

India is the first country in the world to have made provisions for
the protection and conservation of environment in its constitution.
On 5th June, 1972, environment was first discussed as an item of
international agenda in the U.N. Conference on Human Environment
in Stockholm and thereafter 5th June is celebrated all over the world
as World Environment Day. Soon after the Stockholm Conference
our country took substantive legislative steps for environmental
protection. The Wildlife (Protection) Act was passed in 1972,
followed by the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
Environmental
Policies
1974, the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, Air (Prevention and
Social
Issues,
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and subsequently the Environment
Practices
(Protection) Act, 1986.
Constitutional Provisions
Provisions for environmental protection in the Constitution of India
were made in 1976 within four years of
through the 42nd amendment as follows:
Stockholm Conference
 Social Issues,
Article
48-A of the
Environmental Policies and PractiCe 315
endeavour to
protect andimproveConstitution
the provides: "The state shall
and wildlijfe of the
Article country. environment and to safeguard forests
51A(g)
India to protect and provides: "I shall be the
rvers and wildlife improve the natural
duty of every citizen of
Thus our
and to have environment incuding.
Compassion living creatures.
for
gforests, lakes,
Constitution
of our includes
fundamentalenvironmental
Conservation as one protection and
Some of the important Acts duties.
are discussed here. passed by the Government of India
6.16.1 WILDLIFE
(PROTECTION) ACT, 1972
The Act, a landmark in the
history of wildlife legislation in our
came into existence in 1972. Wildlife was country,
to Concurrent List in transferred from State List
1976, thus giving power to the Central
government to enact the legislation.
The Indian Board of Wildlife (TBWL) was
our country, which after the enactment of the created in 1952 in
Wildlfe
Act actively took up the task of setting up Wildlife (Protection)
National
and sanctuaries. The major activities and provisions in the Parks
Act can
be summed up as follows:
() It defines the wildlife related terminology.
()It provides for the appointment of Wildlife Advisory Board,
wildlife warden, their powers, duties etc.
(iin) Under the Act, comprehensive listing of endangered wildlife
species was done for the first time and prohibition of hunting of the
endangered species was mentioned.
(i)Protection to some endangered plants like Beddome cycad,
Blue vanda, Ladies slipper orchid, Pitcher plant etc. is also provided
under the Act. Policie
Enviro
()The Act provides for setting up of National Parks, Wildlife
Social
Issues,
ardi
Sanctuaries etc.
Zoo
(vi) The Act provides for the constitution of Central
Authority.
commerce in some wildlife
(777) There is provision for trade and
species with license for sale, possession, transfer etc.
trade or commerce in sched
P7In) The Act imposes aban on the
u'ed animals.
 316 Chapter 6
powers to officers
and punishment to
(ix) It provides for legal
offenders.
captive brecding programme for endangered
( )It provides for
species.
conservation projccts for individual endangered species
Several
(1972), tiger (1973), crocodile (1974) and brown antlered
Iike lion this Act. The Act is adopted by all
deer (1981) were started under
which has it own Act.
States in India except J&K.
the major drawbacks of the Act include mild penalty
Some of
offenders, illegal wildlife trade in J & K, personal ownership cer
to leopard sk1ns, no coverage of
tificate for animal articles like tiger and
condition of wildlife in mobile
toreign endangered wildlife, pitiable plant genetic resources.
zOOs and little emphasis on protection of

SAY "NO" TO SHAHTOOSH.

DONT BUY ASHAWL OF SHAME
DONT BE ACRIMINAL.know that three to five Chirus
Did you skinned
(Tbetan Antelopes) are killed and
?
to make one Shahtoosh Shawl
This helpless and harmless animal is near
extinction because of our fashion fetish.
Today owning a Shahtoosh is
no longer aslatus symbolbut
A SHAW OF SHAME.

IFAW
PURCHASING. GIFTING OR ACCEPTING ASNANTOOSH SHAWL IS ACRIMINAL OFFENCE
Fig. 6.12 An advertisement for Public notice and awareness

6.16.2 FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 1980

Environmental
Policies
This Act deals with the conservation of forests and related aspects.
Social
lssues,
and Except J& K, the Act is adopted all over India. The Act covers
Practices
under it all types of forests including reserved forests, protected forests
or any forested land irrespective of its ownership.
The salient features of the Act are as follows:
()The state government has been empowered under this Act
to use the forests only for forestry purposes. If at all it
wants to use it
 Social Issues, 317
in any other way, it has to take
Environmental Policies and Practices

after which it can pasS prior approval of central government,

for non-forest
orders for declaring some part of reserve forest
growing
purposes (e.g. mining) or for
trees and clearing some naturally
(reforestation). replacing them by economically important trees
(ii) lt makes proViSion for
and for this purpose there is anconservation of all types of forestS
mends funding for it to the advisory committee which recom
central government.
(iii) Any illegal non-forest activity
within a forest area can be
immediately stopped under this Act.
Non-forest activities include clearing of forest land for cultivation
of any type of plants/crops or any
other purpose (eXCCpl
re-afforestation). However, Some construction work in the forest for
wildlife or forest management is exempted from non-forest activity
(e.g. fencing, making water-holes, trench, pipelines, check posts,
wireless communication etc.)
1992 Amendment in the Forest Act
In 1992, someamendments was made in the Act which made
provisions for allowing some non-forest activities in forests,
without cutting trees or limited cutting with prior approval
of central government. These activities are setting of
transmission lines, seismic surveys, exploration, drilling and
hydroelectric projects. The last activity involves large scale
destruction of forests, for which prior approval of the centre
1S necessary.
Wildlife sanctuaries, national parks etc. are totally prohibited
for any exploration or survey under this Act without prior
approval of central govt. even if no tree-felling is involved.
Cultivation of tea, coffee, spices, rubber and plants which Policies
Environ
are cash-crops, are included under non-forestry activity and
not allowed in reserve forests. SocialPrac
and
Issues,
 318 Chapter 6

forests
Fig. 6.13 Tea plantation in hills. In reserve
prohibited.
it is considered a non-forest activity and hence

Fig. 6.14 Growing Muberry tree for silk worm rearing is a non-forest activity.
. Even cultivation of fruit-bearing trees, oil-yielding plants or
plants of medicinal value in forest area need to be first
approved by the central govt. This is because newly
introduced species in the forest area may cause an imbalance
in the ecology of the forest. If the species to be planted is a
native species, then no prior clearance is required.
Tusser cultivation (a type of silk-yielding insect) in forest
Environmental
Policies areas bytribals as a means of their livelihood is treated as a
forestry activity as long as it does not involve some specific
Social
Issues,
and
Practices host tree like Asan or Arjun. This is done in
order to
discourage monoculture practices in the forests which are
otherwise rich in biodiversity.
Plantation of mulberry for rearing silkworm is considered a
non-forest activity. The reason iS same as described above.
. Mining, is anon lorestry activity and
prior approval of central
o0vt. is mandatory. The Supreme Court in a case T.N.
 1$sues,
Environmental Policies s and Practices
319

allGodavarman Thirumulkpad Vs. Union of India (1997) directed

on-going
forest area of mining
India ifactivity to be
it had not ceased immediately in
any
got prior approval of central
government.
Removal of stones, bajri, boulder etc. from river-beds located
within the forest area fall
Any proposal sent to under non-forest activity.
have a cost-benefit central govt. for non-forest activity must
Statement (EIS) of analysis and Environmental Impact
the proposed activity with
reference to
its
ecological and
Thus, the Forests socio-economic impacts.
for conservation and (Conservation) Act has made ample proviSi0ns
protection forests and prevent deforestation.
of
6.16.3 WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF
POLLUTION) ACT, 1974
It provides for maintaining and restoring the
by preventing and controlling its pollution. wholesomeness
of water
Pollution is defined as
Such contamination of water, or such alteration of the physical,
chemical or
biological properties of water, or such discharge as is likely to cause a nuisance
or render the water harmful or injurious to public health and safety or
harmful
for any other use or to aquaticplants and other organisns or animal life.
The definition of water pollution has thus encompassed the en
tire probable agents in water that may cause any harm or have a po
tential to harm any kind of life in any way.
The salient features and provisions of the Act are summed up
as follovws:
() It provides for maintenance and restoration of quality of all
types of surface and ground water.
(ii) It provides for the establishment of central and state boards
for pollution control. Environm
Policies
(iii) It confers them with powers and functions to control
pollution. and
SocialPracti
issues,
widely
The Central and State Pollution Control Boards are
coordinate
Tepresented and are given comprehensive powers to advise,
and provide technical assistance for prevention and control of
nollution of water.
budgets, accounts and audit
(iv) TheAct has provisions for funds, Boards.
Control
the Central and State Pollution
 320 Cipter 6
various penalties for the
() The Act makes provisions for
detaulters and procedure for the same.
regulatory bodiecs are the Pollution Control Boards
e main
which have been conterred the following duties and powers:
Central Pollution Control Board(CPCB):
matters related to prevention
" lt advises the central govt. in
and control of water pollution.
Pollution Control Boards
" Coordinates the activities of State guidance.
and provides then technical assistance and
control of
Organizes training programs for prevention and
pollution.
Organizes comprehensive programs on pollution related issues
through mass media.
data
" Collects, compiles and publishes technical and statistical
related to pollution.
" Prepares manuals for treatment and disposal of sewage and
trade effluents.
" Lays down standards for water quality parameters.
Plans nation-wide programs for prevention, control or
abatement of polution.
Establishes and recognizes laboratories for analysis of water
sewage or trade effluent sample.
The State Pollution Control Boards also have similar functions
to be executed at state level and are governed by the directions of
CPCB.
" The board advises the state govt. with respect to the location
of any industry that might pollute a stream or a well.
. It lays down standards for effluents and is empowered to take
Environmental
Policies samples from any stream, well or trade efluent or sewage
passing through an industry.
and
Practices . The state board is empowered to take legal samples of
Social
lssues, trade
effluent in accordance with the procedure laid down in the
Act. The sample taken in the presence of the occupier or his
agent is divided into two parts, sealed, signed by both parties
and sent for analysis to some recognized lab. If the samples
do not conform to the prescribed water auality
standards
(crossing maximum permissible limits), then 'consent' is
refused to the unit.
 Social Issues,
Envi
Every industry has to ronmental Policies and Practices
321

