2023 Experimental Study On Deformation and Failure of A Mining Slope Under The Action of Rainfall

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For personal use only. This Just-IN manuscript is the accepted manuscript prior to copy editing and page composition. It may differ from the final official version of record. Canadian Geotechnical Journal (Author Accepted Manuscript)
1 Experimental study on deformation and failure of a mining slope under the action
2 of rainfall
3 Tongwei Taoa, Wenbing Shib,c (), Shaozheng Xiongb, Feng Liangb,c, Jiayong Zhangd
4 aKey Laboratory of Karst Georesources and Environment, Ministry of Education, Guizhou
5 University, Guiyang 550025, China

Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from cdnsciencepub.com by NAT INST OF TECHNOLOGY on 03/30/24
6 bCollege of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025,
7 China
8 cMountain Geohazard Prevention R&D Center of Guizhou Province, Guiyang 550025, China
9 dGuizhou Geological Environment Monitoring Institute, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, China
10 Corresponding author: Wenbing Shi (email: wbshi@gzu.edu.cn)
11 Total word count: 9593
© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

For personal use only. This Just-IN manuscript is the accepted manuscript prior to copy editing and page composition. It may differ from the final official version of record. Canadian Geotechnical Journal (Author Accepted Manuscript) Page 2 of 55
12 Abstract: On August 28, 2017, a mining slope collapse in Pusa Village, Guizhou Province,
13 China, resulted in the release of approximately 8,600 m3 of earth and rock, leading to 35
14 fatalities. The deformation and failure mechanisms of the mining slope under the influence of
15 rainfall was studied by a physical model test, using the Pusa Village collapse as an example.
16 Data were collected through strategically placed monitoring points in a physical model,
17 forming the basis for a quantitative analysis of slope deformation and failure patterns. The
18 tested results revealed that sequential mining and rainfall activities induce progressively
19 increasing stress variations, exhibiting a cyclical pattern of stress concentration, relaxation,
20 and stabilization. Mining activities initiated the formation of tension and separation fractures
21 within the model, which were subsequently exacerbated by rainfall. Rainwater infiltrating
22 through these fractures and geotechnical bodies resulted in a more pronounced increase in
23 water content in the upper part of the model than in the lower part. Displacement values
24 within the model progressively increased with ongoing coal seam mining, primarily occurring
25 in the mining area's roof and extending to the model's top following rainfall. The failure mode
26 of the Pusa slope under combined mining and rainfall conditions is characterized by the
27 following sequence: bending-pulling-subsidence-creep-dumping. The deformation and failure
28 processes can be categorized into four stages: mining-induced disturbances, fractures
29 extension and extension, formation of a potential collapse surface, destabilization faliure.
30 Keywords: Deformation and failure; Physical model; Collapse; Mining; Rainfall

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31 1. Introduction
32 Deformation in the overlying rock of mined-out areas, known as mining slope
33 deformation, is a direct or indirect result of underground mining activities, commonly referred
34 to as mining landslides (Xu et al. 2012; Zhao et al. 2016; Dai et al. 2021). Unlike general
35 landslides, mining landslides are fundamentally distinct and have garnered worldwide
36 attention due to their considerable risks (Stephen et al. 2006; Kwan et al. 2018; Yu et al.
37 2020). Accelerated by China's booming economy and rising energy demands, the frequency
38 of mining activities and subsequent landslides has increased significantly (Zhang et al. 2020;
39 Chen et al. 2021; Liu et al. 2022; Yang et al. 2022a). Rainfall serves as an additional
40 destabilizing factor, exacerbating the impact of mining activities. Consequently, numerous
41 mining slope destabilization failures have occurred, leading to significant loss of life and
42 property (Hu et al. 2013; Xu et al. 2016; Ma 2017; Locat et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2022; Tao et
43 al. 2022). The karst region in southwest China is characterized by complex geological
44 features and strong tectonic activity, with soluble rock slopes being widely prevalent. In these
45 mining areas, noticeable karst development and a dense network of joints and fissures are
46 observed on the mining slopes. The topography of these slopes generally exhibits a pattern of
47 being “steep (and hard) on top and gentle (and soft) on the bottom” (Xing et al. 2014; Li et al.
48 2016a; Zheng et al. 2018). These geological and topographical factors, in combination with
49 external factors, such as frequent mining activities and heavy rainfall, create conditions
50 conducive to the collapse of mining slopes and ensuing landslides (Li et al. 2018; Sun et al.
51 2021, 2022; Yang et al. 2022b). Since the 20th century, several landslides in southwest China
52 have been triggered by subterranean mining and rainfall, including but not limited to the Jiwei

53 Mountain landslide in Wulong, Chongqing (Feng et al. 2016), Guanling landslide in Guizhou
54 (Zhang et al. 2023a), Zhenxiong landslide in Yunnan (Yin et al. 2017), and Pusa collapse in
55 Guizhou (Zhang et al. 2023b). These events have resulted in severe casualties and have drawn
56 significant social attention. Therefore, an in-depth analysis of the deformation and failure
57 mechanisms of mining slopes influenced by rainfall is of immense practical and

58 socio-economic value.
59 Frequent underground mining activities are highly likely to trigger the collapse of the
60 roof in the mined-out areas, giving rise to a “cantilever beam effect” in the rock mass. This
61 effect creates cracks that serve as advantageous pathways for rainwater infiltration. Rainwater
62 permeates the interior of slopes via geotechnical bodies and mining fractures, elevating the
63 saturation levels within these structures. As saturation increases, geotechnical bodies absorb
64 water, leading to an increase in pore water pressure and a decrease in matric suction, thereby
65 reducing the shear strength of geotechnical bodies (Rahimi et al. 2011; Gasmo et al. 2000; Ng
66 et al. 1998, 2003). When slopes reach a critical condition, they become increasingly prone to
67 destabilization over time (Ma et al. 2018; Fernandez et al. 2020). In recent years, a
68 combination of physical model tests and numerical simulations, informed by field geological
69 investigations, has emerged as an effective approach for studying slope stability issues
70 (Mitchell 2011; Scaringi et al. 2018). For example, Jones et al. (1991) used physical model
71 tests to explore landslides induced by underground mining and found that such activities
72 significantly compromised slope stability. Similarly, Tang et al. (2019) performed physical
73 model tests on the Jiwei Mountain landslide in Wulong, Chongqing, China, and proposed a
74 deformation mechanism for it. When adhering to basic scaling laws, physical model tests can

