ACI 307-98配筋混凝土烟囱设计

AC1 307-98
Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete

Chimneys (AC1 307-98)
Reported by AC1 Committee 307
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Victor A. Bochicchio David J. Bird

Chairman Secretary
John J. Carty Jagadish R. Joshi Randolph W. Snook

Brian Cooley Erick N. Larson John C. Sowizal
Phillip B. Davidson Robert A. Porthouse Barry J. Vickery
Shu-Jin Fang Ronald E. Purkey Chung-Yee John Wei
Milton Hartstein Scott D. Richart Edward L. Yordy
Thomas Joseph Wadi S. Rumman
This standard gives material, construction, and design requirements for CONTENTS
cast-in-place and precast reinforced concrete chimneys. It sets forth mini- <;p$ep):($p .$......&?n$?r&> p. 30’7..2
mum loadings for design and contains methods for determining the con- 1.1-Scope
crete and reinforcement required us a result of these loadings. The method
of analysis applies primarily to circular chimney shells; howeveu, a general
1.2-Drawings
procedure for analysis of noncircular shapes is included. 1.3-Regulations
This standard is written in explicit, mandatory language, and as such, is 1.&Reference standards
intended for reference in project speci3cations.
Equations are provided for determining the temperature gradient through ebapt$?r2 h pi&^, p. 3QI’..2
the concrete resultingfuom the diffèrence in temperature of the gases inside
2.1-General
the chimney and the surrounding atmosphère. Methods for combining the
effects of dead and wind (or earthquake) loads with temperature both verti- 2.2-Cement
cally and circumferentially are included in the standard. These methods 2.3-Aggregates
permit the designer to establish minimum concrete and reinforcement 2 .&Reinforcement
requirements.
This standard refers extensively to “Building Code Requirements for <;p$ep):($p 3.....-<~.on~~iu~~Bon
$.E‘q&($$X]$?&, p. 3Q7-3
Structural Concrete” @CI 318); construction requirements are generally
in accordance with ACI 318; and notation is in accordance with ACI 104. 3.1-General
3.2-Concrete quality
3.3-Strength tests
Keywords: chimneys; compressive strength; concrete construction; 3 .&Forms
earthquake-resistantstructures; formwork (construction); foundations; high
temperature; linings; loads (forces); moments; openings; precast concrete;
3.5-Reinforcement placement
quality control; reinforced concrete; reinforcing steels; specifications; 3.6-Concrete placement
static loads; strength; structural analysis; structural design; temperature; 3.7-Concrete curing
thermal gradient; wind pressure
3.8-Construction tolerances
AC1 Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and 3.9-Precast erection
Commentaries are intended for guidance in planning, de-
signing, executing, and inspecting construction. This doc-
ument is intended for the use of individuals who are
competent to evaluate the significance and limitations
of its content and recommendations and who will ac-
cept responsibility for the application of the material it
contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any
and all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute
shall not be liable for any loss or damage arising there-
from.
Reference to this document shall not be made in con-
AC1 307-98 became effectiveNovember 1,1998, and supersedes AC1 307-95.
tract documents. If items found in this document are de- Copyright O 1998, American Concrete Institute.
sired by the Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by any electronic or
documents, they shall be restated in mandatory language mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduc-
tion or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in
for incorporation by the Architect/Engineer. writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
Copyright American Concrete Institute

807-1
Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Bechtel Corp Loc 1-19/9999056100
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307-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
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Testing and Materials referred to in this standard are listed in
the following with their serial designations, including the
5.1'General
year of adoption or revision, and are declared to be a part of
5.2-Design Loads
this standard as if fully set forth here.
5.3-Required strength
5 . L D e s i g n strength AC1 104-71 Preparation of Notation for Concrete
5.5-Nominal moment strength: Circular shells (Revised 1982)
5.6-Noncircular shapes (Reapproved 1987)
5.7-Design for circumferential bending
AC1 3 18-95 Building Code Requirements for Re-
c;$l;q>&>p &...:yh$?~~.$e$$y&$?$;s$ss,
p. 3@'y..q2 inforced Concrete
6.1-General ASCE 7-95 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings
6.2-Vertical temperature stresses and Other Structures
6.3-Circumferential temperature stresses ASTM A 615-95~ Standard Specification for Deformed
and Plain Billet Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
ASTM A 617-96 Standard Specification for Axle-Steel
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Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
CHAPTER I-GENERAL ASTM A 706-96 Standard Specification for Low-Alloy
1.1-Scope Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete
This standard covers the design and construction of
Reinforcement
circular cast-in-place or precast reinforced concrete chimney
shells. If other shapes are used, their design shall be substan- ASTM C 33-93 Standard Specification for Concrete
tiated in accordance with the principles used here. The standard Aggregates
does not include the design of linings, but includes the ASTM C 150-95 Standard Specification for Portland
effects of linings on the concrete shell. Cement
A precast chimney shell is defined as a shell constructed ASTM C 309-95 Standard Specification for Liquid
wholly from precast reinforced concrete sections, assembled Membrane-Forming Compounds for
one atop another, to form a freestanding, self-supporting Curing Concrete
cantilever. Vertical reinforcement and grout are placed in ASTM C 595-95 Standard Specification for Blended
cores as the precast sections are erected to provide structural Hydraulic Cement
continuity and stability. The use of precast panels as stay-in-
place forms is considered cast-in-place construction. CHAPTER 2-MATERIALS
2.1-General
1.2-Drawings All materials and material tests shall conform to AC1 3 18,
Drawings of the chimney shall be prepared showing all except as otherwise specified here.
features of the work, including the design strength of the
concrete, the thickness of the concrete chimney shell, the 2.2-Cement
size and position of reinforcing steel, details and dimen- The same brand and type of cement shall be used through-
sions of the chimney lining, and information on chimney out the construction of the chimney. The cement used shall
accessories. conform to the requirements for Type I, Type II, Type III,
or Type V of ASTM C 150, or Type IS or Type IP of
1.3-Regulations ASTM C 595.
1.3.1 The design and construction of the chimney shall
meet the requirements of all ordinances and regulations
2.3-Aggregates
of authorities having jurisdiction, except that where such
2.3.1 Concrete aggregates shall conform to ASTM C 33.
requirements are less conservative than the comparable
requirements of this standard, this standard shall govern. 2.3.2 The maximum size of coarse aggregate shall be not
1.3.2 Consideration shall be given to the recommendations larger than l/x of the narrowest dimension between forms
of the Federal Aviation Administration with respect to chim- nor larger than 1/2 the minimum clear distance between
ney heights and aviation obstruction lighting and marking, reinforcing bars.
and the standards of the Underwriters Laboratories regarding
lightning protection and grounding. 2.4-Rei nforcement
Reinforcement shall conform to ASTM A 615, A 617, or
1.4-Reference standards A 706. Deformed reinforcement with a specified yield stress
Standards of the American Concrete Institute, the Ameri- fy exceeding 60,000 psi shall be permitted provided the ul-
can Society of Civil Engineers, and the American Society for timate tensile strain shall equal or exceed 0.07.

REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS 307-3
CHAPTER 3-CONSTRUCTION 3.5.2 Vertical reinforcement projecting above the forms

REQUIREMENTS for the chimney shell or cores of precast sections shall be so
3.1-General supported as to prevent the breaking of the bond with the
Concrete quality, methods of determining strength of con- freshly placed concrete.
crete, field tests, concrete proportions and consistency, mix- 3.5.3 Not more than 50 percent of bars shall be spliced
ing and placing, and formwork and details of reinforcement along any plane unless specifically permitted and approved
shall be in accordance with AC1 318, except as stated by the responsible engineer.
otherwise here.
3.5.4 The concrete cover over the circumferential rein-
forcement shall be a minimum of 2 in. for cast-in-place
3.2-Concrete quality chimneys and 1'- in. for precast units manufactured under
The specified concrete compressive strength shall not be plant control conditions.
less than 3000 psi at 28 days.
3.6-Concrete placement
3.3-Strength tests No vertical construction joints shall be used for cast-in-
The 28-day compressive strength of the concrete shall place chimney shells. Horizontal construction joints for
be determined from a minimum of two sets of cylinders jump-form and precast construction shall be maintained at
(consisting of three specimens each) per 8-hr shift (slipform) approximately uniform spacing throughout the height of the
or per lift (jump form). For precast sections, a minimum of chimney. Concrete shall be deposited in approximately level
two sets shall be taken from each class of concrete cast each layers no greater than 16-in. deep. Particular care shall be ex-
day and from each 100 yd3 of concrete placed each day. ercised when casting concrete in thin wall sections and when
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casting cores of precast sections. Grout used to seat precast
3.4-Forms sections shall have a compressive strength at least equal to
3.4.1 Forms for the chimney shell shall be made of metal, the design strength of the shell.
wood, or other suitable materials. If unlined wooden forms
are used, they shall be of selected material with tongue-and- 3.7-Concrete curing
groove joints and shall be kept continuously wet to prevent 3.7.1 Immediately after the forms have been removed all
shrinking and warping due to exposure to the elements. A necessary finishing of concrete shall be done.
nonstaining form oil shall be permitted to be used. Form oil 3.7.2 As soon as fiiishing has been completed, both faces
shall not be used unless it is a nonstaining type and it has of concrete shall be cured by coating with a membrane cur-
been established that specified protective coatings or paint ing compound or other method approved by the engineer.
can be applied to concrete exposed to form oil. The curing compound shall comply with ASTM C 309 and
3.4.2 Forms shall be sufficiently tight to prevent leakage shall be applied in strict accordance with the manufacturer's
of mortar. recommendations. If coatings are to be applied to the con-
3.4.3 No construction load shall be supported upon any crete, the curing compound shall be of a type compatible
part of the structure under construction until that portion of with these coatings.
the structure has attained sufficient strength to safely support
its weight and the loads placed thereon. 3.8-Construction tolerances
3.4.4 Forms shall be removed in such manner as to ensure 3.8.1 The chimney shell shall be constructed within the
the safety of the structure. Forms shall be permitted to be tolerance limits set forth here.
removed after concrete has hardened to sufficient strength to 3.8.1.1 Vertical alignment of centerpoint-The center-
maintain its shape without damage and to safely support all point of the shell shall not vary from its vertical axis by more
loads on it, including temporaiy construction loads. than 0.001 times the height of the shell at the time of mea-
3.4.5 Ties between inner and outer chimney shell forms surement, or l in., whichever is greater. Locally, the center-
shall not be permitted. point of the shell shall not be changed by more than 1 in. per
3.4.6 Construction joints shall be properly prepared to 10 ft.
facilitate bonding. As a minimum, all laitance and loose 3.8.1.2 Diameter-The measured outside shell diameter
material shall be removed. at any section shall not vary from the specified diameter by
more than 1 in. plus 0.01 times the specified or theoretical
3.5-Reinforcement placement diameter.
3.5.1 Circumferential reinforcement shall be placed 3.8.1.3 Wall thickness-The measured wall thickness
around the exterior of, and secured to, the vertical bars. All shall not vary from the specified wall thickness by more
reinforcing bars shall be tied at intervals of not more than than -'/, in., +'/, in. for walls 10-in.-thick or less, or by more
2 ft. Particular attention shall be paid to placing and securing than-'/, in., +1 in. for walls greater than 10-in.-thick.A single
the circumferential reinforcement so that it cannot bulge or wall thickness measurement is defiied as the average of at
be displaced during the placing and working of the concrete least four measurements taken over a 60-deg arc.
so as to result in less than the required concrete cover over 3.8.2 Openings and embedments-Tolerances on the size
this circumferential reinforcement. and location of openings and embedments in the shell cannot

be uniformly establisheddue to the varying degrees of accuracy 4.1.7.4 Consideration shall be given to the effects of
required depending on the nature of their use. Appropriate radiant heat of gases on any part of the foundation, including
tolerances for opening and embedment sizes and locations the foundation floor area which is exposed within the liner
shall be established for each chimney. and also concrete floors supported from the concrete shell.
3.9-Precast erection 4.2-Wind loads