for a
fixed obtain consent rom the board (g
providing allduration) by
applying on a
technical details, along
prescribed proforma
following which analysis of the with a prescribed fee
The board suggests efluent is carried out.
and disposal of efficient methods for utilization, treatment
The Act has made
trade effluents.
detailed
the boards to obtain information,provisions regarding the power of
outlets, restrict expansion, enter and take trade samples, restrict new
refuse consent to the industry inspect the units and sanction or
after effluent analysis.
While development is
prevent pollution, which can necessary, it is all the more important t
Installation and proper functioning jeopardize the lives of the people.
of effluent treatment plants
in all polluting
industries is a must for (ETP)
and land. Despite certain checking pollution of water
weaknesses in the Act, the Water Act has
ample provisions for preventing and
through legal measures. controlling water pollution
6.16.4 THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF
POLLUTION) ACT, 1981
Salient features of the Act are as follows:
()The Act provides for prevention, control and abatement of
air pollution.
(ii) In the Act, air pollution has been defined as the presence of any
solid, liquid or gaseous substance (including noise) in the atmosphere in
Such concentration as may be or tend to be harmful to human beings or any
other living creatures or plants or property or environment.
(iii) Noise pollution has been inserted as pollution in the Act in
1987.
(iv) Pollution Control Boards at the central or state level have the Policies
Enviro
regulatory authority to implement the Air Act. Just parallel to the Social
Issues,
functions related to Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
the boards perform similar functions related to improvement of air
industry strictly
quality. The boards have tocheck whether or not the
under section
Tollows the norms or standards laid down by the boards
any air pollutant. Based
17, regarding the discharge of emission ofrefused to the industry.
or
upon analysis report consent is granted
 322 Chapter 6
for defin
()Just like the Water Act, the Air Act has proviSIOns
Boards
Ing the Constitution, powers andfunction of Pollution Control
funds, accounts, audit, penalties and procedures.
() Section 20 of the Act has provision for ensuring emission
Standards from automobiles. Based upon it, the state govt. is
CmpoWered to issuc instructions to the authority 1ncharge of
Tegistration of motor vehicles (under Motor Vehicles Act, 1939) that
is bound to comply with such instructions.
(Pn) As per Section 19, in consultation with the State Pollution
Control Board, the state government may declare an area within the
state as air pollution control area" and can prohibit the use of any
fuel other than approved fuel in the area causing air pollution. No
person shall, without prior consent of state board operate or establish
any industrial unit in the "air pollution control area".
The Water and Air Acts have also made special provisions for
appeals. Under Section 28 of Water Act and Section 31 of Air Act,
aprovision for appeals has been made. An Appellate Authority
consisting of a single person or three persons appointed by the Head
of the State, the Governor, is constituted to hear such appeals as filed
by some aggrieved party (industry) due to some order made by the
state board within 30 days of passing the orders.
The appellate authority after giving the appellant and the state
board an opportunity of being heard, disposes off the appeal as
expeditiously as possible.

6.16.5 THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986

The Act came into force on Nov. 19, 1986, the birth anniversary of
our late Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, who was a pioneer of
environmental protection issues in our country. The Act extends to
whole of India. Some terms related to environment have been
Environmental
Policies described as follows in the Act:
Social
Issues,and
Practices (i) Environment includes water, air and land and the
interrelationships that exist among and between them and human
beings, all other Iiving organisms and property.
(in) Environmental pollution means the
presence of any solid,
liquid or gaseous substance present in such
or tend to be,
concentration, as may be,
1njuriouS to environment.
(iii) Hazardous substance means any
substance or preparation
which by its physico-chemical properties or handling is liable to cause
 Social Issues,
harm to Envi
human beings, ronmental Policies and Practices
323

environment. other living property or

The Act has given powers to the
organisms,
measures to protect and improve central government to take
ernments
environment
cOordinate the actions. The while the state gov-
central govt. under this Act include most important functions of
(a) The standards of setting up of:
qualityof air. water or soil for various
and purposes. areas
(6) The maximum permissible limits of
ous environmental concentration of varl
pollutants (including noise) for different
areas.
(c) The procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazard
ous substances.
() The prohibition and restrictions on the
ous substances in different areas. handling of hazard
(e) The prohibition and restriction on the
location of industries
and to carry on process and operations in
different areas.
() The procedures and safeguards for the prevention of acci
dents which may cause environmental pollution and providing
for remedial measures for such accidents.
The power of entry and inspection, power to take sample etc.
under this Act lies with the central government or any officer
empowered by it.
For the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the
environment and preventing and abating pollution, standards have
been specified under Schedule I- IV of Environment (Protection) Rules,
1986 for emission of gaseous pollutants and discharge of effluents/
waste water from industries. These standards vary from industry to
industry and also vary with the medium into which the effluent in
discharged or the area of emission. For instance, the maximum Policies
Environm
permissible limits of B.O.D. (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) of the
Practi
and
waste water is 30 ppm if it is discharged into inland waters, 350 ppm Social
lssues,
if discharged into a public sewer and 100 ppm, if discharged onto
land or coastal region. Likewise,emission standardsvary in residential,
Sensitive and industrial area. Naturally the standards for sensitive areas
Ilkehospitals are more stringent. It is the duty of the Pollution Control
Board to check whether the industries are following the prescribed
norms or not.
 324 Chapter 6

Under the Environmental (Protection) Rules, 1986 the State

PollutionControl Boards have tofollow the guidelines provided under
Schedule VI, some of which are as follows:
(a) They have to advisc the industries for treating the waste wa
ter and gases with the best available technology to achieve
the prescribed standards.
(6) The industrics haveto bc encouragcd for recycling and reusing
the wastes.
(C) They have to encouragethe industries for recovery of biogas.
energy and reusable materials.
(a) While permitting the discharge of effluents and emissions
into the environment, the state boards have to take into
account the assimilative capacity of the receiving water body.
(e) The central and state boards have to emphasize on the
implementation of clean technologies by the industries in
order to increase fuel efficiency and reduce the generation of
environmental pollutants.
Under the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 an amendment
was made in 1994 for Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of
various development projects. There are 29 types of projects listed
under Schedule I of the rule which require clearance from the central
government before establishing.
Others require clearance from the State Pollution Control Board.
when the proposed project or expansion activity is going to cause
pollution load exceeding the existing levels. The project proponent
has to provide EIA report, risk analysis report, NOC from State
Pollution Control Board, commitment regarding availability of water
and electricity, summary of project report/ feasibility report, filled in
a questionnaire for environmental appraisal of the project and
comprehensiverehabilitation plan, if morethan 1000people are likely
Environnmental
Policies to be displaced due to the project.
Social
lssues,Practices Under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 the central
and
government also made the Hazardous Wastes (Management and
Handling) Rules, 1989. Under these rules, it is the responsibility of
the occupier to take all practical steps to ensure that
such wastes are
properly handled and disposed off without any adverse effects. There
are 18 hazardous waste categories recognized under
this rule and there
are gujdelines for their proper handling,
storage,
and disposal which should be strictly followed bytreatment, transport
the owner.
 Social Issiues,
for
The Environmental Policies
Environmentaudit(Protection) Act,1986 has
envronmental
and Practices
325

as a also made provision

company is mcans checking
Thus, ample complying with the
of whether or not a
forimprovingprovisions
the have beenenvimade
r onment al laws and regulations.
in our country through law
quality of our
6.16.6
ISSUES INVOLVED IN environment.
We haveENVI
seenRONMENTAL
that
LEGISENFORCEMENT
LATION OF