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75 accurately depict the kinematic characteristics and failure patterns of slopes (Li et al. 2016b;
76 Ray et al. 2020), while also accounting for external factors such as rainfall (Giovanna et al.
77 2020) and underground mining (Dai et al. 2021).
78 Although numerous studies have investigated the failure processes and fracture
79 characteristics of mining slopes, less attention has been paid to the stress and displacement
80 variations between geotechnical bodies during mining, as well as the impact of rainfall on
81 mining slopes. To address this gap, the present study employs a physical model test to
82 examine the Pusa collapse in Guizhou as a case example. We investigate changes in stress,
83 fracture development, displacement, and water content within the rock mass during mining
84 and rainfall activities. The study aims to elucidate the failure mechanisms and evolution
85 processes of the Pusa collapse through a four-pronged analysis focusing on stress, fractures,
86 displacements, and water content. The findings offer valuable insights for future research on
87 similar types of slopes in Guizhou, China, and contribute to guiding disaster prevention and
88 mitigation efforts.
89 2. Regional setting
90 2.1 Geological setting and mining activities
91 The study area is situated in the northwestern part of the Guizhou Plateau, featuring
92 lower topography in the north and higher elevations in the west. Mountain ridges
93 predominantly extend in a southwest direction, exhibiting a topography that is “steep at the
94 top and gradual at the bottom.” The steepest slope angle is 70°, whereas the gentler sections

95 range between 10–25°, resulting in an average slope angle of 58°. The highest point, Little
96 Eagle Rock, is located in the south with an elevation of 2,175 m, whereas the lowest point lies
97 near the river ditch below the village in the northwest at 1,875 m, making the elevation
98 difference approximately 300 m. The area falls on the southeastern side of the Zhangwei
99 anticline and contains three identified faults (F1, F2, and F3) that have no direct impact on the
100 coal seams or the collapse zone (Figure 2) (Wang et al. 2022a; Zhang et al. 2022). Site
101 investigations revealed dissolution fissures and joints at the trailing edge of the collapsed area.
102 These well-developed fissures and joints have fragmented the geotechnical bodies, with the
103 spaces filled with rock debris, leading to poor cementation between the geotechnical bodies
104 and considerable structural failure of the slope (Figures 1b and c).Mining-induced fractures
105 are evident at the trailing edge of the collapse, indicating that rainwater had infiltrated the
106 rock mass, thereby weakening its cohesive strength and further compromising slope stability.
107 Additionally, several karst collapses are observable at the summit, primarily manifesting in
108 the Quaternary residual slope deposits (Q4). These karst collapses are generally round or
109 nearly round in shape, with the largest having a diameter of 4 m (Figures 1d and e).
110 The general rock angle in the area is 200°∠9°. The exposed stratigraphic layers are as follows
111 (Figure 3):
112 ① Quaternary (Q4): Found at the top and gentler parts of the slope, the lithology is
113 composed of clay and sandy clay, with varying thickness ranging from 0 to 15 m.
114 ② Lower Triassic Yelang Formation (T1y): Located in the middle and upper parts of the
115 slope, the stratum is subdivided into two sections. The upper section (T1y2) is primarily
116 limestone, gray in color, and approximately 50 m thick, featuring more developed karst

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117 fissures. The lower section (T1y1) is predominantly muddy siltstone, purple in color, and
118 approximately 70 m thick.
119 ③ Upper Permian Changxing-Dalong Formation (P3c+d): Occupying the lower part of
120 the slope and mainly consisting of gray limestone, with a thickness of approximately 18 m.
121 ④ Upper Permian Longtan Formation (P3l): This layer contains a series of coal
122 strata—mudstone, siltstone, coal—distributed in the lower part of the slope. A total of 26-44
123 coal seams are identified, among which six—M6, M10, M14, M16, M18, and M20—are
124 considered recoverable. The average thicknesses of the previously mined M16, M14, and
125 M10 seams are 1.48, 1.23, and 2.12 m, respectively (Table 1).
126 The coal seams at the site were mined in the sequence M16-M14-M10, from bottom to
127 top, utilizing consistent mining methods for all three seams: the long-wall coal mining method
128 and gunnery excavation. Most of the M16 seam was extracted prior to 2012, with significant
129 fractures and subsidence observed on the trailing edge of the slope between September and
130 December of 2011. The M14 and M10 seams were mined from 2013 to 2017. Throughout this
131 period, fractures noticeably expanded, and occasional collapses of the slope surface occurred.
132 This establishes a temporal correspondence and causal relationship between the fractures at
133 the trailing edge of the slope and underground mining activities (Yang et al. 2022c). Mining
134 operations at the site concluded in August 2017, by which time seams M16, M14, and M10
135 were essentially depleted. The mined-out area is illustrated in Figure 2.
136 2.2 Characteristics of the collapse
137 On August 28, 2017, a large-scale slope collapse occurred in Pusa Village, located in the
138 Zhangjiawan township of Nayong County, Guizhou Province (26°38′05″E, 105°26′56″N).

7

139 The disaster resulted in 26 fatalities, 9 missing persons, and 8 injuries (Fan et al. 2019; Cui et
140 al. 2022). Typical of slope destabilization failure, the rock in the collapse’s origin area was
141 initially destabilized. Subsequent downward movement dislodged loose material in the middle
142 section of the slope and traveled in the direction of 305° as a debris flow. A minor ridge at the
143 leading edge split the rapidly descending mass into two separate flows. One part of the
144 collapsed material bypassed the ridge and accumulated at the base of the slope. Field surveys
145 and UAV imagery divide the collapse area into three distinct areas: the collapse source area
146 (Ⅰ), the scraping area (Ⅱ), and the accumulation area (Ⅲ). The elevation of the trailing edge
147 of the collapse is approximately 2,120 m, whereas the base of the slope stands at
148 approximately 1,922 m, resulting in a relative elevation difference of approximately 200 m.
149 The horizontal distance from the collapse source to the front of the accumulation area
150 measures 780 m. The average thickness of the accumulation body is 4 m, with a cubic volume
151 of 8,600 m3, and the maximum width of the accumulation area spans 480 m (Figure 1a).
152 2.3 Rainfall
153 The study area experiences a humid subtropical monsoon climate, marked by relatively
154 abundant rainfall and an average annual temperature ranging between 12 and 15.0°C.
155 Influenced by the monsoon climate, the area sees most of its rainfall during the summer
156 months, with reduced precipitation in winter. The slope collapse occurred in August,
157 following a period of heavy rainfall. Annual rainfall monitoring data indicate that June
158 typically experiences the highest precipitation levels, reaching up to 223 mm, whereas
159 December has the lowest at 22 mm. The monthly rainfall distribution in Nayong County for
160 2017 was as follows: January to May, 161.6 mm; June, 228.7 mm; July, 162.3 mm; and
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161 August’s daily rainfall is illustrated in Figure 4.
162 3. Physical model design
163 3.1 Similar proportions and similar materials