3.9.1 The precast sections shall be erected in a manner and 4.2.1 General-Reinforced concrete chimneys shall be
at a rate that ensures that sufficient strength has been attained designed to resist the wind forces in both the along-wind and
in grout, core concrete, and all connecting components to across-wind directions. In addition, the hollow circular cross
safely support construction and applicable design loads. section shall be designed to resist the loads caused by the
3.9.2 Precast sections shall be keyed if necessary to transfer circumferential pressure distribution.
shear and grouted to level and seal joints. The reference design wind speed in mph, which shall be
denoted as V R ,shall be the “3-sec gust” wind speed at 33 ft
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over open terrain where VR= V. This speed V and im-
CHAPTER 4-SERVICE LOADS
AND GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA portance factor I shall be as specified by ASCE 7. All
4.1-General chimneys shall be classified as Category IV structures as
4.1.1 The chimney shell shall be designed for the effects defined in ASCE 7-95. Terrain effects referenced in Sec-
of gravity, temperature, wind, and earthquake in accordance tion 6.5.5 of ASCE 7-95 are omitted.
with AC1 3 18, except as stated otherwise here. At a height z ft above ground, the mean hourly design
4.1.2 The chimney shell shall be designed for load combi- speed v(z) in fi/sec shall be computed from Eq. (4-1)
nations in accordance with the provisions of t. 3,
Design of chimney shell: Strength method. - O. 154
4.1.3 V(z) = (1.47)VR(&) (0.65) (4-1)
4.1.3.1 The chimney shell shall not be less than 8-in.
thick when cast in place, or less than 7-in. thick when com-
The provisions with respect to wind load take account of
posed of precast sections.
dynamic action but are simplified and lead to equivalent static
4.1.3.2 The chimney shell thickness, through openings,
loads. A properly substantiated dynamic analysis may be
shall not be less than 1/24 the height of the opening.
used in place of these provisions.
The thickened shell shall extend at least 1/2 the height of
4.2.2 Along-wind load: Circular shapes-The along-wind
the opening above and below the opening. Properly designed
load, w(z) per unit length at any height z ft, shall be the sum
buttresses or other means of lateral restraint may be used in
of the mean load w(z) and the fluctuating load w’(z).
place of this requirement; however, the buttresses shall be
ignored when calculating vertical strength. The mean load w(z) in lb/ft shall be computed from
Eq. (4-2)
4.1.3.3 When the internal diameter of the shell exceeds
28 ft, the minimum thickness shall be increased l/x in. for
each 1-ft increase in internal diameter. @(Z) = Cdr(z) d(z) *U(.) (4-2)
4.1.4 A chimney shell that supports lining loads shall com-
ply with the requirements of this standard with the lining in
where
place. The interaction of the liner with the shell shall be
considered. Cdr(z)= 0.65 for z < h ~ 1.5d(h) (4-3a)
4.1.5 Consideration shall be given to loadings during the
construction phase. Cdr(z)= 1.O for z 2 h ~ 1.5d(h) (4-3b)
4.1.6 If required during construction, temporary access
openings may be provided in the concrete shell. For the design
u(z) = 0.0013 [F(z)l2 (4-4)
of the shell, these openings shall be designed as permanent
openings. d(z) = outside diameter at height z, ft
4.1.7
h = chimney height above ground level, fi
4.1.7.1 The maximum foundation bearing pressure shall
be established using unfactored chimney loads. d(h) = top outside diameter, ft
4.1.7.2 The foundation shall be designed by the strength The fluctuating load w’(z) shall be taken equal to
method in accordance with the procedures of AC1 318. The
foundation design shall be based on a pseudo-bearing pressure
‘le loads, using the loading combinations w’(z) = 3.02 G,,>, M,(b)
(4-5)
‘4 . I and 5 2 . 2 . h3
4.1.7.3 The minimum factor of safety against overturning
shall be 1.50 using unfactored loads. where M;(b) = base bending moment due to w(z) and

g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 ft/sec2

~ I . o [ T , V(33)]0’47
G,,>t = 0.30 + (4-6) G = peakfactor=4.0
( h + 16)0’86 S, = mode shape factor = 0.57 for frst mode, 0.18 for
second mode
where v(33) is determined from Eq. (4-1) for z = 33 ft.
For preliminaiy design and evaluation of the critical wind CL = C,,F,(B) (4-9)
speed V,,, as described in Section 4.2.3.1, the natural period
of an unlined chimney T,, in seconds per cycle, may be where
approximated using Eq. (4-7). However, for final design, the
period shall be computed by dynamic analysis C,, = - 0.243 + 5.648i- 18.182i2 (4-10)
where
(4-7)
1
I = - (4- 11)
where
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h = chimney height above base, ft
2, = exposure length = 0.06 ft
t(h) = thickness at top, ft
t(b) = thickness at bottom, ft
- F1(B) = 0.089 + 0.337108,- h
d(b) = mean diameter at bottom, ft -
(4-12)
pck = mass density of concrete, kip-sec2/ft4 d(u)
Eck = modulus of elasticity of concrete, kip/ft2
but not > 1.0 or < 0.20.
If the lining is supported in any manner by the shell, the
pa = density of air = 0.075 lbs/ft3
effect of the lining on the period shall be investigated.
V,, = critical speed at 5/6h, ft/sec
4.2.3 Across-wind load: Circular shapes
4.2.3.1 General-Across-wind loads due to vortex
shedding in the first and second modes shall be considered in (4- 13)
the design of all chimney shells when the critical wind speed
Y,, is between 0.50 and 1.30 v(zc,) as defïned here. Across-
wind loads need not be considered outside this range. f = first-mode frequency, Hz
4.2.3.2 Analysis-When the outside shell diameter at S, = Strouhalnumber
1/3h is less than 1.6 times the top outside diameter, across-
wind loads shall be calculated using Eq. (4-8) which defies S, = 0.25Fl(A) (4- 14)
the peak base moment Ma
where
Ma = -SsCL?&d(u)h2
G
g Fl(A) = 0.333 + O.2061oge- h (4- 15)
4 u>
but not > 1.0 or < 0.60.
d(u) = mean outside diameter of upper third of chimney,
ft
h = chimney height above ground level, ft
- Eq. (4-8) defines the peak base moment Ma for values of
V, where v i s evaluated between 0.5 and 1.30v(z,,). When 7
2 v(z,,), Ma shall be multiplied by
O.lO[V- V(z )]
ß, = 0.01 + -
CI’
(4- 16)
but not < 0.01 or > 0.04.

ß, = aerodynamic damping
where
-
V(z,,) = the mean design wind speed at zcr,zcr = 5/6h, (4-17)
ftlsec

Any method using the modal characteristics of the chim-

ney shall be used to estimate the across-wind response in the
where second mode.
4.2.3.4 Grouped chimneys-When two identical chim-
neys are in close proximity, the across-wind load shall be in-
creased to account for the potential increase in vortex-
induced motions. In such cases, the lift coefficient C, in
Eq. (4-9) shall be modified as follows
where a) if s/d(z,,) > 12.75, C, is unaltered
b) if 3 < s/d(z,,) < 12.75, C, shall be multiplied by:

(4-20) [0.26 0.015 s/d(z,,)] + [2 s/12d(ze,)]
~ ~
where
- s = center-to-center spacing of chimneys, fi
wt(u) = average weight in top third of chimney, lb/ft
d(z,,) = outside diameter of chimney at critical height
Sp = spectral parameter Zer, ft
For chimneys that are not identical and for identical chim-
neys where s/d(z,,) < 3, the value of C, shall be established
by reference to model tests or observations or test reports of
similar arrangements.
4.2.3.5 Combination of across-wind and along-wind
loads-Across-wind loads shall be combined with the
where coexisting along-wind loads. The combined design moment
B = band-width parameter MJz) at any section shall be taken as
B = 0.10+2i (4-22)
.0.5
L = correlation length coefficient
L = 1.20
CE = end effect factor = 3
After solving for Mu, across-wind moments at any height where
Mu(.) may be calculated based on the corresponding mode Ma(.) = moment induced by across-wind loads
shape of the chimney column. moment induced by the mean
Ml(z) =
4.2.3.3 Second mode-Across-wind response in the sec- along-wind load wl(z)
ond mode shall be considered if the critical wind speed VCr2 where
as computed by Eq. (4-23) is between 0.50 and 1.30 F(z,,),
where F(z,,) is the mean hourly wind speed at 5/6h
(4-26)
(4-23)
except that wl(z) shall not exceed $z).

The period T2 in seconds per cycle for an unlined shell 4.2.4 Circumferential bending-The maximum circum-
may be estimated by Eq. (4-24). For final design, T2 shall be ferential bending moments due to the radial wind pressure
calculated by dynamic analysis distribution shall be computed by Eq. (4-27) and (4-28)
Mi(.) = 0.3 lpr(z) [r(z)I2, ft-lb/ft (tension on inside) (4-27)
Mo(.) = 0.27pr(z) [r(z)I2, ft-lb/ft (tension on outside) (4-28)
where t(h) and t(b) are the thicknesses at the top and bottom, where
respectively, and d(h) and d(b) are the mean diameters at the r(z) = mean radius at height z, ft
top and bottom, respectively.
pr(z) = 0.0013[F((~)]~
G,(z), lb/ft2 (4-29)
The effect of a shell-supported liner on the period of the
second mode shall also be investigated. G,(z) = 4.0 O.Slog,,z, except G,(z)
~ =4 for z 5 1.0(4-30)
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The pressure pr(z) shall be increased by 50 percent for a 4.4-Special design considerationsand
distance 1.5d(h) from the top. requirements
4.2.5 Wind loads: Noncircular shapes-The provisions of 4.4.1 Two layers of vertical and circumferential reinforce-
ment are required. The total vertical reinforcement shall be
ASCE 7 shall be followed including force coefficients and
not less than 0.25 percent of the concrete area. The outside
gust response factors. Unusual cross-sectional shapes not
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vertical reinforcement shall be not less than 50 percent of the

covered in ASCE 7 shall require wind tunnel testing or other
total reinforcement. Outside-face vertical bars shall not be
similar documentation to ver@ along- or across-wind loads,
smaller than No. 4, nor shall they be spaced more than 12 in.
or both. Similarly, horizontal bending due to wind pressure
on centers. Inside-face vertical bars shall not be smaller than
distributions shall also require wind tunnel testing or other
No. 4, nor shall they be spaced more than 24 in. on centers.
documentation from reliable sources.
4.4.2 The total circumferential reinforcement shall not be
less than 0.20 percent of the concrete area. The circumferential
4.3-Earthquake loads reinforcement in each face shall be not less than O. 1 percent of
4.3.1 General-Reinforced concrete chimneys in earth- the concrete area at the section.
quake areas shall be designed and constructed to resist the
Spacing of outer face circumferential reinforcement shall
earthquake effects in accordance with the requirements of
not exceed the wall thickness or 12 in. Spacing of circumfer-
this section. Applicable effective peak velocity-related
ential reinforcement on the inner face shall not exceed 12 in.
accelerations A, shall be in accordance with the ASCE 7
maps for the site. Table 4.3.2(a)- Special values for maximum
Chimneys shall be designed for earthquakes by means of ground acceleration of 1.Og*
the dynamic response spectrum analysis method given in
Section 4.3.2. In place of the dynamic spectrum analysis Velocity
Frequency, Displacement spectrum, Acceleration
method, time history analysis based on accelograms repre- Hz spectrum, in. idsec spectrum, g
sentative of the locality may be used.
The effects due to the vertical component of earthquakes f 2 0.25 50.7 318.6f 5.186f2
are generally small and can be ignored in the earthquake de-
sign of chimneys. The horizontal earthquake force shall be as- 10.39 65.26
0.25 2f 2 2.5
- -
sumed to act alone in any lateral direction. 1.062f
f 1.1436 f
4.3.2 Dynamic response spectrum analysis method-The
shears, moments, and deflections of a chimney due to earth- 25.32 159.1 2.589
- - -
quake shall be determined by using a site-specific response 2.52f29
spectrum and the elastic modal method. The site-specific f 2.1 158 f 1.1158 f o.1158
response spectrum shall be based on a 90 percent probability
63.87
- 401.3
- 6.533
-
of not being exceeded in 50 years with 5 percent damping. If 92f233
a site-specific response spectrum is unavailable, the design f 2.5369 f 1.5369 f
response spectrum for the site shall be obtained by scaling
down the normalized 1.Og peak ground acceleration 9.768 61.37
f>33 1.00
spectrum for 5 percent damping shown in :;IL: -i .: :I or f2 f
Table 4.3.2(a) by the scaling ratios given in Table 4.3.2(b)
for the A, of the site. * Damping ratio = 0.05.
The normalized design response spectrum given in
Fig. 4.3.2 or Table 4.3.2(a) is suitable for f i i soil condi- Table 4.3.2(b)-Response spectrum scaling ratio
versus A,
tions. The response spectrum shall be modified for soft and
shallow soil conditions by any method that is properly A , effective peak
substantiated and complies with the basic principles herein. velocity-related
accelerations Scaling ratio
The analytical model of a chimney used in the dynamic
response spectrum analysis shall be sufficiently refined to
represent variations of chimney and liner masses, variations
0.05
I 0.04
of stifiness, and the foundation support condition. A mini-

0.08
I 0.06
mumof 10 elements shall be included. The total dy-

namic response of the chimneys in terms of shear and
0.15 I 0.11
moment shall be computed using the SRSS over a minimum

0.20
I 0.15
of five normal modal responses. SRSS means taking the

square root of the sum of the squares of modal maxima. The
0.30
I 0.23
use of the CQC method (complete quadratic combination)

0.40
I 0.30
is also permitted. Linear interpolation may be used in between A,, coefficients not given.

Frequency, cps.
Fig. 4.3.2-Normalized horizontal elastic seismic response spectra.
The minimum size of circumferential reinforcing bars shall steel ratio times one-half the area of the opening. The extra
be No. 3. reinforcement shall be placed within a distance not exceed-
4.4.3 The circumferential reinforcement for a distance of ing twice the wall thickness unless otherwise determined by
0.2d(h) from the top of the chimney or 7.5 ft, whichever is a detailed analysis.
greater, shall be at least twice the amount required by 4.4.1 At both the top and bottom of each opening, addi-
‘;<:&I 1 F: :i. tional reinforcement shall be placed having an area at least
4.4.4 Where a segment between openings is critical as equal to one-half the established design circumferential rein-
related to the height of the openings, this segment shall be forcement interrupted by the opening, but the area A , of this
investigated as a beam-column. Where more than two open- additional steel at the top and also at the bottom shall be
ings occur at the same elevation, appropriate design methods not less than that given by Eq. (4-31), unless otherwise
consistent with the cases shown by Fig. 5.5.l(;g, fb‘:.. , and (c) determined by a detailed analysis
shall be used.
4.4.5 In addition to the reinforcement determined by design, 0.06f,’tl
extra reinforcement shall be provided at the sides, top, bot- A, = ~
4-
(4-3 1)
tom, and corners of these openings as hereinafter specified. JY
This extra reinforcement shall be placed near the outside
surface of the chimney shell as close to the opening as proper where
spacing of bars will permit. Unless otherwise specified, all
extra reinforcement shall extend past the opening a minimum
f,’ = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi
of the development length. t = concrete thickness at opening, in.
4.4.6 At each side of the opening, the additional vertical 1 = width of opening, in.
reinforcement shall have an area at least equal to the design & = specified yield strength of reinforcing steel, psi
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