there are a
laws in the form of Acts for number of our important environmental
But inspite of these Acts, we
target of bringing 33%
safeguarding environmental quality.
find that we are not able to achieve the
of our land cover under
losing our wildlife. The forests. Still we
rivers have been turned into open sewers are in
many places and the air in our big cities is
of environment shows that badly polluted. Thestatus
there are drawbacks in
legislations and problems in their effective environmental
Let us examine some implementation.
important issues related to our Acts:
(a) Dravwbacks of the
Wildlife (Protection) Act, (1972)
e It seems as if the Act has
been enacted just as a
Stockholm Conference held in 1972 and it has not fallout
of
included
any locally evolved conservation measures.
The ownership certificates for animal articles (tiger, leopard
skins etc.) are permissible which very often serve as a tool
for illegal trading.
The wildlife traders in Jammu and Kashmir easily get illegal
furs and skins from other states which after being made into
caps, belts etc. are sold or smuggled to other countries. This
is so happening because J &Khas its own WildlifeAct and
it does not follow the Central Wildlife Act. Moreover, hunting
and trading of severalendangered species prohibited in other Policie
ental
states are allowed in J& K, thereby opening avenues for illegal
trading in such animals and articles. lssues,
SociallP
an
ces
The ofender of the Act is not subject to very harsh penalties. It
of 25,000or both.
1s just up to 3years imprisonmentor a fine Envir
Act, 1980: This
(6) Drawbacks of the Forest (Conservation)
consumerist elements from
Act has inherited the exploitative and
transferred the powers
the forest laws of British period. It has just of reserve forest lands
conversion
1iom states to centre. to decide the
 326 Chapter 6
to non-Torest areas, Thus nower has been centralized at the top. At
the same time, the local communities have been completely kept out
Tom the decision-making process regarding the nature of use of forest
area. Very often, the tribals who lived in the forest and were totally
dependent on forests retaliate when stopped from taking any resources
Irom there and start criminal activities including smuggling, killing
etc. The Act has failed to attract public support because it has infringed
upon the human rights of the poor native people. They argue that the
but is
law is concerned about protecting the trees, birds and animals,
treating thepoor people as marginal. Very poor community participation
in the Act remains one of the major drawbacks which atfects proper
execution of the Act. The forest-dwelling tribal communities have a
rich knowledge about the forest resources, their importance and
conservation. But, their role and contribution is neither acknowledged
nor honoured.
Efforts are now being made to make up for the gaps in laws by
introducing the principles of Publictrust or Human rights protection.

DRAWBACKS OF POLLUTION RELATED ACTS

The power and authority has been given tocentralgovernment

with little delegation of power to state governments.
Excessive centralization very often hinders efficient execution
of the provisions of the Acts in the states. Illegal mining is
taking place in many forest areas. In Rajasthan alone, about
14000 cases of illegal mining have been reported. It becomes
more difficult to check such activities at the central level.
The provision of penalties in the Act is very insignificant as
compared to the damage caused by the big industries due to
pollution. The penalty is much less than the cost of the
treatment/pollution control equipments. This always gives a
Environmental
Policies loose rope to the industries.
The Act has not included the "right to information" for the
Social
Issues,and
Practices citizens. This greatly restricts the involvement or participation
of the general public.
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 regarded as an
umbrella Act, encompassing the earlier two Acts often seems
superfluous due to overlapping areas of jurisdiction. For
instance Section 24 (2) of the new Act has made a
that if the offender is punishable under the other proViS1On
Acts like
 Social Issues,
Water Act Environmental
or Air Act
Policies and dPractice
Praciie327

their also, then he may be considered under

Acts isprovisions. Interestingly,
much lighter than the the penalty under the older two
gets away with a new Act. So the offender easily
" lighter
Under Section 19, a punishment.
the court on a person cannot directly file a petition in
notice of question of environment and has to give a
minimum
case no action
60 days to the
is taken by the central governnment. In
can file a petition which latter, then alone the person
certainly delays the remedial action.
Litigation, particularly related to environment is very
expensive, tedious and difficult since it involves
testimony, technical knowledge of the issuesexpert and
terminologies, technical understanding of the unit process,
lengthy prosecutions etc.
Thestate boards very often lack adequate funds
to pursue their objectives.
and expertise
A tendency to seek to exercise gentle pressure on the
poluter
and out of the court settlements usually hinder the
implementation of legal measures.
" For small units it is very expensive to install effluent treatment
plant (ETP) or Air pollution control devices and sometimes
they have no other option but to close the unit. The Act should
make some provision for providing subsidies for installing
treatment plants or common effluent treatment plants for
several small units.
" The pollution control laws are not backed by sound policy
pronouncements or guiding principles.
The position of chairman of the boards is usually occupied
by political appointees. Hence, it is difficult to keep political
interference at bay.
The policy statement of the Ministry of Environment and Policies
Enviro
Forests (1992) of involving public in decision-making and Prac
and
lssues,
facilitating public monitoring of environmental issues has
mostly remained on paper.
Social
Environmental policies and laws need to be aimed at democratic
decentralization of power, community-state partnership,
stringent
administrative transparency and accountability and more
environmental law
Penalties to the offender. There is also a need for
managers.
education and capacity building in environmental issues for
International Agreements and Programmes

1. Earth Summit: The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

(UNCED), also known as the 'Earth Summit', was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 3-14 June
1992.

Earth Summit was created as a response for member states to cooperate together
internationally on development issues after the Cold War. The issues addressed include:

 systematic scrutiny of patterns of production—particularly the production of toxic

components, such as lead in gasoline, or poisonous waste including radioactive
chemicals
 alternative sources of energy to replace the use of fossil fuels which delegates linked
to global climate change
 new reliance on public transportation systems in order to reduce vehicle emissions,
congestion in cities and the health problems caused by polluted air and smoke
 the growing usage and limited supply of water
 importance of protecting the world's oceans.

Key Achievements:

A key achievement of the 1992 conference was the establishment of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) established in part as an international
environmental treaty to combat "dangerous human interference with the climate system"
and to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.

An important achievement of the summit was an agreement on the Climate Change

Convention which in turn led to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.

The Convention on Biological Diversity was opened for signature at the Earth Summit and
made a start towards a redefinition of measures that did not inherently encourage the
destruction of natural ecoregions to support the conservation of biological diversity.

The Earth Summit resulted in the following documents:

Rio Declaration on Environment and Development

The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, often shortened to Rio Declaration,
was a short document produced at the 1992 United Nations "Conference on Environment and
Development" (UNCED), informally known as the Earth Summit. The Rio Declaration consisted
of 27 principles intended to guide countries in future sustainable development. It was signed
by over 175 countries.

Agenda 21

Agenda 21 is a non-binding action plan of the United Nations with regard to sustainable
development. The major objective of the Agenda 21 initiative is that every local government
should draw its own local Agenda 21. Its aim initially was to achieve global sustainable
development by 2000, with the "21" in Agenda 21 referring to the original target of the 21st
century. Agenda 21 is grouped into 4 sections:

Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions is directed toward combating poverty, especially
in developing countries, changing consumption patterns, promoting health, achieving a more
sustainable population, and sustainable settlement in decision making.

Section II: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development includes

atmospheric protection, combating deforestation, protecting fragile environments,
conservation of biological diversity (biodiversity), control of pollution and the management
of biotechnology, and radioactive wastes.

Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups includes the roles of children and youth,
women, NGOs, local authorities, business and industry, and workers; and strengthening the
role of indigenous peoples, their communities, and farmers.

Section IV: Means of Implementation includes science, technology transfer, education

international institutions, and financial mechanisms.

Forest Principles

It is a non-legally binding document that makes several recommendations for conservation

and sustainable development forestry.

2. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC)

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) is an international

environmental treaty was established to curb the climate change and global warming by
formulating norms and establishing institutions/bodies to take strategic steps to mitigate the
climate change at local/regional/global scale. It was adopted on 9th May 1992 and opened for
signature at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED),
informally known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992. Finally,
it entered into force on 21 March 1994 after signed by 154 countries. By 2022, the UNFCCC
had 198 parties. Its original secretariat was in Geneva but relocated to Bonn in 1996. The main
objectives of UNFCC are

1. Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would

prevent dangerous anthropogenic or human interference with the climate system.

The treaty called for ongoing scientific research and regular meetings, negotiations, and
future policy agreements designed to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change,
to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to
proceed in a sustainable manner.
The supreme decision-making body, the Conference of the Parties (COP), of UNFCC meets
annually to assess progress in dealing with climate change to achieve above mentioned
objectives. The COP

1. Examines the Parties commitments towards Convention’ s objective, reviews new

scientific
findings and experience gained in implementing climate change policies
2. Promotes and facilitates the exchange of information on measures adopted by Parties
to address the climate change and its effects
3. Promotes and guides the development and refinement of comparable methodologies
for activities related to implementation of convention such as preparing inventories
of GHG emissions and removals and evaluating the effectiveness of measures to limit
emissions and enhance removals
4. Makes recommendations on any matters necessary for the implementation of the
convention and seeks to mobilize financial resources

Till 2023, total 28 COPs have been held since 1995. Some of the important COPs are as follows:

COP 1: First COP was held at Berlin in 1995 for legally binding standards and emissions limits
to be set by international law, urging industrialized nations to cut their CO 2 emissions.
Originally, the UNFCCC had a goal of returning greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by
2000. It was decided that a process should be established for countries to take appropriate
action well beyond 2000 and launched the “Berlin Mandate” to talk on additional
commitments. Participants in Berlin also created a separate body called the Ad Hoc Group on
the Berlin Mandate (AGBM).