164 Maintaining the same size, material, rainfall and test conditions as the prototype is
165 difficult to achieve during physical model testing. Therefore it is only possible to obtain a
166 behavior similar to the real situation by reducing the size of the prototype and keeping certain
167 parameters as similar as possible to those of the prototype. However it is not possible to keep
168 all parameters of the physical model similar to the prototype (Pei et al. 2018; Dai et al. 2021;
169 Yang et al. 2022; Lai et al. 2023; Zhou et al. 2023). Therefore, when we conduct physical
170 model tests, we will try to make some parameters as similarly proportioned as possible to the
171 prototype, depending on the purpose of the study.
172 To comprehensively analyze the stress, fracture development, water content, and
173 displacement characteristics of the slope under mining and rainfall conditions, and to
174 elucidate the deformation and failure mechanisms, a scaled physical model of the Pusa
175 collapse was constructed based on field investigation data (Figure 5). Utilizing similarity
176 theory, the model replicates key processes of the actual event in proportion (Zheng et al. 2015;
177 Tao et al. 2020). The model’s similarity constants are determined based on three aspects of
178 similarity theory: geometric, mechanical, and physical properties. Geometric similarity
179 (expressed as CL) refers to the proportional relationship in size and shape between the model
180 and its actual prototype. Mechanical similarity (Cγ) signifies that the model and the prototype

181 share corresponding mechanical properties, such as unit weight. Physical property similarity
182 (Cσ) indicates comparable material properties between the model and the prototype, such as
183 compressive strength, cohesion, and internal friction angle. In this study, the geometric
184 similarity constant CL was set at 400. Accordingly, the model’s dimensions were configured
185 as follows: length 160 cm, width 50 cm, and height 110 cm, with a slope angle of 58 °
186 (Figure 5). As gravitational effects in both the model and the actual prototype are equivalent,
187 Cγ is set to 1. The Cσ value is calculated from CLCγ as Cσ = CL ∙ Cγ (Zhang et al. 2005). After
188 calculations, CL is confirmed to be 400. Although it is challenging to maintain identical
189 physical properties between the model and the prototype (Dong et al. 2020; Wang et al.
190 2022b), this study primarily focuses on examining the failure mechanisms of the slope. The
191 deformation and failure of slope are mainly controlled by the compressive strength of rock
192 body; therefore, the similarity index for physical properties in this experiment is based on
193 compressive strength.
194 Based on the information gathered, the fault in the study area did not exert a direct
195 influence on the observed slope collapse. As such, its effects were not incorporated into the
196 physical model. However, rock joints, which play a significant role in slope deformation and
197 failure, were included as model variables. These joints were simulated using mica sheets,
198 which are easily manipulated. The spacing and trace length of these simulated joints were
199 configured based on the established geometric similarity ratio (Figure 6g). The model box,
200 rainfall simulation equipment, and data collection devices are depicted in Figure 6, b-f.
201 For material composition, the physical model was designed to emulate the lithology of
202 the study area, predominantly consisting of limestone, argillaceous siltstone, mudstone, and
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203 coal. In the actual prototype, the stratigraphic thicknesses of the upper section of the Yelang
204 Formation (T1y2), the lower section of the Yelang Formation (T1y1), and the Upper Permian
205 Changxing-Dalong Formation (P3c+d) are 50, 70, and 18 m, respectively, according to the CL
206 equal to 400, the thicknesses corresponding to the lithologies of the physical model can be
207 calculated to be 12.5, 17.5, and 4.5 cm (Figure 6a). Additional substances used in the model
208 were categorized as either aggregates or binding materials. Quartz sand and barite powder
209 served as the aggregates, whereas gypsum and cement functioned as binding materials. Borax
210 was added to more closely mimic the properties of the actual materials and to explore the laws
211 governing slope deformation failure. To facilitate the simulation of coal seam excavation,
212 sand was used as a substitute for coal in the model. To ascertain the density and compressive
213 strength of limestone, argillaceous siltstone, mudstone, and coal seams, field samples were
214 initially collected. These were then converted into standard cylindrical specimens with
215 dimensions of Ф50 mm × 100 mm for indoor tests, which included density measurements and
216 uniaxial compression tests. Upon obtaining the parameters of the actual samples, similarity
217 material ratios were determined through orthogonal testing. Subsequently, additional standard
218 cylindrical samples of similar materials with dimensions Ф50 mm × 100 mm were created.
219 These were also subjected to density and uniaxial compression tests to finalize the selection of
220 the most suitable material ratios for the physical model. Mechanical parameters and the
221 compatibility of each stratum with similar materials are detailed in Table 2.
222 3.2 Mining and rainfall schemes
223 To simulate coal seam mining activities, sand was used to represent the coal seam. The
224 sand was packed into plastic bags, which were then arranged with intervening coal pillars to
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225 support overburden pressure. The mining process involved cutting open the plastic bag and
226 using a small wooden stick to remove the sand, effectively creating a mined-out area. This
227 simulation method was designed to replicate the mining sequence observed in the actual coal
228 seams: M16, M14, and M10, in ascending order. Specifically, M16 consisted of three mining
229 areas, whereas M14 and M10 each had two. The dimensions for the mining steps were as
230 follows: the first step for M16① was 18 cm long, M16② was 20 cm long, M16③ was 20
231 cm long, M14① was 20 cm long, M14② was 20 cm long, M10① was 25 cm long, and
232 M10② was 20 cm long (Figure 6a).
233 The aim of this study is to investigate the deformation and failure mechanisms of the
234 slope under the influence of rainfall. To ensure a pronounced rainfall effect in the physical
235 model, rainfall intensity was determined based on the cumulative precipitation observed in the
236 month preceding the actual event. The cumulative rainfall during this period was categorized
237 into three levels: 25, 100, and 175 mm (Figure 4). Correspondingly, rainfall intensities of 30
238 mm/day, 60 mm/day, and 140 mm/day were selected for the model tests. The first phase of
239 the rainfall simulation began with an increment from 0 mm/day to 30 mm/day; upon reaching
240 30 mm/day, this level was maintained for a few hours before halting the rain. The second
241 phase escalated from 0 mm/day to 60 mm/day and was also held for several hours before
242 ceasing the rain. The final phase ramped up from 0 mm/day to 140 mm/day and continued at
243 this intensity until the slope collapsed.
244 3.3 Data monitoring and collection
245 The monitoring of stress changes, fracture development, and water content commenced
246 as soon as coal seam excavation and rainfall simulation were initiated. Periodic photographs
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247 were taken to chronicle the temporal evolution of fractures. Stress monitoring points were
248 established in each stratum and at the roofs of coal seams, with 10 points in total. Stress data
249 were collected at intervals of 10 s. The depths at which stress monitoring points T1-T10 were
250 buried are 17, 18, 30, 29, 49, 48, 71, 84, 83, and 97 cm, respectively (Figure 6a). Stress
251 sensors were supplied by Jiangsu Test Equipment Manufacturing Co., Ltd., featuring an
252 accuracy of ±0.025%FgS , a measuring range of 0–5 Mpa, and a response time of less than 1
253 s. By monitoring water content across various rock layers, the impact of rainwater infiltration
254 on slope stability could be assessed. Five water content monitoring points were established,
255 and data were collected at 10 s intervals. These points, designated S1–S5, were buried at
256 depths of 18, 29, 48, 63, and 82 cm, respectively. The water content sensor, provided by
257 Beijing Heng Rui Chang Tai Technology Co., Ltd, has an accuracy of 2% , a measuring
258 range of 0–100%, and a response time of less than 1 s.
259 3.4 Principle of DPDM technology
260 Digital Picture Deformation Measurement (DPDM) is an image-based measurement
261 technique developed by the China University of Mining and Technology. This method is
262 employed to analyze and process the deformation and trend changes of specified points within
263 an image (Li et al. 2016b). DPDM employs techniques such as image correlation, the
264 center-of-mass method, bilinear interpolation, and quadratic isoparametric unit image
265 calibration to achieve sub-pixel level accuracy in deformation measurements (Li et al. 2019).
266 Its accuracy can be quantified using Eq. (1). In the scale-free method, complex deformation
267 patterns are distilled into two basic forms: translation and rotation. A three-step search
268 algorithm—comprising coarse search, fine translation search, and fine rotation search—is
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269 utilized in conjunction with image correlation. Due to its accessible equipment,
270 straightforward operation, and generalizability, DPDM is increasingly recognized as an
271 essential measurement technique in contemporary experimental mechanics.
Target width
272 Accuracy= (1)
Image width
273 In Eq. (1), the target width refers to the model’s dimensions, whereas the image width
274 pertains to the pixel count of the image. Given a target width of 1600 mm and an image width
275 of 3000 pixels, the accuracy is calculated to be 0.53 mm/pixel using Eq. (1).
276 The punctuation-free method employs correlation analysis of speckle images as its
277 foundational principle. It determines the coordinate changes of measurement points before
278 and after deformation by assessing the image correlation within regions where the pixel
279 measurement points are located on a digital photo sequence (Figure 7). Specifically, the
280 method calculates the correlation coefficient for all points (Pd) within a defined search range
281 on the deformed image, relative to a reference point (Pi) on the pre-deformation image. The
282 pixel correlation coefficient is determined using Eq. (2). The point with the highest
283 correlation coefficient is identified as the target point. The displacement of the measurement
284 point is then obtained by calculating the coordinate difference between the reference and
285 target points, and strain calculations are subsequently conducted using finite element methods
286 (Li et al. 2019).
2 k 1 2 k 1
  v ( x, y )  u ( x, y )
x 1 y 1
287 R12  (2)
2 k 1 2 k 1 2 k 1 2 k 1
  v ( x, y )    u ( x, y )
x 1 y 1
2
x 1 y 1
2
288 where R12 is the correlation coefficient between the reference point pixel block and the target
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289 point pixel block, (vi)x,y is the pixel RGB color value of the tracking point, (ui)x,y is the pixel
290 RGB color value of the reference point, 2k+1 is the length or width of the pixel block and the
291 unit is pixel, and i has values 1, 2, 3 and represents the 3 color components of RGB. (Note:
292 The final correlation coefficient is to calculate the respective correlation coefficients for the
293 three R, G, and B color components of, and then calculate the average value.)
294 4. Results
295 4.1 Variation law of the stress
296 A total of 10 stress monitoring points were established in the experiment, as shown in
297 Figure 6a. Both coal seam mining and rainfall activities disrupt the original stress equilibrium
298 within the slope. Importantly, the stress values discussed herein are specific to the model’s
299 monitoring points and should not be conflated with the stresses in the actual geological
300 formation—particularly in numerical terms. Nonetheless, variations in stress at these
301 monitoring points can provide insights into the stress behavior of the real-world prototype to
302 some extent. Therefore, we can deduce the deformation and failure mechanisms of the actual
303 slope from these stress variations (Figure 8). Prior to the experiment, the initial stress values
304 at monitoring points 1 through 10 were as follows: 18.2, 18.1, 15.9, 15.5, 12.7, 12.3, 9.5, 6.2,
305 6.0, and 1.0 kPa.
306 During the mining of the M16 coal seam, stress levels at points T3, T5, T6, and T7
307 remained stable from 0 to 8 h. This stability indicates that the early stages of M16 mining did
308 not significantly disturb the model, and the minor fluctuations in stress did not impact these
15