One-half of this extra reinforcement shall extend com- 5.3-Required strength

pletely around the circumference of the chimney, and the 5.3.1 Required vertical strength U,, to resist dead load D,
other half shall extend beyond the opening a sufficient or wind load W, and normal temperature T, shall be the largest
distance to develop the bars in bond. This steel shall be of the following
placed as close to the opening as practicable, but within a
height not to exceed three times the thickness t. U,, = 1.40 (5-la)
4.4.8 For openings larger than 2-ft wide, diagonal rein-
forcing bars with a total cross-sectional area in square inches U,,= l . l D + 1.4T+ 1.3W* (5-lb)
of not less than 1/5 of the shell thickness in inches shall be
placed at each corner of the opening. For openings 2-fi wide and
or smaller, a minimum of two No. 5 reinforcing bars shall be
placed diagonally at each corner of the opening. U1,=O.9D+ 1.4T+ 1.3W* (5-lc)
4.5-Deflection criteria
The maximum lateral deflection of the top of a chimney *The load factor 1.3 shall be used for the along-wind loads
of Section 4.2.2. For the across-wind loading combined with
under all service conditions prior to the application of load
the along-wind loading (Section 4.2.3.5), a load factor of 1.2
factors shall not exceed the limits set forth by Eq. (4-33)
shall be used.
Y,, = 0.04 h (4-33) 5.3.2 For earthquake loads or forces E, the load combina-
tions of Section 5.3.1 shall apply except that 1.1E shall be
where substituted for W.
Y,, = maximum lateral deflection, in. 5.3.3 Required circumferential strength U, to resist wind
h = chimney height, ft load Wand normal temperature load T shall be
U,= 1.05T+ 1.3W (5-ld)

CHAPTER 5-DESIGN OF CHIMNEY SHELLS:
STRENGTH METHOD
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
5.1-General 5.4-Design strength

5.1.1 Except as modified herein, design assumptions shall 5.4.1 Design strength of a section in terms of moment shall
be in accordance with AC1 318, Chapter 10. The chimney be taken as the nominal moment strength calculated in accor-
shell shall be designed by the strength method. dance with the requirements of this standard multiplied by a
5.1.2 The equivalent rectangular concrete stress distribu- strength reduction factor @ equal to 0.70 for vertical strength
tion described in Section 10.2.7 of AC1 3 18 and as modified and 0.90 for circumferential strength.
herein shall be used. For vertical strength the maximum
strain on the concrete is assumed to be 0.003 and the maxi- 5.5-Nominal moment strength: Circular shells
mum strain in the steel is assumed to be 0.07. Whichever val- 5.5.1 The following equations apply [refer to Pig S. 3 , )i\ U\ .,?
ue is reached first shall be taken as the limiting value. and 5.9.1$i]

In place of the equivalent rectangular concrete compres-
sive stress distribution used in this chapter, any other rela- P,/rtf,' = K, = 1.7Qh + ~ E , K , ~ , Q +
, 2o,h, (5-2)
tionship between concrete compressive stress and strain may
be assumed that results in prediction of the strength of hol- where
low circular sections in substantial agreement with results of
comprehensive tests. Pu = factored vertical load
5.1.3 The design and detailing of precast chimney shells r = average radius of section
shall emulate the design of cast-in-place chimney shells un- t = thickness of section
less specifically stated otherwise herein. Particular attention
should be given to the spacing and reinforcement of cast-in- h = v n , ß (radians) (5-3)
place cores and closures joining precast units to ensure that
the reqirements of this and other applicable standards are
met. shy,- siny (y,- y)cosa
-
QI = (5-4)
5.1.4 Refer to ?t"iiii>ii 5 .' for design procedures of noncir- 1 cosa -
cular shells.
h, = y + y, - 7c (radians) (5-5)
5.2-Design loads
5.2.1 Dead loads and wind or earthquake forces at service
y, T, y, = angles shown in Fig. 5.5.l(a).
conditions prior to the application of load factors,shall be in
accordance with Ch:?@:?r 4.of this standard. Thermal effects
at service conditions shall be in accordance with C1qxcr-6. COST = 1 ß l ( 1 cosa)
- -
(5-6)

REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS
% vertical reinforcement
compression Pct=areo of vertical

zone rein forcem ent
per unit length
r ( c o s p - c o s a ) = f y r(1-cos a )
EmEs
Ern=( l + c o s aa) x0.07 .. c o s p = c o s a +(I-cos a) fy

-
Em Es
10.003 in./in.
7
r(I-cos a) - - l+cos a
cos 7=1-81 (I-cos

compression zone
\
I L
r, t fY
L \
.4
r(l-cos P,) tension

I
zone 4
Fig. 5.5.1(a)-Stress diagram.
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PLAN
TWO SYMMETRIC OPENINGS PARTLY IN
TWO OPENINGS IN COMPRESSION ZONE
COMPRESSION ZONE
(Dimensions not shown same as Fig 5.5.la) (Dimensions not shown same as Fig. 5.5.1~1)
Fig. 5.5.1(c)-Two symmetric openings partly in

Fig. 5.5.1@)-Two openings in compression zone. compression zone.

For a > 35 deg
Q = 0.89 (5-12f)
where
M, = nominal moment strength of section
where
2
a = one-half the central angle subtended (y,- y)( 1 + 2cos a )
by neutral axis + (1/2)(4sin2a+ sin2y- sin2y)
ß = one-half opening angle - 4cosa( sina + s k y , - shy)
Q2 = (5-13)
ß, = 0.85 forf,’ 5 4000 psi (1 - cosa)
-
0.85 0.05~,’ 4000)/1000 2 0.65,
- -
forf,‘ > 4000 psi K = siny, + siny + (7c -y,- y) cosa (5-14)
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
K, = Es I&
R = sin^ (T nip) cosa
cor = Pr&lf,’
- - -
(n112)[sin (y + ß) sin(y- ß)]-

(5- 15a)
Pr = ratio of total vertical reinforcement
to total area of concrete y = ‘I2 angle between center lines of two openings
n, = number of openings entirely in compression zone and for no openings, n, = y = ß = O; for one
(maximum 2) opening in compression zone, n l = 1, y = O;
for two openings in compression zone, nl = 2
E, = 0.07( 1 - cosa)/( 1 + cosa) 5 0.003 (5-9) 5.5.2 Two symmetric openingspartly in compression zone-
. , This condition exists when y + ß > T
Refer to Fig. 5.5. i (c).
M,IPur = K3 = cosa + K21Kl, :. M, = PurK3 (5-10) and y- ß < T. For this case, let 6 = y- ß. Then in I;.q <S-:?.’i,
h=6.
K2 = 1.7QR + E,K,o~Q~+ 2otK (5-1 1) And in Eq. (5-1 1)
For a 5 5 deg R = sin6 6cosa - (5- 15b)
Q = (-0.523 + 0.181a- 0.0154a2) 5.5.3 Openings in tension zone-Openings in the ten-

(5- 12a) sion zone are ignored since the tensile strength of the con-
+ (41.3 - 1 3 . 2 +~ 1.32a2)(t/r)
~ crete is neglected and the bars cut by the openings are
replaced at the sides of the openings.
For 5 deg < a 5 10 deg 5.5.4 Openings in compression zone-In calculations of
the forces in the compression reinforcement only, openings
Q = (- 0.154 + 0.01773a + 0.00249a2) in the compression zone are ignored since the cut bars are re-
(5-12b) placed at the sides of the openings.
+ (16.42 1 . 9 8 0 +~ 0.0674a2)(t/r)
- ~ 5.5.5 Limitation-The one-half opening angle ß shall not
exceed 30 deg.
For 10 deg < a 5 17 deg 5.5.6 calculation procedure-Given r, t,f,’, ß, y, Pu,Mu,
and the number of openings (where Puand Mu are the fac-
Q = (-0.488 + 0 . 0 7 6 ~ +
~ )(9.758 0.640a)(t Ir) - (5-12c) tored vertical load and the factored moment, respectively),
use the following procedure:
For 17 deg < a 5 25 deg
Step 1. Assume a value for the total vertical steel ratio pr.
Step 2. By trial and error, find the value of a that
Q = (- 1.345 + 0 . 2 0 1 8 ~ ~0 . 0 0 4 4 3 4 ~ ~ ~ )
-
(5-12d) satisfies Eq. (5-2).

+ (15.83 - 1.676+
~ ~0.03994a2)(t/r) Step 3. Substitute this value of a in Eq. (5-10)
and calculate M,.
For 25 deg < a 5 35 deg
Step 4. If @Vin <Mu,increase pr; if @Vin > Mu, decrease pr.
Q = (0.993 0.00258a) + (-3.27
- + 0.0862a)(t Ir) (5-12e) Step 5. Repeat Step 2 through Step 4 until @Vin = Mu.

307-12
5.5.7 For load combinations with temperature effects,

modifjfy andf,’using Eq. (5-16a) and (5-17a).
Replacef, with
Replacef,’ with
1.4
-( f S T V - Ylf ”STV)
1 +Yi
MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
(5-16a)
0 . w -
m
R
j;
r,
f,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
b E,
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Strain I
0.002 0.003
Strain
where yl, fSw, f ’&v, and f ’& are as defined in Chapter 6.
5.6-Noncircular shapes f,= 0.85f,’ (1000&, - 250,000) :&

5.6.1 General-All applicable sections of this Standard
shall be followed, including horizontal bending and temper-
ature effects.
f,= 850f,‘ e, (1 - 250 e,)
I
5.6.2 Design assumptions-Strain in reinforcement and
0.001
concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to the
f,= 0.85f,‘ (1 - 150&,+ 0.30)
distance from the neutral axis.
For vertical strength, the maximum strain in the concrete is f,= 0.85f,‘(1.30 - 150&,)
assumed to be 0.003 and the maximum strain in the steel is
assumed to be 0.07. Whichever value is reached first shall be
taken as the limiting value. Fig. 5.6-Stress-strain curvefor concrete.
Stress in reinforcement below the specified yield strength
& for grade of reinforcement used shall be taken as E, times Replacef, with&’(c) =4 - 1.O~&TC (5-16b)
steel strain. For strains greater than that corresponding to&,
stress in reinforcement shall be assumed equal to&. Replacef,’ withf,”(c) =f,’- 1.o5f ’& (5-17b)
Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected.
Relationship of concrete compressive stress and concrete
strain shall be assumed in accordance with stress-strain curve
where&, and f crc are as defiied in Chapter 6.
as shown in Fig. 5.6.
5.6.3 Calculation procedure-For a given geometry and CHAPTER 6-THERMAL STRESSES
given Pu and Mu (where Pu is the factored vertical load and 6.1-General
Mu is the factored moment), use the following procedure: 6.1.1 The equations for temperature stresses given in this
Step 1. Assume a value for the total vertical steel ratio pr. chapter are based on working stress procedures and shall be
Step 2. By trial and error, find the location of the neutral considered in the calculation of the nominal moment
strength in <;;,.-.r,i.,.,. ..,.
.<
.>C..,>L,.>
axis which makes the total vertical force in the sec-
tion equal and opposite to Pu.
6.2-Vertical tem perature stresses
Step 3. With this location of the neutral axis, calculate M,, 6.2.1 The maximum vertical stresses in the concrete and
the nominal moment strength of the section. steel, in psi, occurring at the inside of the chimney shell due
Step 4. If @Mn< Mu, increase pr. to temperature f cTv
and f Srv,respectively, shall be com-
puted by Eq. (6-la) and (6-lb)
If @Mn Mu, decrease pr.
Step 5. Repeat Step 2 through Step 5 until @Mn= Mu.
5.6.4 Horizontal bending-Design for horizontal bending

shall comply with the requirements of Section 5.7.
where
5.7-Design for circumferential bending ate = thermal coefficient of expansion of concrete and
5.7.1 Any horizontal strip of the concrete column shall be of reinforcing steel, to be taken as 0.0000065 per
designed as a horizontal beam resisting circumferential F
bending moments as given in Seci io:: .:i 3 4 and thermal ef- E, = modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi
fects described in Sec,riori6.3. c = -Pn(Y1+ 1) +
5.7.2 For loads combined with temperature effects, modifj
& andf,’using Eq. (5-16b) and (5-17b).
p = ratio of total area of vertical outside face T, = maximum specified design temperature of gas
reinforcement to total area of concrete chimney inside chimney, F
shell at section under consideration To = minimum temperature of outside air surrounding
yi = ratio of inside face vertical reinforcement area chimney, F
to outside face vertical reinforcement area C, = coefficient of thermal conductivity of the concrete
y2 = ratio of distance between inner surface of of chimney shell, Bhufi2/in. of thickness/hr/F
chimney shell and center line of outer face difference in temperature (12 for normal weight
vertical reinforcement to total shell thickness concrete)
n = EJE, c
b = coefficient of thermal conductivity of chimney
uninsulated lining or insulation around steel liner,
T,, the temperature gradient across the concrete shell, shall Bhuft2/in. of thickness/hr/F difference in
be computed by Eq. (6-3a), (6-3b), (6-3c), (6-3d), or by a temperature
complete heat balance study for all operating conditions. C, = coefficient of thermal conductivity of insulation
filling in space between lining and shell, Btw'ft2/in.
a) For unlined chimneys
of thickness/hr/F difference in temperature
(3 for lightweight concrete)
Ti To~
Ki = coefficient of heat transmission from gas to inner
(6-3a) surface of chimney lining when chimney is lined,
or to inner surface of chimney shell when chimney
is unlined, Btu/ft2/hr/F difference in temperature
KO = coefficient of heat transmission from outside
surface of chimney shell to surrounding air,
b) For lined chimneys with insulation completely filling Bhuft2/hr/F difference in temperature
the space between the lining and shell
r
K, = coefficient of heat transfer by radiation
between outside surface of lining and inside
T, =
tdbi
-
l+-+Sb2+-+-
\Ki '
Ti To
tbdbi t d . tdbi
Cbdb ' C,d,
~
'
dbi1
Cede ' KodcoJ
(6-3b)
K, =
surface of concrete chimney shell, Bhuft2/hr/F
difference in temperature
coefficient of heat transfer between outside surface
of lining, and inside surface of shell for chimneys
with ventilated air spaces, Bhufi2/hr/F difference
in temperature
c) For lined chimneys with unventilated air space between
dbi = inside diameter of uninsulated lining or insulation
the lining and shell
around liner, ft
db = mean diameter of uninsulated lining or insulation
around liner, ft
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
d, = mean diameter of space between lining and shell, ft

dei = inside diameter of concrete chimney shell, fi
d, = mean diameter of concrete chimney shell, ft
d,, = outside diameter of concrete chimney shell, ft
d) For lined chimneys with a ventilated air space between
the lining and shell 6.2.2 Unless complete heat balance studies are made for
the particular chimney, it is permissible to use the approxi-
f 1 mate values given below. These constants when entered into
tdbi Ti To
~ equations for temperature differential through the chimney
- (6-3d)
T, = shell T, will give values of accuracy in keeping with the
+- dbi +-+-
tdbi dbi
basic design assumptions.
rqKi rqCbdb K ~ d ~
rq = 0.5
where c, = 12
C, = to be obtained from the manufacturer of the
rq = ratio of heat transmission through chimney shell
materials used
to heat transmission through lining for chimneys
with ventilated air spaces c
b = to be obtained from the manufacturer of the
materials used
t = thickness of concrete shell, in.
= Ki = to be determined from curves in Fig. 6.2.2
t, thickness of air space or insulation filling the space
between the lining and shell, in. KO = 12
tb = thickness of uninsulated lining or insulation K, = T,/120
around steel liner, in. K, = T,/150