COP 2: It took place at Geneva between July 8 and July 19, 1996. The meeting was a midpoint
in the negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions that had begun with the Berlin Mandate.
COP 2 acted in response to the IPCC Second Assessment Report issued December 1995 that
stated that greenhouse gas concentrations had continued to increase, that the climate had
changed since 1900, and that there was evidence that the change was anthropogenic. It also
predicted that global temperatures would rise by 3.6 degrees F (2 degrees C) by 2100 and that
the climate was expected to change in the future, adding that there were scientific
uncertainties. So, under COP2, actions by industrialized countries to reduce emissions were
emphasized clarifying that AGBM process is directed towards agreement on legally binding
objectives.

COP 3: The Berlin Mandate negotiations were concluded at COP 3 in Kyoto in 1997 with the
adoption of the Kyoto Protocol. All industrialized countries agreed to reduce GHG emissions
to 5.2 % below 1990 levels by 2008-2012. Japan agreed to reduce by 6%, the U.S. 7% and EU
by 8% below 1990 levels.
COP 6: It was held at Hague, The Netherlands in 2000 where climate negotiations broke down
completely as EU refused to give in to US demands. The US withdrew from the process
weakening the Kyoto Protocol.

COP 11: Ended at Montreal, Canada in 2005. A success in the sense that the U.S. and Australia,
withdrawing earlier from the Kyoto Protocol, agreed to be continued to be a part of the talks
but only till there was no further discussion on legally binding reduction commitments.

COP 21: Held in Paris, France in 2015. The main feature of the COP was the adoption of Paris
Agreement on 2 December 2015 by 196 parties which entered into force on 4 November
2016. The purpose is to hold the increase in global average temperature to well below 2°C
above pre-industrial levels and to ensure that efforts are pursued to limit the temperature
increase to 1.5 °C. To achieve this, the Paris Agreement stipulates that all countries shall
review their contributions to reducing greenhouse gas emissions every five years.

Ahead of the COP, each country had to prepare and publish its Intended Nationally
Determined Contribution (INDC). This mechanism was new and allowed each State involved
to participate in a universal effort through a concrete working plan with key focuses:

reducing GHG emissions by 2025-2030,

adapting or reducing vulnerability to the effects of climate change,

providing financial, technical, capacity building to fight with climate change for countries who
need it. The agreement provides that $100 billion in public and private resources will need to
be raised each year from 2020 to finance projects that enable countries to adapt to the
impacts of climate change (rise in sea level, droughts, etc.) or reduce greenhouse gas
emissions.

The contributions were published as and when they were received on the website of the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). On 22 November 2015,
a week before the conference, 170 countries, accounting for over 90% of emissions, had
already published their national contributions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Each
contribution had to include quantifiable elements, the benchmark year, the implementation
timetable as well as methodologies to quantify greenhouse gas emissions. The “major
emitters”, notably China and the European Union, undertook ambitious commitments.

COP 26: It was held Glasgow, United Kingdom from 31 October to 12 November 2021 and
was presided over by the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The major
decisions of COP 26 were 1) Accelerating the phase-out of coal from transport and energy
sector; 2) Encouraging the investments in renewable energy resources; 3) Speeding up the
switch to electric vehicles; 4) Curtailing deforestation to achieve the goals of Kyoto Protocol
and Paris Agreement.

COP 27: In November 2022, the Government of the Arab Republic of Egypt will host the 27th
Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC (COP 27), with a view to building on previous
successes and paving the way for future ambition to effectively tackle the global challenge of
climate change. The highlight of COP27 was the historic decision to establish a fund for
responding to loss and damage

COP 28: In 2023, the 28th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP28) to the UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) will be held at Expo City, Dubai in the
United Arab Emirates (UAE).

Kyoto Protocol: It is an international agreement adopted on December 11, 1997 in COP 3.

The main aim of this protocol is to reduce the emissions of six main GHGs including carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), Nitrous Oxide (N2O), HFCs (Hydro-Fluoro Carbons), PFCs (Per-
Fluoro Carbons) and Fluorinated gases like SF6 (Sulphur Hexafluoride).

In this protocol, the developed or richer countries like US and EU are subject to legal binding
to cut the greenhouse gas emissions by minimum of 5% in the 1990 baseline level before
the year 2012.

The important components of the protocol include:

1. Clean Development Mechanism (CMD): To keep overall global emission within the
limits, the developed countries can provide financial help and technical knowhow to
the developing countries to cut their emissions of CO2. The developed nations thus
gain carbon credits to meet their national targets.
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is a United Nations-run carbon offset
scheme allowing countries to fund greenhouse gas emissions-reducing projects in
other countries and claim the saved emissions as part of their own efforts to meet
international emissions targets.
Example: a rural electrification project using solar panels or the installation
Biogas plants setting in India
2. Emission Trading: If a developing country reduce greenhouse emissions in excess of
the required amount, it can sell permits equivalent to excess reduction in emission to
such a country (developed country) which find it difficult to reduce its emissions.
3. Joint implementation: If establishments in two countries cannot meet the emission
target as set by Kyoto Protocol, these establishments can shut down their business
and jointly start new start new enterprise by introducing new technologies capable of
reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This will not only help to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions but will also help in developing strong social bonds between two countries.

Characteristics of some important GHG considered in the Kyoto Protocol:

1. Carbon Dioxide (CO2): CO2 contributes maximum i.e., about 60% of the total warming
and the concentration has increased by 40% (from 278 ppm to 390.5 ppm) over the
time period of 1750-2011. In 2020, the concentration is 418 ppm. The main sources
are fossil fuel burning (67%) and deforestation, land clearing and biomass burning (all
33%). It can stay in the atmosphere up to 200 years.
 2. Methane (CH4): CH4 has increased by 150% (from 0.72 ppm to 1.803 ppm) over the
time period 1750-2011 and contributes about 20% to global warming. It stays in the
atmosphere for 12 years and traps about 28 times as much heat as CO 2 (called global
warming potential of methane). The current atmospheric concentration of CH 4 is
about 1.9 ppm and is increasing at the rate of 1 % annually. It is naturally mainly
contributed by the wetlands while anthropogenically contributed by rice cultivation,
landfills, manure management, biomass burning, fossil fuel (oil and natural gas)
burning, livestock farming which are the significant sources of methane.
3. Nitrous Oxide (N2O): It is responsible for 6% of the total warming and it’s
concentration has increased by 20% (from 0.271 ppm to 0.324 ppm over the time
period of 1750-2011). The current atmospheric concentration of N2O is about 0.33
ppm and is increasing at the rate of 0.2 % annually. It stays in the atmosphere for
about 140-190 years and traps about 289 times as much heat as CO2. It is released
from nylon products, biomass burning and nitrogen rich fossil fuels like coal burning,
use of chemical fertilizers in agriculture, livestock wastes and nitrate contaminated
ground water.
4. Fluorinated gases (PFCs and SF6): They have lifetime more than 1000 years and are
only removed by the photolysis (destruction by sunlight) or ion reactions in our
mesosphere. Use of fluorites by man are responsible for the emissions of these gases
for example SF6 is used in many electrical equipment’s.

Montreal protocol: Considering the increased incidences of skin cancer and cataracts,
Montreal Protocol, a multilateral environmental agreement and part of Vienna Convention,
was adopted on 16th September 1987 to control the destruction of Ozone layer.

Montreal protocol regulates the production and consumption of nearly 100 manmade ozone
depleting chemicals like CFCs and N2O which are called as Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS).
It has about 197 country members.

The Montreal Protocol has proven to be innovative and successful, and is the first treaty to
achieve universal ratification by all countries in the world. It has led to phasing out production
and consumption of several major ODS such CFCs, halons and carbon tetrachloride (CTC)
globally from 1st January 2010. As a result, ozone layer has started recovering slowly due to
the reduced consumption of CFCs under Montreal protocol but it will take over 50 years.

Examples of some of the important CFCs:

Type Primary Use Life time (yrs) in the

atmosphere
CFC-12 Refrigeration and air 100
conditioning
CFC-11 Foam blowing, refrigeration. 45
Aerosol propellant
 CFC-113 Solvents 85
Carbon tetrachloride (CTC) Solvents 35
Methyl Chloroform Solvents 4.8
Halon 1301 Fire extinguishers 65
Halon 1211 Refrigeration, foams 11

Ramsar Convention

Ramsar convention is the first modern intergovernmental treaty signed in 1971 in the Iranian
city of Ramsar to conserve wetlands. As of September 2023, there are 172 contracting parties.
India signed the convention on 1st February 1982. According to Ramsar convention,

Wetlands are defined as “areas of marsh, fen or peatland or water, whether natural or
artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, brackish or salty
including the areas of marine water, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six
meters.”