309 specific monitoring points. Conversely, the stress levels at points T1, T2, T4, T9, and T10
310 decreased by 0.6, 4.5, 2.3, 1.0, and 1.0 kPa, respectively, within the same timeframe. This
311 reduction was attributed to stress relaxation caused by the collapse of the M16 roof plate and
312 the resulting unloading of the rock mass. At the 10 h, stress values at points T2 and T4
313 suddenly surged by 6.1 and 5.0 kPa, respectively. This increase was attributed to a subsequent
314 collapse of the M16 roof plate, which led to subsidence in the upper part of the rock mass and
315 consequently to stress concentration at these points. Between 10 and 30 h, all monitoring
316 points exhibited minor stress fluctuations but largely maintained their previous trends.
317 Analysis suggests that the model was beginning to fracture during this period. Between 30
318 and 40 h, all monitoring points reached a state of stress equilibrium. This equilibrium was due
319 to stress realignment following the disturbance induced by the M16 mining activities.
320 During the 40 to 58 h timeframe of mining M14, stress values at points T1, T3, T4, T5,
321 T6, T7, T9, and T10 remained largely unchanged. This suggests that mining of the M14 seam
322 had minimal impact on the model’s stress distribution during this period. However, at 58 h,
323 the stress level at point T4 surged dramatically by 7.5 kPa, attributable to the collapse of the
324 M14 roof plate, which led to stress concentration at this specific location. Concurrently,
325 points T7, T8, and T9 exhibited minor stress increases of 0.9, 1.2, and 0.3 kPa, respectively. It
326 is hypothesized that these changes are a result of off-layer fractures occurring in molded Top
327 (II) and the extrusion of the rock layer. From 58 to 90 h, the stress levels at points T7, T9, and
328 T10 decreased by 1.5, 1.4, and 1.4 kPa, respectively. This decrease can be attributed to
329 ongoing small-scale block dropping, delamination, and collapse of M14’s top slab, facilitated
330 by a weakening of the support in the lower part of Top (II). In contrast, other monitoring
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331 points remained stable, indicating that the conclusion of mining activities in M16 and M14
332 would not induce widespread changes in the model’s stress patterns. During the 90 to 108 h
333 period of mining M10, stress levels at points T3, T6, T7, T8, and T9 increased by 0.5, 0.4, 0.4,
334 0.6, and 0.5 kPa, respectively. Conversely, stress levels at points T1, T2, T4, and T5
335 decreased by 0.3, 0.9, 0.3, and 0.6 kPa, respectively. These changes are assumed to be caused
336 by the mining of M10, which led to extensive fracturing around Bottom (III) and consequent
337 stress relaxation. At the same time, Top (II) experienced subsidence, resulting in stress
338 concentration due to geotechnical bodies squeezing each other. The stress at point T10
339 remained stable, suggesting that mining of M10 had not yet impacted the model’s topmost
340 layer. From 108 to 115 h, stress at point T8 increased by 1.3 kPa, whereas points T2, T3, T4,
341 T5, T6, T7, and T9 exhibited stress decreases of 0.6, 0.3, 0.5, 0.6, 0.2, 1.5, and 0.5 kPa,
342 respectively. The decrease in stress at these points indicates a large-scale collapse of the M10
343 roof plate, whereas the stress increase at T8 suggests that the model was undergoing
344 deformation towards a free face. Between 118 and 128 h, stress levels at all monitoring points,
345 except T10, increased. This was attributed to ongoing deformation within the model and
346 downward settlement of the top rock layer, resulting in stress concentration. At the 131 h
347 mark, significant changes in stress were observed at all monitoring points, indicating the
348 expansion of the collapse area and suggesting that the model had entered a stage of significant
349 deformation.
350 Following the rainfall, the roof of the mined-out area collapsed at 142 h, prompting
351 varying degrees of stress changes at all monitoring points. Specifically, the stress values at T7,
352 T9, and T10 surged by 6.1, 6.5, and 6.3 kPa, respectively, whereas stress at T8 declined by
17