40
36
32
28
24
c
2
:: 2 0
W
u
O
Flue gas film coefficients

Fig. 6.2.2-Curves f o r determining Ki.
The value of rq = 0.5 shall apply only where the distance f Crc = a,, c’ T, E, (6-5)
between the lining and the chimney shell is not less than 4 in.
throughout the entire height of the lining and air inlet and where
outlet openings are provided at the bottom and top of the cf =
chimney shell. The area of the inlet and outlet openings in

square feet shall numerically equal two-thirds the inside
diameter in feet of the chimney shell at the top of the lining.
Local obstructions in the air space between the lining and the
chimney shell shall not restrict the area of the air space at any
horizontal section to less than that specified for air inlet or
and
outlet.
6.2.3 The maximum stress in the vertical steelATvin psi, T, = value determined for vertical temperature stresses
occurring at the outside face of the chimney shell due to p‘ = ratio of cross-sectional area of circumferential
temperature, shall be computed by Eq. (6-4) outside face reinforcing steel per unit of height to
cross-sectional area of chimney shell per unit of
height
fSTV = a,, (Y2 - cl T, E, (6-4)
y,’
.. = ratio of inside face circumferential reinforcing
steel area to outside circumferential reinforcing
where
steel area
E, = modulus of elasticity of the reinforcement, psi ;y = ratio of distance between inner surface of chimney
shell and circumferential outside face reiriforcing
6.3-Ci rcumferential temperature stresses steel to total thickness t
6.3.1 The maximum circumferential stress in psi in the
concrete due to temperaturef’LTC occurring at the inside of All other notations are the same as for vertical teniperature
the chimney shell shall be computed by Eq. (6-5) stresses.
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

6.3.2 The maximum stress in psi in the outside circumfer- d(u) = mean outside diameter of upper third
ential reinforcementfsTc due to temperature shall be comput- of chimney, ft (Chapter 4)
ed by Eq. (6-7) d(z) = outside diameter of chimney at height z , ft
(Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4)
outside diameter of chimney at critical height
zcr, ft (Chapter 4)
APPENDIX A-N OTATION
A, = area of reinforcing steel at top and bottom of D = dead load (Clqxer. ::1 ’~
opening, in.2 cc::h<ts:erdi-)

E = earthquake loads or forces (Chapter 5 )
B = band width parameter (Chapter 4) E, = modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (Chapter
C = ratio of distance from extreme compression 6)
fiber to neutral axis for vertical stresses to total modulus of elasticity of concrete, kip/ft2
thickness t (Cb;qi<:r i:)
(Chapter 4)
C’ = c for circumferential stresses (Chapter 6) E, = modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, psi
c
b = coefficient of thermal conductivity of chimney (Chapters 5 and 6)
uninsulated lining or insulation around steel EPV = effective peak velocity (Commentary Chapter 4)
liner, Btw‘ft2/in.of thickness/hr/F difference
in temperature (Chapter 6) f = frequency, Hz (Chapter 4)
C, = coefficient of thermal conductivity of concrete f,’ = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi
of chimney shell, BhuR2/in. of thickness/hr/F (Chapter 4)
difference in temperature f,’ modified for temperature effects,
(12 for normal weight concrete) (Chapter 6) circumferential, psi (Chapter 5 )
Cdr = drag coefficient for along-wind load f,’ modified for temperature effects, vertical, psi
f,”(v> =
(Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4) (Chapter 5 )
CE = end effect factor (Chapter 4) maximum circumferential stress in concrete due
to temperature at inside of chimney shell, psi
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
C, = rms lift coefficient (Chapter 4)

(Chapters 5 and 6)
C, = rms lift coefficient modified for local turbulence
(Chapter 4) maximum vertical stress in concrete at inside of
chimney shell due to temperature, psi
C, = coefficient of thermal conductivity of insulation
(Chapters 5 and 6)
filling in space between lining and shell,
Btu/ft2/in. of thickness/hr/F difference maximum stress in outside circumferential
in temperature (3 for lightweight concrete) reinforcement due to temperature, psi
(Chapter 6) (Chapters 5 and 6)
d = diameter of chimney (Commentary Chapter 4) fsrv = maximum stress in outside vertical
db = mean diameter of uninsulated lining or reinforcement due to temperature, psi (Chapters
5 and 6)
insulation around liner, ft (Chapter 6)
fSTV = maximum stress in inside vertical reinforcement
dbi = inside diameter of uninsulated lining or
due to temperature, psi (Chapters 5 and 6)
insulation around liner, ft (Chapter 6)
f y = specified yield strength of reinforcing steel, psi
d, = mean diameter of concrete chimney shell, ft
(Chapters 4 and 5 )
(Chanter 6)
dei = inside diameter of concrete chimney shell, ft
fy modified for temperature effects,
circumferential, psi (Chapter 5 )
(Chapter 6)
d,, = outside diameter of concrete chimney shell, ft
f y modified for temperature effects, vertical, psi
’)
(<-’~[:;i;%et.
(Chapter 6)
d, = mean diameter of space between lining strouhal number parameter (Chapter 4)
and shell, ft (Chiiprer 6) lift coefficient parameter (Chapter 4)
d(b) = bottom outside diameter of chimney, ft acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/sec2
(Chapter 4) (Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4)
-
d(b) = mean diameter at bottom of chimney, ft G = across-wind peaking factor (Chapter 4)
(Chapter 4) Gr(z) = gust factor for radial wind pressure at height z
d(h) = top outside diameter of chimney, ft (Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4)
(Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4) gust factor for along-wind fluctuating load
-
d(h) = mean diameter at top of chimney, ft ~C!x@.er2.) (Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4)

h = chimney height above ground level, fi M,.(z)= combined design moment at height z
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4) for across-wind and along-wind loads (Chapter 4)
z = local turbulence parameter (Chapter 4) n = modular ratio of elasticity EJE, (Chapter 6)
I = importance factor for wind design in Chapter 4 ni = number of openings entirely in compression zone
and ASCE 7 (Chapter 5 )
k = ratio of wind speed (qto critical wind speed (V,,) pressure due to mean hourly design wind speed
at height z, lb/fi2 (Chapter 4)
ku = aerodynamic damping parameter (Chapter 4)
radial wind pressure at height z , lb/ft2
kuo = mass damping parameter of small amplitudes (Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4)
~;-;>..$>,+.
B C.:^,,..' i.)
Per = pressure due to wind at critical speed (Chapter 4)
k, = equivalent sand-grained surface roughness factor
(Commentary Chapter 4) Pu = factored vertical load (Chapter 5 )
K = parameter for nominal moment strength Q = stress level correction parameter

(Chapter 5 and Commentary Chapter 5 )
in Chapter 5 or horizontal force factor
for earthquake design in Commentary
Introduction parameters for nominal moment strength
K, = E,/& (Chapter 5 ) (<,:hL>qqy5)
Ki = coefficient of heat transmission from gas to inner r = average radius of section (Chapter 5 )
surface of chimney lining when chimney is lined, rq
-
-
ratio of heat transmission through chimney shell
or to inner surface of chimney shell when chimney to heat transmission through lining for chimneys
is unlined, Btu/ft2/hr/F difference with ventilated air spaces (Chapter 6)
in temperature (Chapter 6)
r(z) = mean radius at height z, ft (Chapter 4)
KO = coefficient of heat transmission from outside R = parameter for nominal moment strength
surface of chimney shell to surrounding air, (Chapter 5 )
Btu/ft2/hr/F difference in temperature (Ciiapi.~5)
s = center-to-center spacing of chimneys, ft
K,. = coefficient of heat transfer by radiation between (Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4)
outside surface of lining and inside surface of
concrete chimney shell, Bhuft2/hr/F difference in sp = spectral parameter (Chapter 4)
temperature (Chapter 6) s, = mode shape factor (Chapter 4)
K, = coefficient of heat transfer between outside s, = strouhal number (Chapter 4)
surface of lining and inside surface of shell for t = thickness of concrete shell (Chapters 5 and 6)
chimneys with ventilated air spaces,
Btu/ft2/hr/F difference in temperature (Chapter 6) tb = thickness of uninsulated lining or insulation
around steel liner, in. (Chapter 6)
t.7 = thickness of air space or insulation filling the
parameters for nominal moment strength (Chapter space between lining and shell, in. (Chapter 6)
5)
t(b) = thickness of concrete shell at bottom, fi
1 = width of opening in concrete chimney shell, in. (Chapter 4)
(Chapter 4)
t(h) = thickness of concrete shell at top, ft (Chapter 4)
length coefficient (Chapter 4) T = normal temperature effect (Chapter 6)
moment induced at height z by across-wind loads, T , = maximum specified design temperature
ft-lb (Chapter 4) of gas inside chimney, F (Chapter 6)
Mi(.)= maximum circumferential bending moment due to To = minimum temperature of outside air
radial wind pressure, at height z, tension on inside, surrounding chimney, F (Chapter 6)
ft-lb/R (Chapter 4)
T, = temperature drop across concrete shell
moment induced at height z by mean along-wind (Chapter 6)
load, ft-lb (Chapter 4)
Ti = fundamental period of vibration for unlined shell,
nominal moment strength at section (Chapter 5 ) sec per cycle (Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter
maximum circumferential bending moment due to 4)
radial wind pressure, at height z, tension on T2 = second mode period of vibration for unlined shell,
outside, ft-lb/ft (Chapter 4) sec per cycle (Chapter 4 and
Mu = factored moment at section (Chapter 5 ) Commentary Chapter 4)
M;(b)= bending moment at base due to mean along-wind u, = required circumferential strength (Chapter 5 )
load, ft-lb (Chapter 4) u,,= required vertical strength (Chapter 5 )

v = basic wind speed, mph (ASCE 7 and Chapter 4) Pa = aerodynamic damping factor (Chapter 4)
ver = critical wind speed for across-wind loads, ßs = fraction of critical damping for across-wind
corresponding to fundamental mode R/sec load (Chapter 4)
(Chapter 4)
PI factor defined in Section 10.2.7.3of AC1 3 18
critical wind speed for across-wind loads (Chapter 6)
corresponding to second mode
v, = V(1°.5), mph (Chapter 4) on chimney cross section, one-half central angle
- subtended by the center lines of two openings
v = mean hourly wind speed at 5/6h varying (Chapter 5)
over a range of 0.50and 1.30v(z,,), R/sec
- d(h)/d(b)(Chapter 4)
V(h) = mean hourly wind speed at top of chimney, ft/ Yd =
sec (Chapter 4) Yi = ratio of inside face vertical reinforcement area

- &k:>-y;:er i)
V(z) = mean hourly design wind speed at height z, ft/
sec <( b,\;yL-;*.i) ratio of distance between inner surface of
Y2 =
mean hourly design wind speed at 5/6h,R/sec chimney shell and outside face vertical
(Chapter 4) reinforcement to total shell thickness (Chapter
-
V(33) = mean hourly wind speed at a height 6)
of 33 ft, R/sec (Chapter 4) Yif = ratio of inside face circumferential
w(z) = total along-wind load per unit length at height z, reinforcement area to outside face
lb/ft (Chapter 4) circumferential reinforcement area (Chapter 6)
-
w(z) = mean along-wind load per unit length at height Y; = ratio of distance between inner surface of
z, lb/ft (Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4) chimney shell and outside face circumferential
wf(h) = fluctuating along-wind load per unit length reinforcement to total shell thickness (Chapter
at top of chimney, lb/ft (Commentary Chapter 6)
4) y- ß for two symmetric openings partly
wf(z) = fluctuating along-wind load per unit length in compression zone (Ckapit-t.5)
at height z,lb/ft (Chapter 4)
maximum concrete compressive strain
across-wind load per unit length at top (Chapter 5 and Commentary Chapter 5)
of chimney, lb/ft (Chapter 4)
7 - niß (Chapter 5)
across-wind load per unit length at height z,lb/
ft (Chapter 4) p +w - 7c (radians) (Chapter 5)
wt(u) = average weight per unit length for top third of
chimney, lb/ft (Chapter 4)
angles shown on Fig. 5.5.1(a)(Chapter 5)
mean along-wind load per unit length as given
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
by Eq. (4-27), lb/ft (Chapter 4) 3.1416 (Chapter 5)

wind load (Chapter 5) ratio of area of vertical outside face
maximum lateral deflection of top of chimney, reinforcement to total area of concrete shell
in. (Chapter 4) (Chapter 6)
height above ground, ft ratio of area of circumferential outside face
(Chapter 4 and Commentary Chapter 4) reinforcement per unit of height to total area
height corresponding to Ver(Chapter 4) of concrete shell per unit of height (Chapter 6)
exposure length factor (Chapter 4) Pa = specific weight of air, 0.075lb/ft3 (Chapter 4)
on chimney cross section, one-half Pck = mass density of concrete, kip-sec2/ft4(Chapter
the central angle subtended by neutral axis 4)
(Chapter 5 and Commentary Chapter 5)
Pt = ratio of total area of vertical reinforcement
thermal coefficient of expansion of concrete to total area of concrete shell cross section
and of reinforcing steel, 0.0000065per F (Chapter 5)
(Chapter 6)
strength reduction factor
ß = on the chimney cross section, one-half (Chapter 5 and Commentary Chapter 5)
central angle subtended by an opening
(Chapter 5 and Commentary Chapter 5) P t f , /Lf(Chapter 5)