Examples of wetlands: Lakes, ponds, estuaries, mangroves, river floodplains, reservoirs,

lagoons

Ramsar convention works:

1. Towards the wise-use of the wetlands

2. Designate suitable wetlands for list and ensure their effective management
3. Support international co-operation on trans-boundary wetlands, shared wetland
systems and shared species.

Ramsar convention maintains two type of lists

1. Wetlands of international Importance

 Under this list, as of September, there are 2,492 designated sites covering 256,786,140
hectares (634,532,400 acres). In India, there are 75 Ramsar Sites as of Feburary 2023
with Tamil Nadu having maximum number of sites i.e., 14 followed by U.P on 2nd place
with 10 sites.
 Some of the important Ramsar sites in India are
Deeper Bheel in Assam
Nal Sarovar in Gujarat
Renuka lake in Himachal Pradesh
Loktak lake in Manipur
Chilka lake in Odisha
Wullar lake in Jammu and Kashmir
Rudrasagar in Tripura
Keoledo National Park Lake in Rajasthan
East Kolkotta Wetlands in West Bangal
 Harika lake Punjab

2. Wetlands under Montreaux record

Montreaux record is the list of wetland sites where change in ecological characteristics
is likely to occur or have occurred due to the technical development, pollution and
human interferences. It is separately maintained by the convention.
Earlier to 2003, three were wetland sites of India including Keolado N.P. (Rajasthan),
Chilka lake (Odisha), and Loktak lake (Manipur) were considered in this list. However,
Chilka lake has been eliminated from Montreaux record on 11 November 2003 and
the course of action taken by Indian Government to revive Chilka lake has been
promoted by the Ramsar convention as a best practice case study.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

It is an international agreement proposed by UNEP in November 1988 but it entered into

force on 29th December 1993. It has three main objectives:

1. The conservation of biological diversity

2. The sustainable use of its components
3. The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic
resources

The governing body of CBD is the Conference of Parties (CoP) which coordinates programmes
and their implementation. Its secretariat is in Montreal, Canada. International Biodiversity
Day is celebrated on 22 May. The CoP covers the conservation of biodiversity at ecosystem,
species and genetic levels for following ecosystem’s biodiversity:

 Marine and Coastal ecosystems

 Forests
 Inland water bodies
 Agricultural biodiversity
 Dry and sub-humid lands biodiversity

There are two protocols adopted under CBD:

1. Cartagena Protocol on biosafety (Cartagena is in the Columbia). It aims at protecting

biodiversity from the risks from the Living Modified Organisms (LMOs). The LMOs are
created by the genetic alteration of living organisms through biotechnology. The
convention also provides legally binding framework to prevent the transboundary
movements of LMOs. It came into force on 11 September 2003.
2. Nagoya Protocol (Nagoya is in Japan). It is about the sustainable use of biodiversity by
access to genetic resources and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the
utilization from these resources. It promotes the sharing of traditional knowledge
about genetic resources, transfer of technology and funding. It came into force on 12 th
October 2014.
Chemical Weapons Convention (1993)

The Chemical Weapons Convention is on the prohibition of the development, production,

stockpiling and the use of chemical weapons and on their destruction. It entered into force
on 13th January 1993. India also became party of the convention in 1993 and ratified it in
1997.

It is basically an arms control treaty under which signing countries are obliged to prohibition
of use and production of chemical weapons, as well as the destruction of all the chemical
weapons. As of November 2011, around 71% of the (declared) stockpile of chemical weapons
has been destroyed under this convention. Examples of the some of the chemicals used
include Phosgene and Chlorine gas.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP-1972)

The United Nations Conference on Human Environment held in Stockholm (Sweden) in 1972,
popularly known as Stockholm Conference which gave the birth to UNEP which is responsible
for inter-governmental measures for environmental monitoring and protection. UNEP was
developed by the Maurice Strong (first director of the UNEP) to co-ordinated the responses
related to various environmental issues with in the UN system and was founded to study and
formulate international guidelines for environmental Management.

Its headquarters are in Nairobi, Kenya. It has a voluntary United Nations Environment Fund
to finance environmental projects.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES-1975)

This convention was signed in 1975 in Washington DC with the aim to put ban on international
trade in wildlife. CITES has helped to reduce international trade in many threatened animals
like elephants, crocodiles and chimpanzee.

It has been by about 200 countries and lists about 900 species that cannot be commercially
treated as live specimens or wildlife product because they are in danger of extinction. It also
restricts the international trade of about 29,000 other species because they are at risk of
becoming threatened.

The Secretariat of this convention is located in Switzerland. India signed the convention and
became a party to CITES in 1976.

Concept of sustainability and sustainable development goals

The sustainable development was defined by the United Nations (UN) Bruntland commission
in 1987 as “meeting the needs of present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.”

Until two decades ago, economic status was considered as a measure of human development.
Countries like North America and Europe that were economically well developed and where
industrialization happed earlier and people were relatively richer were/are called as
developed or advanced nations. While countries like South Asian countries where poverty
was widespread and were economically backward are called as developing countries. With
time, it was realized that developed countries not only exploited their own natural resources
rapidly but also used the natural resources of developing countries to grow even larger
economies. So, as the development progressed, the richer countries got richer while the poor
countries got poorer leading to unsustainable development. As a consequence of scientific
and technological development of developed nations, basic components of our life i.e., air,
water and food have all been badly polluted. Our natural resources are constantly reducing
due to overexploitation. This type of unsustainable development will collapse the interrelated
systems of the earth disturbing the ecological balance.

Consequently, concept of sustainable development emerged on an international level in 1992

in the United Nation Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held at Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil and is popularly known as The Earth Summit. Agenda 21 of the Rio declaration
proposes a global programme of action on sustainable development in social, economic and
political context for the 21st century.

There are three pillars of sustainable development: Economy, Society and Environment. Thus,
sustainable development proposed the idea of environmental, economic and social equity
within the limits of world’s natural resources. This will lead to better quality of life, especially
for poor and deprived, while reducing the negative impact on the environment. So, there are
two key aspects of sustainable development:

1.Inter-generational equity: We should minimize any adverse impacts on resources and

environment for future generations by reducing over-exploitation of resources, reduce waste
generation and discharge, pollution emissions and maintain ecological balance.

2.Intra-generational equity: Developmental processes should seek to minimize the wealth

gaps within and between the nations. The technological development should address the
problems of developing countries like producing drought/flood tolerant varieties of crops for
uncertain climates, vaccines for infectious diseases, clean fuels for domestic and industrial
use. This will narrow wealth gap and lead to a sustainable future. So, the Human Development
Report of United Nations (2001) also emphasizes that the benefits of technology should seek
to achieve intra-generational equity.

Further, to promote sustainable development globally, the United Nation Assembly adopted
the 17 sustainable development goal under the agenda for achieving sustainability by 2030.
These goals include: PM Awas YojanaStartup India

Goal 1: No poverty = Aims to end poverty in all its forms everywhere.

Goal 2: Zero Hunger = End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition via
promoting sustainable agriculture, improved farming practices by use of bio-fertilizers.
Goal 3: Good health and well-being = Ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all
ages by promoting healthy food, eco-friendly products (MoEFCC Ecomark), pollution control

Goal 4: Quality education: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote life
–long learning opportunities

Goal 5: Gender equality: Achieve gender equality by empowering all women and girls-
education for all girls, alternate income generation

Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water
and sanitation to all

Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy: Ensure access to affordable, sustainable and modern
energy to all.

Goal 8: Decent work and economic growth: Promote full and productive employment and
decent work for all.

Goal 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure: Build resilient infrastructure, promote

inclusive and sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation (Providing internet to all-
Bridging this digital divide is crucial to ensure equal access to information and knowledge, as
well as foster innovation and entrepreneurship)

Goal 10: Reduced inequalities: Reduce income inequality with and among countries.

Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities: Make cities and human settlements inclusive,
safe, resilient and sustainable

Goal 12: Responsible consumption and production: Ensure sustainable consumption and
production patterns.

Goal 13: Climate action: Take urgent actions to combat climate change by regulating GHG
emissions and promoting developments in renewable energy.

Goal 14: Life Below water: Over three billion people depend on marine and coastal
biodiversity for their livelihoods. However, today we are seeing 30 percent of the world’s fish
stocks overexploited, reaching below the level at which they can produce sustainable yields.

Goal 15: Life on Land: Protect, restore and promote use of terrestrial ecosystems, combat
desertification, halt biodiversity loss, stop land degradation

Goal 16: Peace, Justice and strong institutions: Promote access to justice for all and build
effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all the levels.

Goal 17: Partnership for the goals: It is about revitalizing the global partnership for sustainable
development. The 2030 Agenda is universal and calls for action by all countries – developed
and developing – to ensure no one is left behind. It requires partnerships between
governments, the private sector, and civil society.
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

Climate change with rising temperature, shifts in rainfall patterns and augmented frequency
and intensity of extreme weather events around the world has turned out to be one of the
most compelling global challenges. Developing countries like India are like to be severely
affected with the consequences of changing climate. As per the German Watch Report (2017),
India is ranked as the fourth most vulnerable country. Atrociousness of the situation can be
best seen by the decline in Kharif and rabi rainfall on an average by 26 mm and 33 mm
respectively. Kharif yields have been reduced by 12.8 % whereas rabi yields have shown a fall
of 6.7% due to extreme rainfall shocks (Economic Survey 2017-18).