353 3.5 kPa. These changes are attributed to a significant roof plate collapse that impacted even
354 the top of the slope, as well as the deformation of the modeled Leading Edge (IV) toward the
355 free face. Between 142 and 154 h, stress values at all monitoring points increased, suggesting
356 a global collapse of the model. It is hypothesized that the rainfall led to increased material
357 saturation, reduced matric suction, and elevated pore water pressure, collectively diminishing
358 the shear strength and causing the model to collapse. From 154 to 181 h, the stress levels at
359 the monitoring points stabilized, indicating a temporary equilibrium in the model following its
360 global collapse. At 181 h, stress levels at T2 and T8 declined sharply by 11.2 and 5.1 kPa,
361 respectively. This was due to another subsidence event in the roof of the mined-out area,
362 resulting in rock mass failure at T2 and T8 and the detachment of Leading Edge (IV). After
363 181 h, the model underwent large-scale displacement, culminating in a slope collapse at 213 h.
364 Notably, the stress at T2 exhibited significant changes after 181 h, presumably owing to the
365 infiltration of rainwater at this location.
366 Based on the aforementioned analysis and Figure 8, a discernible pattern emerges in
367 stress changes, characterized by cycles of stress concentration, stress relaxation, and stress
368 equilibrium. These monitored stress variations provide an authentic and reliable
369 representation of the internal stress dynamics within the actual prototype. Consequently, it can
370 be inferred that the actual prototype, influenced by both mining activities and rainfall,
371 undergoes sequential phases of stress concentration (due to roof collapse and rock extrusion),
372 stress relaxation (through the creation of fractures and rock layering), and stress equilibrium
373 (as the actual slope attains a state of temporary balance).
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374 4.2 Fracture evolution
375 Following the mining of M16, subsidence occurred in the overburden of the mined-out
376 area, leading to the emergence of fractures in the coal seam’s roof. Two conspicuous
377 delaminated fractures, D1 (48 cm long, 1 mm wide) and D2 (28 cm long, 1 mm wide),
378 developed in the upper plate. Fractures D3 (52 cm long, 1 mm wide) and D4 (28 cm long, 0.8
379 mm wide) developed in the base plates of M14 and M10, respectively. In addition, two
380 prominent tensile fractures, T1 and T2, were observed. T1, measuring approximately 28 cm in
381 length and 1 mm in width, progressively extended upward to intersect with separation
382 fractures and smaller tensile fractures. T2, situated 22 cm directly above M16①, had
383 dimensions of 11 cm in length and 1 mm in width. Concurrently, a network of small-scale,
384 interconnected tensile fractures emerged near M16, culminating in the collapse of the upper
385 plate rock. The analysis indicates that the loss of support from M16’s overburden led to rock
386 unloading, triggering fractures once the limit balance state was surpassed (Figure 9a).
387 Upon the completion of M14 mining, the upper plate exhibited a tendency to collapse
388 downward due to a loss of support across a broad area. This resulted in the appearance of new
389 tensile fractures (T3, T4, T5) and a separation fracture (D5) in the M14 upper plate, as well as
390 new separation fractures (D6 and D7) in the M10 upper plate. The length of the D5 fracture
391 extended to approximately 45 cm, matching the length of M14, and its opening width
392 expanded to 5 mm under the rock's own weight. The onset of D5 led to a partial collapse of
393 M14's upper plate. Fractures D6 and D7, approximately 24 cm long, extended horizontally.
394 The slope model exhibited a propensity for deformation and displacement toward the free
395 face, causing an increase in stress in the upper part of the left side of M10. This led to the
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396 formation of a new tensile fracture (T6), measuring 11.2 cm in length and oriented nearly
397 vertically, extending to Top (II) of the model (Figure 9b).
398 Following the completion of M10 mining, slope deformation and failure intensified,
399 culminating in the downward bending and settling of the overburden to create an “arch
400 collapse zone.” The impact of M10 mining was nearly model-wide, with pronounced
401 development of mining fractures. This led to the formation of multiple parallel separation
402 fractures from the bottom to the top of the model, along with additional tensile fractures in its
403 middle and upper parts, collectively constituting a "fracture zone.” The extension lengths of
404 the separation fractures in the upper part of M10 ranged from 35 to 45 cm, with widths
405 varying between 1 and 3 mm. Over time, T6 lengthened downward to intersect with a fracture
406 near M10, whereas T1, located at the base of M14, expanded horizontally. The development
407 of T6 is interpreted as a result of the cantilever beam effect, with Rear (I) serving as the fixed
408 end and Top (II), Bottom (III), and Leading Edge (IV) acting as free ends. This led to the
409 fracture occurring at position T6 under gravitational forces (Figure 9c).
410 Upon stabilization of the model's deformation due to mining activities, rainfall was
411 applied. The rainwater infiltrated the model's slope along existing fractures. As anticipated,
412 the erosive capability of the rainwater facilitated the extension and interconnection of
413 fractures within the model's slope. Continuous deformation of the middle and lower
414 geotechnical bodies in the model led to the development of fractures in the shoulder of the
415 slope. Notably, although rainfall did encourage the extension and penetration of fractures, the
416 initial formation of these fractures was primarily driven by mining activities (Figure 9d).
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417 4.3 Rainfall infiltration
418 After stabilizing the stress deformations induced by simulated mining, a rainfall
419 experiment was conducted. The rainfall was divided into three periods with varying lengths
420 and intensities. The initial period extended from 139 to 142 h with an intensity of 30 mm/day,
421 the second from 182 to 186 h at 60 mm/day, and the third from 210 to 215 h at 140 mm/day.
422 By tracking the changes in water content across various rock layers, we were able to
423 comprehend the rainwater infiltration process within the slope, and subsequently, the
424 deformation and failure mechanisms of the mined slope under the influence of rainfall. Due to
425 variations in layer stacking and material proportions, initial water content differed upon
426 model assembly. Monitoring points for water content, labeled S1 to S5, were distributed from
427 the bottom to the top of the model. Specifically, S1 to S3 were positioned at Bottom (III),
428 whereas S4 and S5 were at Top (Ⅱ), as depicted in Figure 6a. The overall trends for water
429 content changes at points S4 and S5 post-rainfall were generally consistent, as were those at
430 points S1, S2, and S3 (Figure 10). Upon the first rainfall event, water content at S4 and S5
431 quickly escalated, reaching 22.2% and 25.3% respectively. In contrast, S1, S2, and S3 showed
432 more modest increases. These locations, S4 and S5, had a higher density of separation and
433 tension fractures due to mining activities, allowing for rapid rainwater infiltration compared
434 to other parts of the slope. Upon cessation of the first rainfall at 142 h, the water content at all
435 monitored points swiftly declined and stabilized, a shift attributed to the material's water
436 absorption capacities. The stabilized values for S1 to S5 were 12.0, 14.2, 17.2, 19.0, and
437 22.0%, respectively. The reaction rates across all monitoring points were faster during the
438 second rainfall due to its higher intensity of 60 mm/day. Additionally, the first rainfall event
21