~
S T D - A C 1 307R-ENGL L778 Obb2747 0593329 924
AC1 307R-98
Commentary on Standard Practice for the Design
and Construction of Reinforced Concrete
Chimneys (AC1 307-98)
Reported by AC1 Committee 307
Victor A. Bochicchio
Chairman
David J. Bird Thomas Joseph Wadi S. Rumman

John J . Carty Jagadish R. Joshi Randolph W. Snook
Brian Cooley Erick N. Larson John C. Sowizal
Phillip B. Davidson Robert A. Porthouse Barry J. Vickery
Shu-Jin Fang Ronald E. Purkey Chung-Yee John Wei
Milton Hartstein Scott D. Richart Edward L.Yordy
This commenton discusses some of the hockgmunà and consideration of Chapter 2-Materials, p. 307R-3
Committee 307 in developing rhe provisions contained in “Standard Prac-
tice for the Design ond Construction of Reinforced Concrete Chimnem
Chapter 3-Construction requirements, p. 307R-3
(AC1 307-98).” The changes .from the previous edition are noted. Two
3.3-Strength tests
oppendices provide the derivation of the equations for nominal strength
and temperature stresses.
3.GForms
3.5-Reinforcing placement
Keywords: chimneys; compressive strength; concrete construction;earth-
quake-resistant structures; formwork (construction); foundations: high Chapter 4-Service loads and general design
temperature; linings; loads (forces); moments; openings; precast concrete; criteria, p. 307R-4
quality control; reinforced concrete; reinforcing steels; specifications; 4. l-General
static loads; strength; structural analysis; structural design; temperature; 4.2-Wind loads
thermal gradient: wind pressure. 4.3-Earthquake loads
4.5-Deflection criteria
CONTENTS
Chapter +Design of chimney shell-Strength
Introduction, p. 307R-2 method, p. 307R-7
5.1-General
Chapter l-General, p. 307R-3 5.4-Design strength
1. I-Scope
5.5-Nominal moment strength
5.6-Design for circumferential bending
1 .&Reference standards
Chapter 6-Thermal stresses, p. 307R-9
AC1 Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and 6. i -General
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Commentaries are intended for guidance in planning, de- 6.2-Vertical temperature stresses
signing, executing, and inspecting construction. This doc-
ument is intended for the use of individuals who are Appendix A-Derivation of equations for nominal
competent to evaluate the significance and limitations strength, p. 307R-9
of its content and recommendations and who will accept
responsibility for the application of the material it con- Appendix B-Derivation of equations for
temperature stresses, p. 307R-13
tains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and
all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall Appendix C-References, p. 307R-14
not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract
AC1 30713-98 supercedes AC1 307R-95and became effective Novemher I , 1998.
documents. If items found in this document are desired Copyright O 1998, American Concrete Institute.
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
by the Architecangineer to be a part of the contract doc- means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or
uments, they shall be restated in mandatory language for mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduc-
tion or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device. unless permission in
incorporation by the ArchitectfEngineer. writing is oblained from the copyright proprietors.
307R-1
307R-2 AC1 COMMITTEE REPORT
INTRODUCTION the difficulty of selecting the proper safety and serviceability

As industry expanded in the years immediately following levels that might be desirable for various classes of constmc-
World War I and as a result of the development of large pul- tion. Committee investigations revealed that with some of
verized coal-fired boilers for the electric power generating the modifications (such as the K factor), the base shear equa-
utilities in the 1920s, a number of rather large reinforced tions developed by the Seismology Committee of the Struc-
concrete chimneys were constructed to accommodate these tural Engineers’ Association of California (SEAOC) could
new facilities. A group of interested engineers who foresaw be applied to chimneys. Similarly, the shape of the force,
the potential need for many more such chimneys and who shear, and moment distributions, as revised in their 1967 re-
were members of the American Concrete Institute decided to port, were also suitable for chimneys. A use factor (üfactor)
embark upon an effort to develop a rational design criteria ranging from 1.3 to 2.0 was introduced in the specification
for these structures. The group was organized into AC1 Com- and it was emphasized that the requirements of Section 4.5
mittee 505 (this committee was the predecessor of the of AC1 307-69 relating to seismic design could be supersed-
present Committee 307) to develop such criteria in the early ed by a rational analysis based on evaluation of the seismic-
1930s. ity of the site and modal response calculations. The
Committee 505 submitted to the Institute a “Proposed modifications were approyed in 1969 and the specification
Standard Specification for the Design and Construction of was designated AC1 307-69. In that specification, the com-
Reinforced Concrete Chimneys,” an outline of which was mentary and derivation of equations were published sepa-
published in the AC1 JOURNAL,Proceedings V. 30, Mar.- rately as a supplement to AC1 307-69.
Apr. 1934. This specification was adopted as a tentative In 1970, the specification was reissued with corrections of
standard in February 1936. Although this tentative standard typographical errors. This issue of AC1 307-69 was also des-
was never accepted by AC1 as a regular standard, it was used
ignated ANSI A158.1-1970. At the time, as a result of nu-
as the basis for the design of many chimneys. As these chim-
merous requests, the commentary and derivation of
neys aged, inspections revealed considerable cracking.
equations were bound together with the specification.
When the industrial expansion began following World War
II, other engineers recognized the need for developing an im- The 1979,revision of the specification updated its require-
proved design specification for reinforced chimneys. ments to agree with the then-accepted standard practice in
In May 1949, Committee 505 was reactivated to revise the the design and construction of reinforced concrete chimneys.
tentative standard specification, embodying modifications The major changes included the requirement that two layers
that were found desirable during the years it had been in use. of reinforcing steel be used in the walls of all chimneys (pre-
The section dealing with the temperature gradient through viously this only applied to chimney walls thicker than 18
the chimney lining and the chimney shell was completely rein.) and the requirement that horizontal sections through the
vised and extended to cover different types and thicknesses chimney wall be designed for the radial wind pressure distri-
of linings and both unventilated and ventilated air spaces be- bution around the chimney. Formulas were included to com-
tween the lining and the concrete shell. In 1954, this specifi- pute the stresses under these conditions. Many revisions of a
cation was approved as AC1 505-54. less important nature were included to bring the specification
The rapid increase in the size and height of concrete chim- up to date.
neys being built in the mid-1950s raised further questions The editions of the specifications prior to 1979 included
about the adequacy of the 1954 version of the specification, appendices on the subjects of chimney linings and accesso-
especially as related to earthquake forces and the effects of ries. In 1971, Committee 307 learned of buckling problems
wind. in steel chimney liners. The Committee also noted that in
In May 1959, the AC1 Board of Direction again reactivat- modem power plant and process chimneys, environmental
ed Committee 505 (Committee 307) to review the standard regulations required treatment of the effluent gases that
and to update portions of the specification in line with the lat- could result in extremely variable and aggressively corrosive
est design techniques and the then-current knowledge of the conditions in the chimneys. In view of these facts, the Com-
mittee agreed that the task of keeping the chimney liner rec-
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
severity of the operating conditions that prevailed in large

steam plants. The material in the standard was reorganized, ommendations current was not a responsibility of an AC1
charts were added, and the methods for determining loads committee and could be misleading to designers using the
due to wind and earthquakes were revised. The information chimney specification. It was the consensus of the Commit-
on design and construction of various types of linings was tee that the reference to chimney liner construction be
amplified and incorporated in an appendix. That specifica- dropped from future editions of the specification. Recogniz-
tion included criteria for working stress design. It was ing this, Committee 307 made a recommendation to the
planned to add ultimate strength criteria in a future revision Brick Manufacturers’ Association and the American Society
of this standard. of Civil Engineers that each appoint a task force or a com-
In preparing the earthquake design recommendations, the mittee for the development of design criteria for brick and
Committee incorporated the results of theoretical studies by steel liners, respectively. The Power Division of ASCE took
adapting them to existing United States codes. The primary up the recommendation and appointed a task committee that
problems in this endeavor stemmed from the uncertainties developed and published in 1975 a design guide entitled,
still inherent in the definition of earthquake forces and from “Design and Construction of Steel Chimney Liners.” ASTM

~
S T D - A C 1 307R-ENGL 1 7 7 8 m Obb2749 05LI332b 7T7 m

REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS COMMENTARY 307R-3
established two task forces for chimney liners, one for brick The vertical load factor for along-wind forces has been
and the other for fiberglass reinforced plastic. reduced from 1 .7 to 1.3.
The Committee had extensive discussion on the question 0 The vertical load factor for seismic forces has been re-
of including strength design in the 1979 specification. The duced from 1.87 to 1.43.
decision to exclude it was based on the lack of experimental The load factor for across-wind forces has been re-
data on hollow concrete cylinders to substantiate this form of duced from i .40 to 1.20.
analysis for concrete chimneys. However, the Committee The vertical strength reduction factor $ has been re-
continued to consider strength design and encouraged duced from 0.80 to 0.70.
experiments in this area. It should be noted that the reduced load factors must be
Shortly after the 1979 edition was issued, the Committee used in concert with the revised strength reduction factor and
decided to incorporate strength design provisions and update the wind and seismic loads specified in ASCE 7-95.
the wind and earthquake design requirements. The foregoing revisions are discussed in more detail in the
The 1988 edition of AC1 307 incorporated significant following commentary.
changes in the procedures for calculating wind forces as well Finally, the Cornmittee believes that the AC1 307 standard is
as requiring strength design rather than working stress. The particularly unique in its inclusion of specific procedures to
effects of these and other revisions resulted in designs with calculate wind and seismic forces on chimneys. Consequently,
relatively thin walls governed mainly by steel area and, in the Committee feels that the previous Commentary regarding
many instances, across-wind forces. these subjects should be retained wherever possible.
The subject of across-wind loads dominated the attention Similarly, the Committee believes that the Commentary
of the Committee between 1988 and 1995 and the 1995 stan- regarding the assumptions and procedures for strength de-
dard introduced modified procedures to reflect more recent sign and other recent revisions should also be retained for
information and thinking. reference.
Precast chimney design and construction techniques were A chapter-by-chapter commentary follows.
introduced as this type of design became more prevalent for
chimneys as tall as 300 ft. CHAPTER I-GENERAL
The subject of noncircular shapes was also introduced in 1995. 1.1-scope
However, due to the virtually infinite array of possible configu- The scope of the 1995 standard was expanded to include
rations, only broadly defined procedures were presented. precast chimney shells. Additional information may be
Because of dissimilarities between the load factors re- found in K I manuals.’-*Wames3 provides further guide-
quired by the AC1 307 standard and AC1 3 18, the Committee lines on connection details for precast structures. Additional
information is given in AC1 SOR, “Design Recommenda-
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
added guidelines for determining bearing pressures and
loads to size and design chimney foundations. tions for Precast Concrete Structures.”
In summary, the following highlights the major changes
that were incorporated into the 1995 standard: 1.&Reference standards
The year of adoption or revision for the referenced stan-
Modified procedures for calculating across-wind loads; dards has been updated.
0 Added requirements for precast concrete chimney col-
umns; CHAPTER 2-MATERIALS
0 Added procedures for calculating loads and for design- No changes of note have been made in this section.
ing noncircular chimney columns;
Deleted exemptions previously granted to “smaller” chim- CHAPTER 3-CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS
neys regarding reinforcement and wall thickness; and 3.3-Strength tests
Requirements for testing precast concrete units were add-
Deleted static equivalent procedures for calculating
ed in the 1995 standard.
earthquake forces.
3.4-Forms
Synopsis of current revisions Shear transfer within precast concrete shells must be con-
Revisions to the ASCE 7-95 standard relating to wind and sidered in design especially if the structure has vertical as
seismic forces required that several changes be made to the well as horizontal construction joints.
1995 edition of AC1 307. The following highlights the
changes incorporated into the current standard: 3.5-Reinforcing placement
0 Site-specific wind loads are calculated using a “3-sec The size, spacing, and location of vertical cores within
gust” speed determined from Fig. 6- 1 in ASCE 7-95 in- precast concrete chimney shells will be determined by geom-
stead of the previously used “fastest-mile’’ speed. etry and steel area requirements. It is important that the de-
Site-specific earthquake forces are calculated using the sign of precast chimneys comply with the minimum spacing
effective peak velocity-related acceleration contours requirements of ACI 318 when arranging reinforcement
determined from Contour Map 9-2 in ASCE 7-95 in- within the cores to permit proper bar splicing and concrete
stead of previously designated zonal intensity. placement.