According to the Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA), Hyderabad,
climate change in India has about 4–9 per cent impact on agriculture each year, which results
in a loss of about 1.5 per cent in the gross domestic product (GDP) annually (CSE Report,
2018). Thus, to deal with the impacts of climate and to develop apt climate action plans, the
Government of India has established the Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change
(PMCCC). The Council, in coordination with other government departments, formulated the
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) on 30th June 2008 (ahead of the hyped
Copenhagen Climate Summit 2009). The main objective of the plan was to sustain high growth
rate, while protecting the poor and vulnerable sections of the society. Further, in order to
decentralize the NAPCC; the government has issued an order for all states to submit their
respective State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCC), which have now been prepared for
almost all states and Union Territories across, India. The NAPCC comprises of 8 national
missions for climate change adaptation and mitigation which includes

1. National Solar Mission

Under the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), National Solar Mission (NSM) was
launched in 2010 with the aims to promote the use of solar energy in India in comparison to
the use of fossil fuels and to encourage research and development activities to improve
efficiency and affordability of solar power and energy storage systems (CSE Report, 2018).
NSM initially was planned to adopt three-phase approach (Table 1) with following targets:

 Implementing policy framework for deploying 20,000 MW of solar power by 2022

 Enhancing the capacity of grid-connected solar-power generation to 1000 MW by

2013, and adding 3000 MW by 2017. It was projected that the target could be
increased to 10,000 MW with international finance and technology assistance.

 Promotion of off-grid application programmes, and reaching the target of 1000 MW

by 2017 and 2000 MW by 2022

 Promoting 2000 MW of off-grid solar applications, including 20 million solar lights by

2022
  Creating favourable conditions for developing solar manufacturing capability in the
country

 Supporting research and development and capacity building activities to achieve grid
parity by 2022

Table 1: Targets under the National Solar Mission

S. No. Application segment Phase-I Phase-II target Phase-III target

target (2013–2017) (2017–22)
(2010–13)
1. Solar collectors 7 million sq. 15 million sq. 20 million sq. m
m m
2. Off-grid solar 200 MW 1000 MW 2000 MW
applications
3. Utility grid power, 1000–2000 4000–10,000 20,000 MW
including rooftop MW MW
Source: MNRE, 2017
However, the Cabinet revised the cumulative targets for grid-connected solar-power projects
initially envisaged from 20,000 MW by 2021–22 to an ambitious 100,000 MW by 2021–22 in
its meeting on 17th June 2015. The revised target of 100GW comprising of 40 GW (Grid-
connected rooftop projects ) and 60 GW (Large and medium land-based solar power projects)
is to be achieved in seven years with total investment of Rs 5lakh crore (Table 2).

Table 2: Year-wise target of 100 GW

Category Year
2015– 2016– 2017– 2018– 2019– 2020– 2021– Total
16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Solar rooftop 200 4,800 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 40,000
Large-scale 1,800 7,200 10,000 10,000 10,000 9,500 8,500 57,000
solar power
projects
Total 2,000 12,000 15,000 16,000 17,000 17,500 17,500 97,000

National Solar Mission: Evaluation and challenges

 Solar rooftop application has not picked up pace mainly due to slow implementation
by distribution companies (DISCOMS) as the DISCOMs are loss-making and ill-
equipped for large-scale market adoption.
 Even though, Ministry of Power has issued guidelines for long-term year-wise growth
trajectory for RPO compliance till 2018–19, only four states (Andhra Pradesh,
 Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan) have issued draft regulations for
aligning their RPO trajectory following the notification on Power Ministry. The State
Electricity Regulatory Commission (SERC) is still to set up state-wise targets resulting
in non-compliance of solar RPO by states.
 Delays in signing Public Private Agreements (PPA) due to lack of direction from the
parent ministry, lengthy internal approval processes, involvement of multiple
ministries and their uncoordinated approach.
 Grid instability or unavailability of a transmission line represents the huge challenge
for achieving uninterrupted solar power. To deal with this problem, the GEC is under
implementation to create evacuation and transmission infrastructure for renewable
power.
 Solar lighting systems under the ongoing remote-village electrification programme of
MNRE to cover about 10,000 villages and hamlets have failed to prove its cost-
effectiveness.
 Grid integration has emerged as the biggest challenge. The intermittent nature—i.e.
interrupted and non-continuous supply—of renewables, including solar, is another
challenge. Storage of solar energy is also expensive globally, but efforts to develop
technology to bring down the cost are ongoing.

2. National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)

NMSA (National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture) one of the eight missions outlined under
NAPCC was formulated by PMCCC on 23.09.2010 aiming at enhanced agricultural
productivity through special emphasis on soil and water conservation, water use efficiency,
soil health management and rain-fed area development. The Mission requires a budgetary
support of Rs 1,08,000 crore (approximately $17.4 billion) up to the end of the 12th FYP
(2012–17). The main components of NMSA include

(i) Rainfed Area Development (RAD – Rs. 3100 Cr): This component has been formulated in a
watershed plus framework. The main objective of this component will be to explore potential
utilization of natural resources base/assets available/created through watershed
development and soil conservation activities/interventions under MGNREGS, RKVY, IWMP
etc. It will rely on Integrated Farming System (IFS) for enhancing productivity and minimizing
risks associated with climatic variabilities.

(ii) On Farm Water Management (OFWM – Rs.8450 Cr): The main focus of OFWM will
primarily on enhancing water use efficiency by promoting efficient on-farm water
management technologies and equipment chiefly including drip and sprinkler technologies,
efficient water application and distribution system, secondary storage and drainage
development.
(iii) Soil Health Management (SHM – Rs. 700 Cr): The sole priority of SHM will aim at
promoting location as well as crop specific sustainable soil health management including
residue management, organic farming practices by way of creating and linking soil fertility
maps with macro-micro nutrient management, appropriate land use based on land type,
judicious application of fertilizers and minimizing soil erosion.

(iv) Climate Change and Sustainable Agriculture: Monitoring, Modelling & Networking
(CCSAMMN – Rs. 314 Cr): CCSAMMN will provide creation and bidirectional (land/farmers to
research/scientific establishments and vice versa) dissemination of climate change related
information and knowledge by way of piloting climate change adaptation/mitigation
research/model projects in the domain of climate smart sustainable management practices
and integrated farming systems suitable to local agro-climatic conditions.
As per NMSA, All these components have been integrated with other ongoing aligned
programmes, including MGNREGA, Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP),
Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP), Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY),
National Food Security Mission (NFSM), Mission for Integrated Development for Horticulture
(MIDH), National Mission on Agricultural Extension and Technology (NMAET), National
Livestock Mission, and Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) etc.

NMSA achievements:
 In order to address the issues of adaptation and mitigation in the agriculture sector,
the National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) was also launched in
2011.
 System of Rice Intensification (SRI) programmes have been proposed under the ration
balancing programme against conventional rice cultivation and coverage of milch
animals for addressing adaptation and mitigation.
 Numerous initiatives have been taken for efficient soil health management under
NMSA like soil health cards and promotion of Neem-coated urea to regulate use of
the crystalline compound. Parampragat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) is being
implemented for supporting organic farming in India while Pradhan Mantri Krishi
Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY) is being introduced for expanding cultivated area.
 Fund of Rs. 250 crore has been approved by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) to
the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare on the project entitled “to obtain
revolutionary change on the strategies and methodologies for sustainable agriculture
in India”. This project will be implanted in various parts of Uttarakhand, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Orissa and Mizoram.
 To provide insurance coverage and financial support to farmers in the event of failure
of any of the notified crop as a result of natural calamities, pests and diseases, Pradhan
Mantri Fasal Bima Yojna (PMFBY) came out in 2016.
  Monitoring Information Systems (MIS), a web based monitoring device has been
designed for operative implementation of RAD component of NMSA. Currently, only
RAD is given prominence under NMSA and out of all the components, the actual
achievement of funds is only in RAD component in the last four financial years (Table
6).
 The National Sub-Mission on Forestry has also been launched under NMSA.

Table 7: Achievement of funds under the Rainfed Area Development (RAD) Programme
under NMSA
Financial Rainfed Area Development (in Achievement of funds (in
year Rs) Rs)
2014–15 3,04,00,00,000 56,72,76,310
2015–16 1,98,11,35,000 11,00,41,987
2016–17 2,00,20,00,000 6,67,86,235
Source:
2017–18 2,16,45,96,671 4,76,21,807
NMSA,
2017 website: http://nmsa.dac.gov.in/RptAllocationReleaseProgress.aspx

Evaluation
Presently, NMSA lacks in more dedicated approach towards climate resilience of small and
marginal farmers as it is designed extensively for large and medium sized farms and land
holdings. Also, states lack the guidelines and capabilities to come up with timelines, financial
targets and implementation strategies for components under the mission. Even though the
mission focuses on sustainable agriculture but fails to diagnose the importance of adaptation
and no dedicated funding has been done for adaptation and coping mechanisms with respect
to agriculture sector.