439 had expanded and penetrated fractures, enhancing the subsequent rainwater infiltration rate.
440 As a result, peak water content levels rose relative to the first rainfall, reaching 16.2, 18.3,
441 19.2, 23.4, and 25.2% for S1 through S5, respectively. During the third rainfall event, with an
442 intensity of 140 mm/day, peak water content levels increased yet again, attaining values of
443 18.6, 20.0, 21.3, 27.0, and 28.8% for S1 to S5, respectively. The water content increase at S3
444 paralleled those observed at S4 and S5, suggesting that the downward progression of upper
445 fractures had effectively channeled rainwater infiltration at this particular monitoring location.
446 4.4 Variation of displacement
447 DPDM technology was employed to investigate the variations in the model slope
448 displacement due to mining and rainfall activities. Image processing was feasible only for the
449 pre-collapse state of the model slope because the extensive post-collapse displacement
450 resulted in significant mesh deformation, making DPDM-based image processing
451 challenging.
452 During the mining of M16, deformation was predominantly observed in the roof of the
453 mined-out area, corroborating field observations of roof collapse and separation fractures. As
454 mining progressed across the three mined-out areas of M16, the displacement values showed
455 a gradual increment (Figure 11a–d). Specifically, upon mining the third section (M16③), the
456 maximum displacement spiked to 68.47 mm. Conversely, the mining of M14 resulted in
457 negligible large-scale displacement within the model. Although separation and tension
458 fractures emerged in the roof plate of the M14 mined-out area, as well as in the overlying rock
459 layer and slope foot of M10 (Figure 11e–f), the roof plate itself remained intact. Thus, we
460 infer that the mining of M14 did not induce significant model displacement. When mining
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461 M10, the deformation of the overburden rock in the mined-out area intensified under the
462 action of unloading. The maximum displacement observed in the roof plate in the mined-out
463 area of M10 reached 40 mm, and the affected range extended into the central region of the
464 model mass. Further, the displacement at the slope foot increased due to advanced fissuring
465 triggered by M10 mining (Figure 11g–h). Initial coal seam mining induced only minimal
466 model displacement. However, as the mined-out area expanded, both the range and magnitude
467 of displacements increased progressively. Most notably, the roof plate displacement in the
468 mined-out area exhibited a marked rise. During the rainfall event, the displacement range of
469 the model broadened significantly, even reaching the slope's top. This is considered a critical
470 phase in the extensive deformation of a mining slope. At the leading edge of the slope, tension
471 fissures began shifting toward the free face, indicating the onset of slope mass collapse
472 (Figure 11i).
473 5. Analysis of deformation and failure mechanism
474 In summary, the study area exhibits a layered structure of “hard at the top and soft at the
475 bottom” and “steep at the top and gentle at the bottom,” and the slope rocks are intersected by
476 joints conducive to dissolution (Figure 12a–b). Mining operations disrupt the slope's stress
477 equilibrium, generating an extensive fracture network in the overburden and adjacent to the
478 mined-out area. Monitoring data from the physical model reveal that stress redistributes
479 upward over time, resulting in fractures at the slope's trailing edge. These fractures
480 progressively extend downward to intersect with the mined-out area, creating potential sliding
481 planes within the slope (Figure 12c–d). During rainfall events, rainwater infiltrates the slope
23

482 through both the geotechnical bodies and existing mining fractures. This leads to increased
483 saturation levels in the slope's geotechnical bodies. As rainwater penetrates deeper, alterations
484 in pore water pressure trigger deformation failure mechanisms within the slope, while also
485 exacerbating the spread of mining-related fractures toward the free face. As the overlying
486 rocks in the modeled mined-out area keep collapsing and extruding, resulting in the closure of
487 fractures in the lower portion of the model, rainwater continues to infiltrate and raise.
488 Concurrently, ongoing rainwater infiltration elevates the water table within the slope. Once
489 the geotechnical bodies reaches the critical threshold of expansion and rupture after absorbing
490 water, the volume of the geotechnical bodies will expand and eventually rupture when it
491 continues to absorb water, which greatly affects the stability of the slope (Ng et al. 1998).
492 This process is further facilitated by reductions in both the effective stress and matric suction
493 within the geotechnical bodies, leading to diminished shear strength (Rahimi et al. 2011;
494 Gasmo et al. 2000), and consequently, an increase in deformation failure (Figure 12e).
495 Considering these factors, the slope is likely to experience long-term destabilization (Figures
496 12f–h). Based on both field investigations and physical modeling, this paper concludes that
497 the failure model of the Pusa collapse under the combined effects of mining and rainfall can
498 be characterized by the following sequence: bending-pulling-subsidence-creep-dumping. The
499 deformation and failure of the slope were observed to evolve through four distinct stages
500 (Figure 13):
501 (1) Mining-induced disturbances (Figure 13a)
502 Following the mining of M16, stress reallocation manifested in the roof of the mined-out
503 area. Unloading of the rock mass into the mined-out area led to the development of separation
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504 fractures. Notable variations in stress levels were observed before and after the collapse of the
505 coal seam roof. As mining in the M16 area continued, stress adjustments took place in
506 proximity to the mined-out area, giving rise to minor tension fractures. At this stage, the rock
507 mass above the roof of M14 displayed negligible deformation but experienced slight
508 perturbations.
509 (2) Fractures and extensions (Figure 13b)
510 During the mining of M14, the roof of the mined-out area experienced separation,
511 accompanied by the formation of multiple separation and tension fractures. Concurrently, the
512 rock mass at the top of the slope began to incline and deform towards the free face, resulting
513 in tension fractures at the trailing edge of the slope. The mining of M10 further intensified
514 slope deformation and failure, leading to the formation of a localized bubble area and a
515 fracture development area in the upper part. Additionally, the fracture at the trailing edge
516 extended downward into the mined-out area.
517 (3) Formation of a potential collapse surface (Figure 13c)
518 Subsequent to rainfall, water infiltrated the interior of the slope, gradually transitioning
519 the geotechnical bodies from an unsaturated to a saturated state. This infiltration caused an
520 increase in pore water pressure, reducing both the effective stress and matric suction within
521 the geotechnical bodies, thereby lowering the shear strength (Rahimi et al. 2011; Gasmo et al.
522 2000; Ng et al. 2003; Ng et al. 1998). The slope then began a creeping phase, continuing to
523 deform toward the free face. Ongoing rainfall facilitated the upward extension of fractures
524 from the mined-out area, eventually intersecting with the fractures at the slope's top and
525 forming a potential collapse surface.
25