307R-4
STD.ACI 307R-ENGL 1998
CHAPTER &SERVICE LOADS

- Ubb2947 0543327 b33
AC1 COIMITEE REPORT
~
The procedure was determined from simplified dynamic

AND GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA analyses that yield equivalent static load distributions. This
4.1-General approach requires that a wind speed averaged over a period
The 1995 Committee re-evaluated the previous exemp- on the order of 20 min to 1 hr be used as a basis for design.
tions regarding two-face reinforcement and minimum wail Eq. (4-1) permits the mean hourly speed at height z to be
thickness for chimneys 300 ft or less in height and less than determined from the basic design speed that is the “3-sec
20 ft in diameter. Recent information has indicated that two- gust” speed at 33 ft over open country. The conversion is
face circumferential reinforcement is necessary to minimize based on the relationship recommended by Hollister.’ The
vertical cracking due to radial wind pressures and reverse specified wind loads presume that the chimney is located in
thermal gradients due to the effects of solar heating. Reverse open country. In rougher terrains the overall loads will be re-
thermal gradients due to solar heating may be more pro- duced, but for a tall chimney (height on the order of 650 ft)
nounced when the air space between the column and lining the reduction is not likely to exceed 20 percent.
is purged by pressurization fans and gas temperatures are V, in Eq. (4-1) is the product of the square root of the im-
low. Further, the 1995 Committee believed that two-face re- portance factor I and V, the basic wind speed as charted and
inforcement should be required in all chimney columns, re- defined in ASCE 7-95. It should be noted that I can be used
gardless of size, considering the aggressive environment to vary probability, as well as to classify the importance of
surrounding chimneys. the structure. The Committee believes that all chimneys
4.13.1-A minimum wall thickness of 8 in. (7 in. if pre- should be designed to be part of an essential facility classi-
cast) is required to provide for proper concrete placement fied as a Category IV structure. The importance factor of
within and around two curtains of reinforcement. I . 15 for Category IV buildings and structures corresponds to
4.1.3.2-The 1995 Committee expressed concern re- a mean recurrence interval of 100 years. Additional informa-
garding edge buckling of relatively thin walls through re- tion can be found in ASCE 7-95.
gions where tall openings are present. The simplified The simplified provisions of this standard do not preclude
procedure given in this section will give approximately the the use of more detailed methods, and the results of a full dy-
same results as the procedures of Chapter 10.10 of AC1 3 18. namic analysis employing accepted approaches and recog-
If jamb buttresses are used, it is recommended that they be nizing the flow profile and turbulence levels at a specific site
poured homogeneously with the section or adequately tied to may be used in place of the standard provisions. The approx-
ensure composite action. imate methods have, however, been tested against more de-
4.1.7.2-Foundation design: The loading combinations tailed ‘analyses, using p r ~ b a b l i s t i c ~and
~ ~ deterministic’
in the 1995 version of this article have been deleted. The approaches. These methods yielded acceptable results.
psuedo-bearing pressure/pile loads shall be computed by 4.2.2 Along-wind loads-The recommended drag coeffi-
multiplying the unfactored dead and axial bending loads by cients are consistent with slender chimneys [h/d(h) > 201
their appropriate load factor from Sections 5.3.1 and 5.3.2. with a relative surface roughness on the order of IO4 to IO-’.
Some reduction in the drag coefficient C ,, with decreasing h/
4.2-Wind loads d(h) can be expected but unusually rough (e.g., ribbed) chim-
4.2.1 General-The basic wind speed V in the current neys would have higher values of C., The variations of C ,,
standard has been revised from “fastest-mile” to a “3-sec with roughness and aspect ratio are discussed by Basu’ and
gust” speed to reflect the changes published in ASCE 7-95. Vickery and Basu.”
Eq. (4-1) has been modified accordingly. In Eq. (4-1), 1.47 The total load per unit length is computed as the sum of
converts wind speed from mph to fdsec and 0.65 converts 3- the mean component &) and the fluctuating component
sec gust speed to a mean hourly speed. The revised power w’(z). The dynamic component was evaluated using a
law coefficient 0.154 (as an approximation of U6.5) comes slightly modified form of the “gust factor” approaches de-
from Table C6-6 in the Commentary to ASCE 7-95, for Ex- scribed by Davenport,” Vickery? and Simiu.’* The base
posure C and for flexible or dynamicaily sensitive structures; moment is evaluated using the gust factor approach but the
the increase in the exponent increases the calculated pres- loads producing this moment are approximated by a trian-
sures over the chimney height for the same speed. gular distribution rather than a distribution matching the
The “3-sec gust” speed is always higher than the previous- mean. Eq. (4-6) is a simple empirical fit to values of G,.
ly specified “fastest-mile” speed. A “fastest-mile” wind computed as before for a structural damping of 1.5 percent
speed may be converted to a “3-sec gust” speed for normal of critical. Except for referencing Vas the 3-sec gust speed,
speeds of interest in chimney design using the following no revisions have been made to the procedures for calculat-
equation ing along-wind loads.
The natural period of the chimney may include the effect
3-sec gust V = 1 .O546 (fastest mile V + 1 I .94) of foundation springs.
4.2.3Across-wind loads-No revisions have been made to
The relationship between 3-sec gust speed and any other the procedures for calculating across-wind forces. However,
averaging time can be found in texts such as Wind Efects on Eq. (4-8a) has been rewritten for simplification and several
Structures4 by Simiu and Scanlon. typographical errors were corrected.
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Table 4.2.3-Comparison of results: along- plus across-wind moments, 1988 versus 1995
procedures
Frequency,
Chimney I Height, ft I TOD, ft BOD, ft Tapers VI, mph h/d at 5/6h hz
6 I 485 I 47.67 53.50 3 85.0 10.17 0.485
13 500 52.17 52.17 1 76.8 9.58 0.428
7 534 51.09 61.55 1 74.9 10.1 1 0.591
8 545 33.00 55.00 1 85.6 14.86 0.432
9 613 73.00 73.00 1 74.9 8.40 0.406
12 978 7 1S O 114.58 3 74.9 13.68 0.295
2 275 28.00 28.00 1 85.6 9.82 0.752
4 375 20.00 32.00 1 85.6 17.05 0.529
Per ACi 307-88 Per AC1 307-95

- -
Chimney VC,, mPh v(zcr)y mph V ( t , > , mph V, mph ver, mPh k
6 78.9 93.9 93.3 88.3 77.8 1.135
13 76.2 84.0 83.5 83.5 76.3 1.o94
7 106.4 84.8 84.3 84.3 105.2 0.802
8 54.0 96.0 95.5 55.2 48.6 1.135
9 101.1 86.4 85.9 85.9 104.9 0.820
12 72.0 92.3 91.7 66.0 66.0 1 .o00
2 71.8 87.2 86.7 86.7 71.5 1.214
4 39.7 91.1 90.6 45.3 34.6 1.310
Per AC1 307-88, RMS com- Per AC1 307-95, RMS

bined along- and across- combined along- and Per AC1 307-88 and AC1
wind: Bs = 0.015; across-wind: Bs = 0.010; 307-95 along-wind only:
Chimney L F = 1.40 LF= 1.40 LF = 1.70
6 270,600 209,200 160.900
13 283,500 224,l 00 148,000
7 447,800 238,100 165,100
8 117,500 79,400 161,200
9 97 1,700 459,l 00 320,700
12 1,475,800 977,400 865,300
2 39,800 34,100 28,600
4 16,500 11,600 43,800
The 1995 Committee had numerous user comments and Circular chimneys outside the bounds of these procedures,
I
discussions regarding the procedures included in the 1988 or where a flare or strong taper (nozzle) exists for more than
standard for across-wind forces. Virtually all of the com- one diameter near the top, may be conservatively analyzed
mentators felt that the 1988 procedures were unduly conser- using the procedures of Section 4.2.3.3 of AC1 307-88 or by
vative, especially in the absence of any record of structural the general approach put forth by Vi~kery.'~
failure. As a result of these discussions, and with the avail- It should be noted, however, that the procedures for deter-
ability of new data and full-scale observations, the proce- mining shedding forces are not materially affected by the
dures for calculating across-wind loads were extensively configuration of the lower third of the shell, which may
revised. range from plumb to any degree of taper.
A general solution for the across-wind response of circular However, it should also be noted that noncircular shapes
chimneys with any geometry was developed by V i ~ k e r y . ' ~ may be more sensitive to across-wind forces and may require
These procedures, based on Vickery's general solution, were analyses beyond the scope of this standard.
simplified to some extent, which requires that their applica- Eq. (4- 16) establishes a basis for increasing structural
tion be restricted to certain geometries. Similar models have damping from a minimum of 1.O percent to a maximum of 4.0
provided the basis for vortex-induced forces incorporated by percent when the wind speed exceeds vStructural v(zc,).
the National Building Code of Canada, and the ASMWANSI damping of 1 percent of critical is consistent with measured
STS-i - 1993 Steel Stack Standard. values and moderate stress levels with little cracking.Damping
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D - A C 1 307R-ENGL 1998 D Obb29Li9 05Li3329 LiOb R
of 4.0 percent, which would be permitted when = 1.30 4.3-Earthquake loads

- 4.3.1-The seismic intensity for any site within the United
V(z,,), is more consistent with damping values permitted in
seismic design. States had previously been determined by the zonal map
shown in Fig. 14 and 15 of ASCE 7-88. ASCE 7-95 no long-
Eight sample chimneys were studied using the 1988 pro-
er references earthquake zones. Site-specific seismic intensi-
cedures and the 1995 procedures. Fatigue damage was also
ty will now be established using the effective peak velocity-
considered using the procedures put forth by Vickery.I3 It
related (EPV)acceleration contours A,, as shown on Contour
was concluded that a case-by-case analysis of fatigue in cir-
Map 9-2 in ASCE 7-95.
cular chimneys that would require a supplemental working
EPV-related acceleration is used because frequencies of
stress analysis was not necessary, as fatigue stresses in the
concrete chimney shells are generally lower than about 3 Hz,
sample chimneys were within acceptable limits. and velocity-related acceleration controls the response.
Results using the 1988 and the 1995 procedures are compared Table 4.3.2(b) has been revised to reflect the changes nec-
in Table 4.2.3. These chimneys were selected from a group of essary to relate scaling ratios to acceleration contours. Al-
projects where the aspect ratio hld is at or near 10, where peak though the probability of seismic acceleration not being
excitation is normally found. Note that for Chimneys 7 and 9 the exceeded has been revised from 80 to 90 percent, the re-
critical wind speed exceeds the design wind speed, permitting sponse spectrum shown in Fig. 4.3.2 has not been changed,
modification of both damping [Eq. (4-16)1 and Ma [Eq. (4-8a)L since it is comparable to that given in the 1994 UBC for rock
which significantly reduces the base moments. and stiff (firm) soils.
4.2.3.4 Grouped chimneys-Interactions between closely The design response spectrum provided in the standard is
spaced cylindrical objects have been studied in considerable an average elastic response spectrum, normalized for a peak
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
detail but virtually all the test results are for subcritical val- horizontal ground acceleration of 1.O0with 5 percent of crit-
ues of Reynolds Numbers and their applicability to chimneys ical damping. It represents a spectrum of 50 percent shape-
is highly questionable. However, even with the scale effects bound probability level that the response of the structure dur-
introduced by the inequality of the Reynolds Number, the ing an earthquake would not exceed. It i s the same spectrum
wind tunnel is presently the only tool that will provide guid- that has been adopted for use in the design of steel chimney
ance as to the likely magnitude of interference effects. A re- liners for earthquakes by the Task Committee of the American
view of interference effects is given by Zdravk~kvich.’~ Society of Civil Engineers.*’ To obtain the design response
Vickery13 attributes the amplification of shedding forces to spectrum, the normalized spectrum must be scaled down to
increased turbulence and additional buffeting effects, which the effective peak velocity EPV related ground acceleration.
formed the basis for revisions made to this section. The ASCE 7-95 map for the EPV-related acceleration co-
At center-to-center spacings s, in excess of 2 to 3 diame- efficient is used in this standard. This map differs from those
ters, the prime interference effect is related to across-wind used in the Uniform Building Code, which was based on the
excitation due to shedding. The recommendations in Section maximum recorded intensity of shaking without regard to
4.2.3.4 are based on the results of Vickery and Daly” and the frequency with which earthquake shaking might occur.
were obtained at subcritical values of the Reynolds Number. The ASCE 7-95 map, on the other hand, has a more uniform
The first term in modifier (c) is an enhancement factor to ac- probability of earthquake occurrence, and is based on those
count for buffeting due to vortices shed by the upstream given by the NEHRP (see Reference 21). For example, in
structure; the second term accounts for small-scale turbu- Zone 4 seismic area, the EPV-related acceleration is 0.4g and
lence. The same reference also contains results for two cyl- the probability of not exceeding this peak EPVground accel-
inders of different size with the upstream structure having a eration within 50 years is estimated to be 90 percent. This is
diameter 25 percent greater than the diameter d of the other. equivalent to a mean recurrence interval of 475 years, or an
In this case the amplification of the response of the down- average annual risk of 0.002 events per year. The peak EPV-
wind chimney is roughly 3.4 - 0.2 sld for 4 < síd c 12. The related ground acceleration at a site can be determined either
amplification of shedding for grouped cylinders has also by using this contour map and the recommended scale fac-
been noted at full scaleI6 but the available data is not suffi- tors given in Table 4.3.2 or from the specific seismic record
cient to quantitatively validate model test results. available at the site. It should be noted that a ductility factor
4.2.4 Circumferential bending-The equation for the pre- of 1.33 is built into the scale factors of Table 4.3.2. For in-
diction of the circumferential moments is based upon mea- stance, instead of 0.40, a scale factor of 0.30 is used for a site
sured pressure distribution^.'^^'^ Comparative values for the with an A, of 0.4.
bending moments as obtained from different distributions It should also be pointed out that the recommended de-
are given in Reference 8. The use of a gust factor G, in this sign response spectrum is based on firm soil sites. Soil con-
computation is based upon the assumption that the mean ditions at the firm site consist of bedrock with shear wave
pressure distribution (when expressed in coefficient form) is velocity greater than 2500 ft/sec or stiff soils with deposits
also applicable for short-duration gusts. less than 200 ft. For chimneys to be built on shallow and
The increase in the loads near the tip is consistent with soft or medium-stiff clays and sands, a greater design re-
observations” that the drag coefficient increases significant- sponse spectrum is anticipated. Guidelines provided in
ly in this region. NEHRP*‘ to obtain a modified design response spectrum