Expected Outcome

NMSA is expected to develop a climate resilient agriculture system through suitable

adaptation and mitigation measures in the domains of both crop and animal husbandry.
These measures will assist in absorption of improved technology and best practices and
promote suitable coping mechanisms for climatic and non-climatic stresses. The primary
focus of NMSA will be on conservation and sustainable use of natural resources for food and
livelihood security, but it will also expand its coverage primarily to rain-fed areas by
integrating farming systems with livestock and fisheries to achieve sustainable agricultural
production.

3. National Water Mission (NWM)

The National Water Mission (NWM) proposed under NAPCC was approved by the Cabinet in
2011 to ensure integrated water resource management, conserve water, minimize wastage
and provide equitable distribution of water within the states. During 11th FYP (2007-2012),
total allocation of Rs. 20,630 crore was given under NWM which was then reduce to Rs. 15,
000 crore during 12th FYP (2012-2017). This mission will be handled by the Ministry of Water
Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation.
The Mission will take into account the provisions of the National Water Policy and develop a
framework to optimize water use by increasing water use efficiency by 20% through
regulatory mechanisms with differential entitlements and pricing. It will seek to ensure that
a considerable share of the water needs of urban areas are met through recycling of waste
water, and ensuring that the water requirements of coastal cities with inadequate alternative
sources of water are met through adoption of new and appropriate technologies such as low
temperature desalination technologies that allow for the use of ocean water. The five
identified goals covered under this mission are

1. Creation of comprehensive database in the public domain and assessment of impact of

climate change on water resources

2. Promotion of Citizen and State Action for water conservation, augmentation and
preservation.

3. Focused attention to vulnerable areas including over-exploited areas. Vulnerable areas

which are likely to be adversely affected due to impact of climate change need considerable
attention. For instance, ground water resources are declining to owing to overuse and
about 15% of the assessment blocks, groundwater has been over-exploited and about 14%
of the blocks are in critical or semi-critical state.

4. Enhancing water-use efficiency by 20 per cent. Recommended strategies in respect of

goal 4 under NAPCC are as follows
a) The Mission to take into account the provisions of the National Water Policy and develop
a framework to optimize water use by increasing water use efficiency by 20%,
b) Increase in the efficiency of water use in domestic and industrial sector,
c) Need for incentives to adopt water-neutral or water positive technologies,
d) Water recycle and reuse,
e) Ensuring more effective management of water resources,
f) The Mission to seek to ensure that a considerable share of the water needs of urban areas
are met through recycling of wastewater; and ensuring that the water requirements of coastal
cities with inadequate alternative sources of water are met through adoption of new and
appropriate technologies such as low temperature desalination technologies that allow for
use of ocean water,
g) Regulation of power tariffs for irrigation and
h) Incentive structures will be designed to promote recharging of underground water
resources

5. Promoting basin-level integrated water resources management

Initiatives taken under NWM

 Development of the India-WRIS WebGIS, or ‘Generation of database and
implementation of web enabled water resources information system in the country’,
a joint venture of the Central Water Commission (CWC), Ministry of Water Resources,
Central government and Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). The main aim of
this India-WRIS WebGIS is to provide comprehensive, authoritative and consistent
data and information of India’s water resources and allied natural resources.

 NWM allocated Rs 50 lakh to states for formulating and implementing their SSAP—
out of which Rs 30 lakh was given to Uttarakhand and Arunachal Pradesh—in three
instalments, starting in 2015.

 An MoU between the North Eastern Regional Institute of Water and Land
Management (NERIWALM), Tezpur, Assam, and NWM was signed on 16 February
2016. NERIWALM shall act as the nodal agency to get the SSAP for the water sector.

 Guidelines for human development, capacity building, sensitization and mass

awareness programmes were formulated in 2016 and scoping study for ‘national
water use efficiency improvement support programme’ was conducted with the
support of ADB.

 Operational research for supporting mainstreaming of integrated flood management

under climate change is ongoing. The research deploys river basins in Bihar and Orissa
as case studies.

 An expert committee recommended the reconstruction of the CWC and the Central
Ground Water Board (CGWB) in July 2016 to reconstitute a new NWC for collective
management of ground and surface water. NWC will also be responsible for water
policy, data and governance in the country.

Key activities and achievements accomplished under NWM

o Establishment of new 702 Hydrological Observation Stations (HOS) till 2016–17 against
the target of 800 in 2012–17. These stations will provide information through 275 flood
forecasting sites and help in climate change studies and glacial lake bursts/cloudbursts.

o 6,376 new groundwater monitoring wells have been established against the target of
9,360.

o Restoration of 1,237 waterbodies till March 2017 against an ambitious target of 10,000.

o Establishing 24 new and additional forecast stations against the target of 100.

o Approximately 21 baseline studies in irrigation sector were in progress till March 2017 for
developing the strategies to increase water efficiency by 20 per cent, mandated in the
mission target.

o Installation of total 36 additional water quality monitoring against the target of 113.

o Around 668 training sessions were conducted and 56,768 stakeholders were trained till
March 2017 on mission objectives, efficient use of water and water conservation for
different stakeholders, including state officials, water user’s association, Panchayati Raj
Institutions (PRI).

o Formulation of national law on Water, the National Water Framework Bill in 2016. This
law will provide an overarching legal framework with principles for protection,
conservation, regulation and management of water.

o The Model Groundwater (Sustainable Management) Act, 2016 considers groundwater as

a local resource and recommends the role of local institutions having primary rights and
duties over the resource. The National Water Policy was revised and adopted in 2012 in
order to have a national consensus on basic concepts and issues relating to water.
However, the policy does not have a legal standing.

3.1.1.4. National Mission for Green India (GIM)

The National Mission for Green India, or the Green India Mission (GIM), was adopted in 2014
with Rs. 46, 000 crore allotted as the overall budget. This scheme has been proposed for a
period of 10 years and has the following objectives:

1. To increase forest cover to the extent of 5 million hectares (mha) and to improve the
quality of forest cover on another 5 mha of forest and non-forestlands.
2. To improve ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration and storage (in forests and
other ecosystems), hydrological services and biodiversity, along with provisioning services
like fuel, fodder, timber and non-timber forest produces (NTFPs)

3. To increase forest-based livelihood incomes of about 3 million households

4. To enhance annual CO2 sequestration by 50 to 60 million tonnes in the year 2022

Mission Targets

a) Qualitative improvement of moderately dense forests (1.5 mha), open degraded forests
(3 mha), degraded grassland (0.4 mha) and wetlands (0.1 mha)

b) Eco-restoration and afforestation of scrub, shifting cultivation areas, cold deserts,

mangroves, ravines and abandoned mining areas (1.8 mha)

c) Bringing urban/peri-urban lands under forest and tree cover (0.20 mha)

d) Agro-forestry/social forestry (3 mha)

e) Management of public forest/ non-forests areas (taken up under the Mission) by the
community institutions

f) Adoption of improved fuelwood-use efficiency and alternative energy devices by project-

area households

g) Diversification of forest-based livelihoods of about 3 million households living in and

around forests

Implementation

National level: An autonomous Society under the aegis of the will be set up to facilitate
smooth implementation of the GIM Mission at the national level. Thus, the overall guidance
will be provided by the Governing Council of the Society, Chaired by the Minister for
Environment and Forests, Government of India.

State level: At the state level, a revamped State Forest Development Agency will act as the
State Mission Directorate and will be chaired by the Chief Minister/ Forest Minister. It will
solicit cross-sectoral representation and will guide the Mission activities at the State level.
District level: The Mission implementation will be facilitated by revamped Forest
Development Agencies (FDAs) at district level and will link with District Planning Committee.
The Gram Sabha, and the various Committees set up by it, will be the key institution for
planning and implementation at the village level. A federation of these Committees along
with a federation of self-help groups (SHGs)/ User Groups (UGs) at the cluster level will be
represented in the revamped FDA at the district level. In urban areas, the ward level
committees /RWAs linked to Municipality/Municipal Corporations will facilitate planning and
implementation under the Mission.

Achievements

 Rs 62.60 crore were released in FY 2011–12 and 2013–14 to 27 states/UTs in the

preparatory phase of GIM for undertaking preparatory activities, including
institutional strengthening, training, identification of landscapes and preparation of
perspective plans at the state level for implementation of the Mission.

 Finalization of GIM implementation guidelines in November 2014 and issuance of

Convergence guidelines of GIM with MGNREGA and CAMPA in March and May 2015.

 The first regional workshop on GIM was held in Imphal from 25–26 June 2015 for
addressing the selection of landscapes to implement GIM, monitor and evaluate
mechanisms using GIS and convergence approach to be adopted with complementary
schemes and programmes.