526 (4) Destabilization failure (Figure 13d)
527 Due to persistent rainfall and the growing collapse area, fractures widened and
528 lengthened, further fragmenting the geotechnical bodies. These bodies, initially in an
529 unsaturated state, increasingly saturated due to rainwater infiltration. This led to elevated pore
530 water pressure, diminished shear strength, and volumetric expansion, ultimately causing a
531 sudden shearing off of the slope's “locking section." This abrupt fracturing of the rock mass
532 released substantial energy, which swiftly transformed into mechanical energy, propelling the
533 slope to slide rapidly in the direction of the debris flow. The slide was arrested by a smaller
534 hill at the base of the slope, causing the debris field to diverge in two directions.
535 6. Discussion
536 How does underground mining and rainfall cause slope deformation and ultimately
537 collapse? Understanding the interplay between underground mining, rainfall, and slope
538 deformation and failure is crucial for disaster prevention and mitigation, particularly in
539 Southwest China. In this study, we used the Pusa collapse as an example to examine this
540 complex relationship. Post-mining of M16, the roof plate underwent stress redistribution and
541 fractures emerged in the vicinity of the mined-out area, although no substantial deformation
542 was observed. Upon mining M14, the top plate separated, leading to multiple tension and
543 separation fractures as the slope began to deform toward the free face. The mining of M10
544 further accelerated slope deformation, introducing new fractures that extended from the
545 trailing edge into the mined-out area. These fractures serve as conduits for rainwater
546 infiltration. During rain events, water seeps into the interior of slopes through fractures and
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547 geotechnical bodies. As these layers absorb water, they become more saturated, resulting in
548 decreased effective stress and matric suction and a subsequent reduction in shear strength.
549 These findings align with the physical modeling tests conducted by Yang et al. (2022c) and
550 Zhang et al. (2023b).
551 However, it is important to acknowledge that a physical model cannot fully replicate the
552 conditions of a real-world scenario. Due to the larger bonding force of the model material, the
553 model strength and resistance to external loads, the model is not easy to be deformed during
554 the test, resulting in less obvious fracture evolution, so the fracture evolution law is still to be
555 discussed. The primary variables considered in this study were density and compressive
556 strength, and future research could include a broader range of physical parameters such as
557 angle of internal friction, modulus of elasticity and tensile strength, while similar metrics
558 could consider deformation time and deformation velocity. Due to site constraints, the size of
559 the physical model is small, so the stress behavior in the model can only maintain a similar
560 relationship with the actual prototype, and in the future, larger size physical model tests and
561 simulations using centrifuges can be carried out to obtain more accurate deformation and
562 damage laws. The selection of rainfall intensity for the model tests was based solely on data
563 from the month preceding the actual collapse; future studies could explore the impact of
564 rainfall over extended periods. Due to the limited equipment conditions, only the moisture
565 content of the model was monitored during the test without monitoring the pore water
566 pressure, which affects the effective stress and shear strength of the geotechnical body during
567 rainfall infiltration, and plays a crucial role in the stability of the slope, and the influence of
568 pore water pressure should be taken into account for further research in this area in the future.
27

569 7. Conclusions
570 In this study, we elucidated the failure mechanisms and processes leading to the
571 destabilization and collapse of the Pusa mining layer, drawing upon both a physical model
572 and test data. We examined the stress patterns, fracture development, water content, and
573 displacement characteristics of the slope under the combined influences of mining and
574 rainfall. The deformation failure behavior obtained from the physical model established by
575 the above parameters is consistent with the actual prototype, which illustrates the accuracy of
576 the method. The following key conclusions were reached:
577 1. During the mining of M16, a notable stress alteration occurred in the roof of the
578 mined-out area. As mining activities extended to M14 and M10, stress changes in the model
579 became increasingly pronounced. Each subsequent rainfall test further accentuated the stress
580 responses, displaying a "sudden rise and sudden fall" pattern.
581 2. Mining activities disrupted the original stress equilibrium in the rock mass, resulting
582 in the development of separation and tension fractures. Subsequent rainfall events exacerbated
583 the expansion and extension of these fractures. Both mining and rainfall contributed to the
584 incremental increase in displacement values and range, with the maximum displacement
585 being observed in the roof of the mined-out area.
586 3. Rainwater permeated the slope from the fractures and geotechnical bodies, more
587 profoundly affecting the upper rock mass than the lower sections. This led to an increase in
588 saturation, a decrease in matric suction, a rise in pore water pressure, and ultimately a
589 reduction in shear strength. When the pore water pressure reached a certain threshold, the
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590 slope shifted toward the free face, resulting in creeping and sliding deformations.
591 4. The failure mode of the Pusa slope under the influence of mining and rainfall can be
592 described as bending-pulling-subside-creep-dumping. The findings from this physical model
593 outline a four-stage process of slope failure: mining-induced disturbances, fracture initiation
594 and extension, formation of a potential collapse surface, and destabilization failure.
595 Data availability statement
596 Data generated or analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author
597 upon reasonable request.
598 Author contributions
599 Conceptualization: TWT, WBS, SZX
600 Data curation: TWT, SZX
601 Formal Analysis: TWT, WBS, SZX, FL, JYZ
602 Funding acquisition: WBS
603 Investigation: TWT, WBS, SZX, FL, JYZ
604 Methodology: TWT, WBS, SZX, FL, JYZ
605 Project administration: TWT, WBS, SZX, FL
606 Resources: TWT, WBS, SZX, FL, JYZ
607 Software: TWT
29