and the soil-structure interaction may be used. reached first. If the steel fracture limit is reached first, the
In place of a dynamic response spectrum analysis, a time maximum concrete strain computed from the linear strain di-
history dynamic analysis is permitted, provided a reliable agram is below 0.003. This deviates from the design assump-
time history of earthquake ground motion is used. tions of AC1 318. For a given total vertical steel ratio, this
In the design of a chimney for horizontal earthquake forces, may occur when the ratio of the vertical load to the moment
only one horizontal direction need be considered. Unlike is below a certain value. A total vertical steel ratio in the
building structures, chimneys are generally axisymmetric, and chimney cross section less than that per the minimum re-
the orthogonal effects from two horizontal earthquakes acting quirement of AC1 3 18 for flexural members is permitted.
simultaneously in the two principal directions are negligible. Even when the maximum concrete compressive strain E,,
The effect of the vertical component of the earthquake on is less than 0.003, the stress block is still considered rectan-
the chimney has been determined to be of no design signifi- gular. However, in these instances, the stress level is modi-
cance. An extensive time history analysis made by the Com- fied by a correction factor called the parameter Q. See
mittee shows that the vertical stresses from dead load and commentary on Section 5.5.1.
horizontal seismic excitation are increased by at most a few 5.3.1-The Committee noted that the “fastest-mile’’ provi-
percent by the effects of vertical seismic excitations. This is sions in the 1988 edition of AC1 307 resulted in an increase
principally because the psa responses to vertical and hori- in wind moments of between O and 50 percent when com-
zontal acceleration do not occur simultaneously.
pared with AC1 307-79. The use of a “3-sec gust” wind speed
Design based on SRSS of vertical and horizontal earthquake results in further increases in axial bending moments, which
forces will be unduly conservative. Therefore, the inclusion of
are 10 to 20 percent higher than moments calculated using
vertical seismic effects is not recommended by the Committee.
“fastest-mile” speeds. Since the Committee has no data or in-
For cases in which the chimney lining (brick, steel, or oth-
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
formation concerning axial bending failures of chimney

er materials) is supported by the concrete chimney shell, ei-
shells designed using previously established procedures, it
ther at the top of the chimney shell or at other intermediate
was decided that the load factor for along-wind loads can be
points, a dynamic analysis including both concrete shell and
liner should be used. Appropriate damping values should be safely reduced from 1.7 to 1.3 when “3-sec gust” wind
used for the liner depending on its construction (e.g., 1.5 per- speeds are used. It should be noted that a wind load factor of
cent for steel liners, 4.0 percent for brick liners, and 2.0 per- 1.3 is consistent with that recommended by ASCE 7-95.
cent for fiber reinforced plastic liners). Similarly, the Committee has determined that the wind
load factor for along, plus across-wind loads can be reduced
4.5-Deflection criteria from 1.4 to 1.2.
The incorporation of the strength design method into the It should be noted that the vertical load factor reductions
standard will generally result in chimneys with thinner walls incorporated in the current standard must be accompanied by
in the lower portion and with higher deflections. The Com- a decrease in the strength reduction factor $ from 0.80 to
mittee felt that deflections under service loads should be 0.70, as described in Article 5.4.1. The net effect of the revi-
checked and that the deflections of chimneys designed by the sion to the vertical load factors, coupled with the change in
strength method should not vary greatly from the deflections the strength factor, is relatively minor. Table 5.3.1 summa-
of existing chimneys designed by the working stress method. rizes the effects of the revisions on 12 sample chimney shells
Limiting deflections also serves to reduce the effects of sec- over a range of wind speeds. The geometry of the chimneys
ondary bending moments. studied is as follows
However, the procedures in the AC1 307 1988 edition
were found to be too restrictive for shorter chimneys and
were modified in the 1995 standard. The deflection limit is 1 250 13.50 I 19.75
compared against the deflection calculated using uncracked 2 I 275 I 28.00 I 28.00
concrete sections and a fixed base. 3 325 15.00 20.00
Operation, access for inspection, lining type, etc., as well 4 375 20.00 32.00
as wind or earthquake-induced deflection, should be consid- 5 425 35 .O0 39.00
ered when establishing shell geometry. 6 485 47.61 53.50
7 534 5 1 .O9 61.55
CHAPTER 5-DESIGN OF CHIMNEY SHELL- 8 545 33100 55.00
STRENGTH METHOD
5.1-General 9 613 73.00 73.00
Several significant revisions were made to this section, IO 700 60.00 78.00
most notably the load factors specified in 5.3 and the strength II 173 43.00 I 70.00
reduction factor I$ specified in 5.4.Portions of previous 12 978 73.00 I 114.78
commentary are, however, retained for reference.
5.1.2 The maximum compressive strain in the concrete is
assumed to be 0.003, or the maximum tensile strain in the
steel is assumed to be the fracture limit of 0.07, whichever is

Table 5.3.14omparison of along-wind design mo- The formulas are derived for circular hollow cross sections
ments. with a uniform distribution of vertical reinforcing steel
around the circumference.
5.5.1 The parameter Q-The use of a rectangular com-
pression stress block for rectangular and T-shaped rein-
forced concrete beams came to be accepted after extensive
comparative study between the analytical results using this
stress-strain relationship and the test data. The acceptability
of the rectangular stress block was based on the closeness be-
tween the results of the analyses and the tests, comparing the
following: a) concrete compression; and b) moment of the
compression about the neutral axis (for a rectangular section
this is equivalent to the distance of the center of gravity of
the compression stress block from the neutral axis).
The preceding comparative study was based on the limited
test data available on reinforced concrete members of hollow
'(Values of [ 1.3 x M(3sg)/0.7]/1.7 for sample chimneys)
x M(fm)/0.8]
circular sections subjected to axial and transverse loads.22
Another special problem in arriving at the compressive
shells, a decrease in the ratio of the load factor to the strength stress block for the analysis of reinforced concrete chimneys
reduction factor for earthquake forces from 2.34 to 2.04 is was the fact that the maximum concrete compressive strain
warranted. is less than 0.003 when the fracture limit of steel is reached.
The load factor for determining the circumferential That is, the compressive stress block is not fully developed
strength required to resist wind load has not been revised, al- (see commentary on Section 5.1.2). Thus, the previous at-
though the reinforcement necessary to satisfy the higher mo- tempts at specifying the rectangular stress block for chimney
ments may increase up to 15 percent on large-diameter cross sections needed to be modified.
chimneys. However, the Committee believes that this addi- A numerical study was undertaken by the 1988 Committee
tional reinforcement is justified to minimize vertical crack- to find an equivalent rectangular stress block for the calcula-
ing of chimney shells. tion of the strength of chimney cross sections.
For a given value of a,the results of the rectangular con-
5.4-Design strength crete compression stress block, expressed by dimensionless
5.4.1-In the calculation of limit-state bending moments, modifications of (a) and (b) previously stated, were com-
allowance needs to be made for the moment caused by the pared with the correspondingresults using a more exact con-
weight of the chimney in its deflected shape. The deflection crete stress-strain relationship23given by Hogne~tad*~ using
will be less than that calculated by standard methods due to a limiting strain of 0.003. The comparisons were made for
the stiffening effect of the concrete in the cracked tension hollow circular sections without openings and with single
zone. The stiffening effect needs to be investigated further. openings with values of ß of 10,20, and 30 deg.
The strength reduction factor for vertical strength has been It was concluded that for values of a above 20 deg, or
reduced from 0.80 to 0.70. A $ factor of 0.70 was chosen when the limiting strain of concrete is reached first, an equiv-
because it was found that the dead-load axial stress on the alence between the two approaches is reached if the stress
gross area exceeds 0.10 f,' in the lower portions of some level of the rectangular compression block is reduced by a
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
sample chimneys. The effects of this fevision are discussed factor of 0.89. For values of a below about 20 deg, a further
more fully in Section 5.3. correction is required, leading to the values of the parameter
The formulas are also derived for cmss sections with one Q defined in Section 5.5. I .
or two openings in, or partly in, the compression zone. No re- Thus the correction factor, or the parameter Q, achieves a
duction in the forces and moments due to reinforcing steel is close equivalencebetween the resulting values of (a) and (b)
made to allow for the reduction in the distance of the addi- previously stated for the "thereby corrected" rectangular
tional vertical reinforcement on each side of the opening, stress block and the stress block based on the Hognestad
provided per Section 4.4.6. stress-strain relationship, yet retains the simplicity of the
rectangular stress block.
5.5-Nominal moment strength 55.6 Due to thermal exposure of the concrete chimneys,
The formulas for the nominal moment strength of chimney the temperature drop across the wall reduces the nominal
cross sections are obtained based on the design assumptions strength of chimney sections. This effect is accounted for by
of AC1 318, except as modified under Section 5.1.2 of this reducing the specified yield strength of steel and specified
standard. The derivations of the formulas are given in compressive strength of concrete.
Appendix A. The derivation of equations is included in Appendix A.

S T D = A C I 307R-ENGL 1998 = Obb29q9 0543332 T T O
5.6-Design for circumferential bending Em = 0.07(1 - cosa)/( 1 + cosa) I 0.003

5.6.2 The commentary on Section 5.5.6 applies equally to = one-half angle between center lines for two
Y
this section. openings
e = variable function of a
CHAPTER +THERMAL STRESSES = p,f, K.’,therefore off,.’= p,&.
6.1-General 0,
The derivations of the formulas for the vertical and hori-
zontal stresses in concrete and steel, due to a temperature
drop only across the chimney wall, are given in Appendix B.
No revisions have been made to this section.
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
6.2-Vertical temperature stresses

6.2.2 The research data available to establish the coeffi-
cients of heat transfer through chimney lining and shell, es-
pecially as they concern the heat transfer from gases to the - 2EmEs P ,rt [ ( y - a ) c o s a - s h y + sina]
surfaces and through ventilated air spaces between lining (1 - cosa)
and shell, are somewhat meager. Unless complete heat bal-
ance studies are made for the particular chimney, it is per- but
missible to use constants as determined or stated in this
standard.
APPENDIX A-DERIVATION OF EQUATIONS FOR

NOMINAL STRENGTH
Equations for the nominal strength of concrete chimney
sections, with and without openings, are derived in this Ap-
pendix. therefore
.
The factored vertical load P,, and the corresponding nom-
inal moment strength MI, are expressed in dimensionless
form, as given in Section 5.5.1 by Eq. (5-2) and (5-IO), re- SI = 2 ~ , K , ~ ~ r t f , ’[(y- a ) c o s a - siny + sina]
spectively. ( 1 - cosa)
Also a procedure to account for the temperature effects in
the vertical and horizontal directions is outlined. or
Forces are designated as follows:
SI= 2&,, K, O, rtf,’ Q’
design moment strength of the section
nominal moment strength of the section
2 = 2(JC- WP,
s rqv
factored moment acting on the section
total force in the concrete compressive but
stress block
factored vertical load acting on section
P t f v = Wrh’
moments of P, SI,S2, S3,S, about neutral
axis, respectively
S2 = 2(n - y)rto,f,.’
tensile force where steel stress is below
yield point, from a to y
tensile force where steel stress is at yield P = 2(2 - nlß)rt 0.85A.’
9
point, from y to JC
compressive force in steel where stress is = 1.7rtf,.’(z-n1ß)
below yield point, from p to a
compressive force in steel where stress is = 1.7r&.’ h
at yield point, from O to p
capacity-reduction factor where
h =t - n l ß
From Fig. 5.5.l(a) and 5.5.l(b)
COS^ = COSCI + [( 1 - ~~~a)/&,~,]cfi/E,,)
COST = 1 - ß 1 ( i -cosa)
COS^ = COSE - [( 1 - cosa)/~,,](f,/E,) s3 = 2L ar(Cose-
r(l -cosa)
E E p
*
K, = E,/&.
nI = number of openings in the compression zone -
- 2 E, Es P rt (sine - 0 c 0 s a a) ~
f
ß = one-half opening angle (1 - cosa)

S T D - A C 1 307R-ENGL 1 7 7 8 Obb27Li7 0543333 937
[sina - sinp - ( a- p ) c o s a l U = 2(iy - a)cos2a+ 3sina cosa - &osa sinyr

=2~~K,o,rtf'
( 1 - cosa) + sinyr cosyr + (iy - a)
therefore
sI'= E, ? O, J ,
where
= 2O&; p
1 - cosa)
JI = U/(
Sum of vertical forces must equal zero, therefore
or
Pu= P + s3 + s4 - SI - s,
J I = [2(yr - a)cos2a+ 3sina cosa - 4COSCC sinyr
= 1.70rtf,'h + 2&, K, O, rtf,.'Q3 + 20, rtfcp + sinyr c o s y + (yr - a)]/(I - cosa)
- 2&, K, O, rlJ;.'Q' - 20, &'(x - v)
Pu =KI
S2' = 2
K p,rqy r( cosa - cose)&
+
= 1.70h 2&,K,0,(Q3 - Q') + = 22p,q,. (@cosa- sine);
2o,[p - (X - yr)l
= 2 3 p , tf,[(n: - yr)cosa + sinyr]
= 1.701+ 2&, K, O, QI+ 20, hl
but
where
PA. = ~ t f c '
h=z-nlß therefore
S,' = 2?&.'0,J2
sinyr- siny-(yr-p)cosa
QI =
(1 - cosa) where
hl=p+iy-n J2 = (n - yr)cosa + sinv

--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
-- 2&,K e a trLtf,'
( 1 - cosa)
2
- 2&,Keo,r ifc'
-
(1 - cosa)
[(w - a)cos2a- 2cosa(siniy- sina) + (1/2)(iy- a) Let
+ (1/4)(sin2iy- sin 2a)] J3 = 2[ I/( I - cosa)
LetJ=[ ]
or
= (yr - a)cos2a + 2 sina cosa - 2 cosa siniy J3 = [a- p + sina cosa - sinp cosp - 4cosa(sina - sinp)
+ ('/2)siniycosy - ('/&ina cosa + (I/&iy - a) + 2(a- p)cos2a]/(1 - cosa)
or therefore