 Rs 70.09 crore was released as first instalment to 7 states- Karnataka, Chhattisgarh,

Punjab, Odisha, Manipur, Uttarakhand and Kerala in FY 2015–16. In FY 2016–17, Rs
41.25 crore was released as first instalment to six states—Karnataka, Chhattisgarh,
Odisha, Manipur, Andhra Pradesh and Mizoram whereas Rs 32.35 crore was released
to three states—Mizoram, Chhattisgarh and Odisha in FY 2017–18.

 A novel known as the Nagar Vana Udyan Yojna has been launched the Central
Government for creating urban forestry, wherein a minimum of 25 ha of forest will be
created in the city.

 The Compensatory Afforestation Bill was passed in the Parliament in 2016 for
addressing the problem of declining forest cover and compensating for forests lost for
development purposes.
3.1.1.5. The National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC)

The National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC) was launched in
2010 with the objectives such as building a knowledge platform and infrastructure, sharing
information and data to set the climate change agenda, building excellence through
collaborative synergies and activities, making viable investment in all existing knowledge
capacities of partners and building new capacities for filling gaps. The main targets of the
mission are as follows

 Research on socio-economic impacts of climate change including impact on health,

demography, migration patterns and livelihoods of coastal communities.
 Establishment of dedicated academic units in universities and other academic and
scientific institutions in the country which would be networked, 50 chair
professorships, 200 specially trained climate change research professionals.
 Creation of Climate Science Research Fund under the mission to support climate
oriented research.
 Encouragement of private sector initiatives through venture capital funds for
developing innovative technologies for adaptation and mitigation. Thus,
enhancement of public-private partnerships.
 Creation of 10 thematic knowledge networks, publication of 10 technical reports (with
annual frequency)
 The mission also envisages active participation of states
 Collaborations with other countries, outreach and public awareness

Key themes: This mission envisages broad-based effort that would include the following key
themes:

1. Understanding key phenomenon and processes: Research in important domains of climate

science requiring an urgent need to improve the understanding of key phenomenon and
processes such as monsoon dynamics, aerosol science and ecosystem responses.

2. Climate modelling: Spatially detailed assessment of trends of climate change is not

available for India, high resolution Air Ocean General Circulation Models (AOGCM) and nested
Regional Climate Models (RCM) are required to be developed. RCM models can simulate
regional climate change, in particular monsoon behaviour, by pooling institutional capabilities
and computational resources. In respect of General Circulation Models (GCM), core climate
modelling groups are required to establish for developing high resolution coupled AOGCM
that can effectively simulate monsoon behaviour/ multi-year present and future climate at
national level.
3. Promoting data access: Restrictions on the data access pertaining to several databases that
are relevant to climate change research should be reviewed. As suggestion, concerned
Ministries and Departments should appoint a ‘facilitator’ for providing access to the data. A
concept of ‘registered user’ has been proposed, who will have easier access to climate related
data held by the various scientific Ministries and Departments of the Government.
Appropriate actions are needed to be taken by the Ministries and their agencies to digitize
the data, maintain the databases of global quality and streamline the procedures governing
access.

4. Strengthening Networks: The integrated National Knowledge Network (scalable and

ultimately of multi-10 Gbps capacity) is created by the National Knowledge Commission and
the Principal Scientific Advisor’s Office would definitely benefit the climate modellers. Various
Ministries are also taking actions for augmenting their need of super-computer resources in
11th FYP. The upcoming Grid computing technology represents a unique technology for
handling terabytes of experimental data requiring hundreds of teraflops of computing power.
5. Human Resource Development: To meet the new challenges related to climate change,
well skilled human resource is needed and this can be enhanced through changes in curricula
at school and college levels, introduction of new climate change related programmes at
University level, and training of professionals and executives in the relevant field. For
enhancing the quality and quantum of human resource required in the coming years and
decades, the overall assessment of additional skills required should be carried out at national,
state and local levels.

Initiatives taken under NMSKCC

 Apart from centres of excellence in IIT Chennai (Indo-German Centre for Sustainability)
and IISc Bangalore (Divecha Centre for Climate Change), new Centres for Excellence have
also been launched at IIT Bombay (Centre for Excellence on Climate Change) and the
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in Hyderabad
(Centre for Plant Research).
 Major research and development projects, including Ocean Acidification and Sea-level
Rise under the National Institute of Oceanology (NIO); Regional Climate Modelling and
Storm Surges under IIT-Delhi; Extreme Rainfall Studies under the University of Allahabad;
and Adaptation in Himachal Pradesh under IRADE were also launched.
 National Network on Climate Change Impact on Human Health and National Network on
Climate Modelling have also been launched. New programmes: State climate-change cells
in all states; institutional and human capacity-building nodal agency in states have also
been proposed.

3.1.1.6. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE)

The National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) was approved by the Cabinet
in June 2010. The Energy conservation Act (2001) provides the legal framework for the
implementation of energy efficiency measures through the institutional mechanisms of the
Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) in the Central Government and designated agencies in each
state. The estimated budget allocated for this mission is Rs. 74, 000 crore. The major objective
of this mission is to enhance energy efficiency and meet the energy demands of the country.
It also targets to achieve total avoided capacity addition of 19,598 MW, fuel savings of around
23 million tonnes per year and greenhouse gas emissions reductions of 98.55 million tonnes
per year at its full implementation stage.

Initiatives taken under NMEEE

In order to enhance energy efficiency, four key initiatives have been described under NMEEE
including

1. A market based mechanisms for enhancing cost effectiveness of improvements in

energy efficiency in energy intensive large scale industries and facilities via
certification of energy savings which could be traded.

2. Promoting the usage of energy efficient appliances in designated centres through

innovative measures to make the products more affordable.

3. Creation of mechanisms that would help finance demand side management

programmes in all sectors by capturing future energy savings.
4. Development of fiscal instruments to promote energy efficiency.

3.1.1.7. National Mission on Sustainable Habitats (NMSH)

The National Mission on Sustainable Habitat (NMSH) was approved in 2010 for integrating
mitigation and adaptation into the urban planning process with a view to make cities
sustainable through improvements in energy efficiency of buildings, management of solid
waste and shift to public transport. Budget of Rs 950 crore was allocated for the mission in
the 12th FYP (2012–17). The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs would serve as the nodal
agency for the implementation of Sustainable Habitat Mission.

Initiatives
The mission enhances the energy efficiency as an integral component of urban planning and
urban renewal by following the below mentioned initiatives:
 1. The Energy Conservation Building Code for addressing the design of new and large
commercial buildings in order to optimize energy demand with extended applications
and incentives for retooling existing building stock.

2. Recycling of waste material and urban waste management for developing

technologies for producing power from waste. In addition to this, mission will also
cover major R&D programmes focusing on bio-chemical conversion, waste water use,
sewage utilization, and recycling options wherever possible.

3. Promoting better urban planning and modal shift to public transport by developing
long term transport plans to facilitate the growth of medium and small cities in ways
that ensure efficient and convenient public transport.

4. Moreover, this mission will also address the requirement of adaptation to future
climate change through improving the resilience of the infrastructure, community
based disaster management, and provisions of warning systems for extreme weather
events. This mission will also consider capacity building as one the important
component.

3.1.1.8. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE)

Considering the importance of Himalayan Ecosystem in providing ecological security to Indian

landmass, forest cover, source of drinking water, irrigation and hydropower generation via a
network of perennial rivers, National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
(NMSHE) is proposed by the Cabinet on 28th February 2014. A provision of Rs 900 crore has
been suggested by the Planning Commission in the 12th FYP (2012–17). This mission will be
handled by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) and is aimed at evolving
conservation measures for sustaining and safeguarding the Himalayan glaciers and mountains
through establishment of a monitoring network, promotion of a community-based
management, human resource development and strengthening regional cooperation.

Initiatives

1. Developing the inventory to cover all the institutions and Civil Society Organizations (CSOs)
that are working in the field of Himalayan ecosystems both within and outside the Himalayas.
This exercise revealed that approximately 100 institutions and several hundred CSOs are
working in this area.

2. Finalization of 6 thematic task forces including

a) Natural and Geographical Wealth by the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology
b) Forest Resources and Plant Biodiversity by GB Pant Institute on Himalayan Environment
and Development, Almora
c) Micro Flora and Fauna, Wildlife and Animal Population by Wildlife Institute of India,
Dehradun
d) Traditional Knowledge Systems by JNU
e) Water, Ice, Snow and Glaciers by National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee
f) Himalayan Agriculture by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)

3. Development of State Climate Centres in the 7 Himalayan states, namely, Jammu and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Sikkim and Meghalaya.

4. To build capacity in the field of glaciology and related areas in climate change, a capacity-
building programme titled ‘Indo-Swiss Capacity Building Programme on Himalayan
Glaciology’ was launched by DST in collaboration with the Swiss Agency of Development and
Cooperation (SDC).

5. A capacity-building programme on adaptation planning and implementation comprising

two orientations and three trainings has been developed under the Indo-Swiss bilateral
cooperation in consultation with the Himachal Pradesh government.

6. Development of a common framework for integrated ‘vulnerability, risks and hazard

assessment’ in the entire Himalayan region.