608 Supervision: TWT, WBS
609 Validation: TWT, WBS
610 Visualization: TWT, WBS, SZX
611 Writing – original draft: TWT

612 Writing – review & editing: TWT, WBS, SZX
613 Competing interests
614 The authors declare there are no competing interests.
615 Funding statement
616 This study is financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Gra
617 nt No. 42067046), Science and Technology Planning Project of Guizhou Province, China (Gr
618 ant No. QKHJC-ZK[2021]YB228), and Startup Research Foundation for High-Level Talents
619 of Guizhou University (Grant No. 2017077)
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Figure captions
Figure 1 Images of areas under study: (a) drone aerial photography: slide direction is 305°;
Ⅰ, Ⅱ, Ⅲ are source, scraping, and accumulation areas, respectively; (b) discontinuities in
collapse area; (c) dissolution fissures; (d) close-up view of mining-induced fracture; (e) karst
collapse.
Figure 2 Map of area under study: 1, First member of Yelang Formation of Lower Triassic; 2,
Second member of Yelang Formation of Lower Triassic; 3, Changxing–Dalong Formation of
Upper Permian; 4, Upper Permian Longtan Formation; 5, Quaternary deposits; 6, fault; 7,
coal seam; 8, outline of Pusa collapse; 9, section line; 10, M14 mined-out area; 11, M10
mined-out area; 12, M16 mined-out area.
Figure 3 Profile of Pusa collapse along principal sliding direction (A-A' in Figure 2): 1,
limestone; 2, muddy siltstone; 3, mudstone; 4, angle; 5, coal seam; 6, mined-out area; 7, fault;
8, karst fissures; 9, second member of the Yelang Formation of the Lower Triassic; 10, First
member of the Yelang Formation of Lower Triassic; 11, Changxing–Dalong Formation of
Upper Permian; 12, Upper Permian Longtan Formation; 13, Original topography; 14, Present
topography; 15, Accumulation body
Figure 4 Rainfall (mm) during the month preceding collapse.
Figure 5 Schematic of the physical model. 1, stress monitoring point; 2, water content
monitoring point; 3, limestone; 4, argillaceous siltstone; 5, mudstone; 6, mined-out area; 7,
coal seam.
Figure 6 Experimental setup. (a) Distribution of monitoring points: T, stress; S, water
content. (b-g) Experimental equipment: (b) rainfall simulation. (c) water sensor; (d) stress

sensor; (e) model box; (f) data acquisition equipment; (g) joints made of mica sheets.
Figure 7 Principle of punctuation-free method correlation analysis
Figure 8 Variation law of rock stress during mining.
Figure 9 Fracture evolution under mining and rainfall (D, separation fracture; T, tensile
fracture). (a) excavation of simulated coal seam M16; (b) excavation of M14; (c) excavation
of M10; (d) rainfall
Figure 10 Change in water content during three periods of simulated rainfall.
Figure 11 Process of total displacement during the Pusa collapse (the red rectangle represents
truss used in model building process; the area was not displaced during the test.).
Figure 12 The model-predicted initiation and evolution of slope collapse. The red lines in
Fig. 11a indicate the rock boundary, and the blue lines indicate the joint. The red lines in Fig.
11c and d indicate layer separation fracture, and the blue lines indicate tensile fracture.
Figure 13 Slope deformation and failure process: (a) mining disturbance; (b) fracture
extension and extension; (c) formation of a potential collapse surface; (d) destabilization
failure.

For personal use only. This Just-IN manuscript is the accepted manuscript prior to copy editing and page composition. It may differ from the final official version of record. Page 41 of 55
Figures
Figure 1

Canadian Geotechnical Journal (Author Accepted Manuscript)
For personal use only. This Just-IN manuscript is the accepted manuscript prior to copy editing and page composition. It may differ from the final official version of record.
Figure 2

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Figure 3

Figure 4

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Figure 5

Figure 6

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Figure 7

Figure 8
10

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Figure 9
11

Figure 10
12

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Figure 11
13

Figure 12
14

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Figure 13
15

Tables
Table 1 Characteristics of main coal seams at the Pusa site
Coal seam Thickness (m) Dip angle (°) Top bed Bottom bed
M16 0.76–2.04 10 silty mudstone mudstone
M14 0.77–1.95 10 silty mudstone mudstone

M10 0.79–2.95 10 silty mudstone silty mudstone

Page 55 of 55
Table 2 Mechanic parameters of lithology and similar materials
Quartz
Compressive
Density sand: Gypsum: Barite
Lithology strength Note
(g/cm3) Cementing Cement powder/Aggregate
(KPa)
material
Limestone 2.71 83.6×103 / / /
Argillaceous
2.21 47.7×103 / / / Actual
siltstone
samples
Mudstone 1.83 29.8×103 / / /
Coal seams 1.62 22.7×103 / / /
Material 1 2.69 232 14:1 5:1 0.5
Material 2 2.14 123 5:1 1:0 0.5 Similar
Material 3 1.75 73 3:2 1:0 0.1 samples
Material 4 1.57 62 12:1 10:1 0.1
Materials 1-4 of the model were composed such that they simulated limestone, argillaceous
siltstone, mudstone, and coal, respectively. Cγ is 1.007 and Cσ is 360 for material 1; Cγ is
1.033 and Cσ is 387 for material 2; Cγ is 1.058 and Cσ is 408 for material 3; Cγ is 1.032 and Cσ
is 366 for material 4.

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4 aKey Laboratory of Karst Georesources and Environment, Ministry of Education, Guizhou

5 University, Guiyang 550025, China

6 bCollege of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025,

9 dGuizhou Geological Environment Monitoring Institute, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, China

10 Corresponding author: Wenbing Shi (email: wbshi@gzu.edu.cn)

11 Total word count: 9593

© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

19 increasing stress variations, exhibiting a cyclical pattern of stress concentration, relaxation,

27 following sequence: bending-pulling-subsidence-creep-dumping. The deformation and failure

28 processes can be categorized into four stages: mining-induced disturbances, fractures

29 extension and extension, formation of a potential collapse surface, destabilization faliure.

30 Keywords: Deformation and failure; Physical model; Collapse; Mining; Rainfall

© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

32 Deformation in the overlying rock of mined-out areas, known as mining slope

33 deformation, is a direct or indirect result of underground mining activities, commonly referred

40 destabilizing factor, exacerbating the impact of mining activities. Consequently, numerous

© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

57 mechanisms of mining slopes influenced by rainfall is of immense practical and

© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

77 2020) and underground mining (Dai et al. 2021).

90 2.1 Geological setting and mining activities

93 predominantly extend in a southwest direction, exhibiting a topography that is “steep at the

© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

111 (Figure 3):

© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

118 approximately 70 m thick.

135 were essentially depleted. The mined-out area is illustrated in Figure 2.

136 2.2 Characteristics of the collapse

138 Zhangjiawan township of Nayong County, Guizhou Province (26°38′05″E, 105°26′56″N).

© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

148 approximately 1,922 m, resulting in a relative elevation difference of approximately 200 m.

152 2.3 Rainfall

© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

161 August’s daily rainfall is illustrated in Figure 4.

162 3. Physical model design

163 3.1 Similar proportions and similar materials

171 prototype, depending on the purpose of the study.

© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

188 calculations, CL is confirmed to be 400. Although it is challenging to maintain identical

193 compressive strength.

© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

222 3.2 Mining and rainfall schemes

© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

232 M10② was 20 cm long (Figure 6a).

243 this intensity until the slope collapsed.

244 3.3 Data monitoring and collection

© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

258 range of 0–100%, and a response time of less than 1 s.

259 3.4 Principle of DPDM technology

260 Digital Picture Deformation Measurement (DPDM) is an image-based measurement

© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

270 straightforward operation, and generalizability, DPDM is increasingly recognized as an

271 essential measurement technique in contemporary experimental mechanics.

286 (Li et al. 2019).

© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

295 4.1 Variation law of the stress

300 formation—particularly in numerical terms. Nonetheless, variations in stress at these

305 6.0, and 1.0 kPa.

© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

© The Author(s) or their Institution(s)

365 infiltration of rainwater at this location.