~
S T D - A C 1 307R-ENGL 1778 Obb2747 0543334 873 D
S; = E, ? tf,.'K, O,53 y=o

For two openings in compression zone
S,' = 2
E ptrtf,, r( cose - cosa)dû
ni = 2
Sum of moments about neutral axis must equal zero, there-

fore
= 2?p, $,(sinp - pcosa) M,, = PurCosa + P +SI'+Si+ Si+ S,l
therefore
s,' = 2?&!0~4
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
where
J4 = sinp - pcosa therefore
For P' with one opening in compression zone [Fig. M,,I?&.' = (P,cosdr&.') + K2
5.5.1(a)]
where
".
P' = 2r10.85t.'
K2 = 1.70R + &,Ke~,(Ji+ 53) + 20f(52 + 54)
b(% - rcosa) -
1
r( cose - cosar)d9
or
= I .ï~v'tf,.'(sinz- TCOSCC- sinß + ßcosa) K2 = 1.70R + €,Ke0,Q2 + 20tK

therefore Q2 = [(y- p)( 1 + 2cos2a) + ('I2)(4sin2a + sin2y - sin2p)
- kosa(sina + siny - sinpi)]/(1 - cosa)
P = I .707tf,.'[sin~- (T - ß)cosa - sinßl
and
For P' with two openings in compression zone [Fig.
5.5.1(b)] K = siny + sinp + (II- y - p)cosa
P = 2rt0.85L.' Multiply both sides of the equation by 1/K1 = r2tJ.'lP,,
rtf,'/P, M,,I?$.' = r&:/P, P,cosa/rrf,' + ì/Ki K2

therefore
= I .70F$.'[sinz - zcosa - sin(y + ß) + sin(?- ß) + 2ßcosaI K3 = M,JP,r = cosa + K2iK1
therefore or
P = I .ïû?tf,.'[sinz - (z - 2ß)cosa - sin(y + ß) + sin(y - 8) 4,
= K3Pur
and require
Generalizing
P = 1.7076.' R M, = $M,,
2 Mu
where For two symmetric openings partly in compression zone

[Fig.5.5.1 (c)]
R = sinz-(z-nlß)coscr-(n,/2)[sin(y+ ß)-sin(y-ß)]
Y+ß=-T
For no openings and
n1=y=ß=O Y-B<T
For one opening in compression zone let

ni = 1 6=y-ß

S T D - A C 1 307R-ENGL 1998 m O b b 2 9 9 9 05L13335 70T m
The situation is the same as for no openings in the com- It is conservative and convenient to use the same value for
pression zone with fy‘ on the leeward side as well.
2=6 Vertical temperature stresses in concrete eflect on f,‘
h=6 f’k= concrete compressive stress due to temperature

alone at service loads
R = sin6 - &osa
At ultimate, effect onfC is
and all other values are the same as before.
Openings in the tension zone-Openings in the tension &.”(u) =f,.’ - FI@).f’;l.
zone are ignored since the tensile strength of the concrete is
neglected, and the bars cut by the openings are replaced at Nominal strength for circumferential bending (compres-
the sides of the openings. sion on inside)
Openings in the compression zone-ûpenings in the com-
pression zone are ignored in calculations of the forces in the
compression reinforcement only, since the cut bars are re-
placed at the sides of the openings.
Verticaltemperature stresses in reinforcement;effect on fy

fsw =tensile temperature stress in outside steel
f :w = compressive temperature stress in inside steel
i
f s w andfSw at service loads
A=1 -
Face -1 1
P(1 +Y,) 1 +Yi
= ratio, outside steel area to total steel area
= ratio, inside steel area to total steel area

STRAIN DIAGRAM i
F,(u) = load factor for temperature combined with W or E
= 1.4
At ultimate, efect on fy on windward side
Usable yield force = yield force - Ff(u) tensile force in
outside steel + Ff(u) compressive force in inside steel
Dividing by total steel area A,
LOAD DIAGRAM
fY‘(c) = fY - i'05fsTc
f,”(~) = fc’- 1.05f”,Tc
p’
I for combination with temperature
= ratio outside steel area to total area

--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
yi’ = ratio inside steel area to outside steel area

A S
p’t = area outside steel, in.
yi’p’t= area inside steel, in.
therefore
Stress in compression steel

~ ~
STD.ACI 307R-ENGL 1178 Obb2747 054333b b4b
APPENDIX B-DERIVATION OF EQUATIONS FOR

TEMPERATURE STRESSES
The equations for maximum vertical stresses in concrete
and steel due to a temperature drop only across the concrete
Stress in tensile steel wall with two layers on reinforcement are derived as follows.
Unrestrained rotation caused by a temperature differential
of T,
e, = areT, 11
Since rotation is prevented, corresponding stresses are in-
0.003E, I fy '( c )
n duced
In concrete (inside)
Lmid in compression steel
pcs =fcs Y I 'P't

and
Load in tensile steel
PIS =fTSP't In outside reinforcement

Load in concrete compression block
P,., = 0.85f;."(c)tn and
wo, P, + PCs - PTs = 0

Find the value ofa thnt satisfies this equation. p = ratio of total area of vertical outside face reinforce-
ment to total area of concrete chimney shell at sec-
W nhout PB MI, = / P c s l Y i - f a n ) l + P c ~ ~ Y , -' tion under coiisideration
y i = ratio of inside face vertical reinforcement area to
MDS =@M~i Mu outside face vertical reinforcement area
Note: For íwnpression on outside
.f34=&.
f,."(c)=A.'
therefore ignore temperature. Eq.(A-3) becomes For c
pcs =fcsP't zv= o,f 'A (ct/2)+f :w yip?
and E@. (A-4) becomes
pT.ï =fTSYI'P't
in/in
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

307R-14 AC1 COYMIlTEE REPORT
= aJY2 - c ) T ~ E c p t C.2-Cited references

I . PCI Manual for Srrucrural Design of Architectural Precast Concrete,
2 + 2ny1pc+ 2ny1p(y2- I ) + 2npc - h p y 2 = O Prestressed Concrete Institute, 1977.
2. PCI Design Handbook-Precast and Prestressed Concrete, Pre-
stressed Concrete Institute, 3rd Edition, 1985.
c2 + m ( Y 1 + 1)c + 2pn[yAy2 - 1) - Y21 = 0 3. Warnes, C. E., “Precast Concrete Connection Details for All Seismic
Zones,” Concrete International, V. 14, No. I 1, Nov. 1992, pp. 36-44.
4. Simiu, E., and Scanlon, R. H., Wind Eflects on Structures, 2nd edition,
John Wiley and Sons, 1986.
5. Hollister, S. C., “Engineering Interpretation of Weather Bureau
Records for Wind Loading on Structures,” Wind Luads o n Buildings and
Srructures, Building Science Series, No. 30, National Bureau of Standards.
Jípn(yl + I ) I ~ + ~ P ~ [ Y ~-y211
+Y~(I Washington, D.C., 1969, pp. 151-164.
6. Vickery, B. J., “On the Reliability of Gust Loading Factors,” Wind
The derivation for the equations for the maximum horizontal Loads on Buildings and Structures, Building Science Series, No. 30,
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., 1%9, pp. 93-104.
stresses in concrete and steel due to a temperature drop only,
7. Vickery, B. J., and Basu, R. I., “Simplified Approaches to the Evalua-
across the concrete wall with two layers of reinforcement, is tion of the Across-Wind Response of Chimneys,” J~iuritalof Wind Engi-
similar to that for the vertical temperature stresses neering and Industrial Aer&namics, V. 14, Amsterdam, 1985, pp. 153-
Replace p with p‘ 166.
yi with y]’ 8. Rumman, W. S., “Reinforced Concrete Chimneys,” Hundbook of
Concrete Engineering, 2nd Edition, Mark Fintel, ed.. Van Nostrand Rein-
f’& with f”cc hold Co., New York, 1985, pp. 565-586.
fsw with fsn: 9. Basu, R. I., “Across-Wind Responses of Slender Structures of Circular
c with c‘ Cross-Section to Atmospheric Turbulence,” PhD thesis, Faculty of Engi-
y2 with ;y neering Science, University of Western Onvario. London, Ontario, 1982.
then IO. Vickery, B. J., and Basu, R. I., “Response of Reinforced Concrete
Chimneys to Vortex Shedding,” Engineering Structures, V. 6, No. 4, Guild-
ford, Oct. 1984, pp. 324-333.
1 I. Davenport, A. G., “Gust Loading Factors,” Proceedings, ASCE, V.
93, ST3, June 1967, pp. 1 1-34.
--``,``,,,`,,```,,`,`,``,````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
12. Simiu, E.: Marshall, R. D.: and Haber, S., “Estimation of Along-
Wind Building Response,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 103, ST7, July 1977.
pp. 1325- 1338.
c’ = -p’n(yl’ + i ) + 13. Vickery, B., “Across-Wind Loading on Reinforced Concrete Chim-
neys of Circular Cross Section,” Boundan Layer Wind Tunnel Reporí,
BLWT-3-1993, University of Western Ontario, Dec. 1993.
14. ïdravkokvich, M. M., “Review of Flow Interference Effects between
Wo Cylinders in Various Arrangements,” Journul of F1uiú.s Engineering,
APPENDIX C-REFERENCES V. 99, 1977, p. 6 18.
C.l -Recommended references 15. Vickery, B. J., and Daly, A., “Wind Tunnel Modelling as a Means of
American Concrete Institute Predicting the Response of Chimneys to Vortex Shedding,” Enginerring
307-69 Specification for the Design and Construction of Structures, V. 6, No. 4, Guildford, Oct. 1984, pp. 363-368.
Reinforced Concrete Chimneys 16. Ruscheweyh, H., “Problems with In-Line Stacks: Experience with
Full-Scale Objects,” Engineering Strucrures, V. 6, No. 4. Guildford. Oct.
307-88 Standard Practice for the Design and Construc- 1984, pp. 340-343.
tion of Cast-in-Place Reinforced Concrete 17. Dryden, H.li., and Hill, G. C., “Wind Pressure on Circular Cylinders
Chimneys and Chimneys,” Research Paper No. 221. National Bureiiu of Standards,
318 Building Code Requirements for Structural Washington, D.C., 1930. Also, NBS Journal ofReseurcb, V. 5 , Sept. 1930.
Concrete 18. ASCE Task Committee on Wind Forces, “Wind Forces on Struc-
tures,” Transactions, ASCE, V. 126. Part II, 1961. pp. I 124- I 198.
505-54 Standard Specification for the Design and Con-
19. Okamoto, T.. and Yagita, M.,“Experimental Investigation Flow Past
struction of Reinforced Concrete Chimneys a Circular Cylinder of Finite Length Placed Normal IO a Uniform Stream,”
550R-93 Design Recommendations for Precast Concrete Bulletin, Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers (Tokyo), No. 16. 1973, p.
Structures 805.
American Sociery of Civil Engineers 20. Task Committee on Steel Chimney Liners, Design and Construction
of Steel Chimney Liners,American Society of Civil Engineers, New York,
ASCE 7-88 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and 1975,226 pp.
Other Structures (formerly ANSI A58.1) 21. “NEHRP 1994 Recommended Provisions for the Development of
ASCE 7-95 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Seismic Regulations for New Buildings Prepared by the Building Seismic
Other Structures Safety Council.”
22. Mokrin, Z. A. R., and Rumman, W. S., “Ultimate Capacity of Rein-
forced Concrete Members of Hollow Circular Sections Subjected to Mono-
American Concrete Institute tonic and Cyclic Bending,” AC1 JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 82, No. 5, Sept.-
P.O.Box 9094 Oct. 1985, p ~653-656.
.
Farrnington Hills, Mich. 48333-9094 23. Rumman, W. S., and Sun, R. T.,“Ultimate Strength Design of Rein-
forced Concrete Chimneys,” AC1 JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 74, No. 4, Apr.
1977, pp. 179- 184.
American Society of Civil Engineers
24. Hognestad, E., “Study of Combined Bending and Axial Load in
1801 Alexander Bell Drive Reinforced Concrete Members,” Bulletin No. 399, Engineering Experi-
Reston, Va. 20191 ment Station, University of Illinois. Urbana, 1951, 128 pp.


ACI 307-98配筋混凝土烟囱设计

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AC1 307-98

Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete

Victor A. Bochicchio David J. Bird

John J. Carty Jagadish R. Joshi Randolph W. Snook

Copyright American Concrete Institute

<; &Q&r 5....-[]&gf) of &s$-$3$><>y

Copyright American Concrete Institute

CHAPTER 3-CONSTRUCTION 3.5.2 Vertical reinforcement projecting above the forms

Copyright American Concrete Institute

3.9-Precast erection 4.2-Wind loads

Copyright American Concrete Institute

g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 ft/sec2

but not < 0.01 or > 0.04.

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Any method using the modal characteristics of the chim-

where a) if s/d(z,,) > 12.75, C, is unaltered

b) if 3 < s/d(z,,) < 12.75, C, shall be multiplied by:

except that wl(z) shall not exceed $z).

Mi(.) = 0.3 lpr(z) [r(z)I2, ft-lb/ft (tension on inside) (4-27)

Mo(.) = 0.27pr(z) [r(z)I2, ft-lb/ft (tension on outside) (4-28)

Copyright American Concrete Institute

vertical reinforcement shall be not less than 50 percent of the

of stifiness, and the foundation support condition. A mini-

mumof 10 elements shall be included. The total dy-

moment shall be computed using the SRSS over a minimum

of five normal modal responses. SRSS means taking the

use of the CQC method (complete quadratic combination)

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Fig. 4.3.2-Normalized horizontal elastic seismic response spectra.

Copyright American Concrete Institute

One-half of this extra reinforcement shall extend com- 5.3-Required strength

U,= 1.05T+ 1.3W (5-ld)

5.1-General 5.4-Design strength

ue is reached first shall be taken as the limiting value. and 5.9.1$i]

Copyright American Concrete Institute

REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS

compression Pct=areo of vertical

Ern=( l + c o s aa) x0.07 .. c o s p = c o s a +(I-cos a) fy

cos 7=1-81 (I-cos

r(l-cos P,) tension

Fig. 5.5.1(c)-Two symmetric openings partly in

Copyright American Concrete Institute

For a > 35 deg

(n112)[sin (y + ß) sin(y- ß)]-

For a 5 5 deg R = sin6 6cosa - (5- 15b)

Q = (-0.523 + 0.181a- 0.0154a2) 5.5.3 Openings in tension zone-Openings in the ten-

(5-12d) satisfies Eq. (5-2).

Copyright American Concrete Institute

5.5.7 For load combinations with temperature effects,

5.6-Noncircular shapes f,= 0.85f,’ (1000&, - 250,000) :&

5.6.4 Horizontal bending-Design for horizontal bending

d, = mean diameter of space between lining and shell, ft

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Flue gas film coefficients

chimney shell. The area of the inlet and outlet openings in

Copyright American Concrete Institute

opening, in.2 cc::h<ts:erdi-)

C, = rms lift coefficient (Chapter 4)

Copyright American Concrete Institute