Circuit Analysis Techniques

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 Voltage Division

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 Application of the
Voltage-Division Principle

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 Current Division

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 Current Division

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BASIC ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING Department of Electronic Engineering
Application of the Current-Division Principle

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•Voltage division •Voltage division

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 •Current division

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Although they are very
important concepts,
series/parallel equivalents, Wye
Delta transformation and
the current/voltage division
principles are not sufficient to
solve all circuits.

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 Electrical Sources
•An electrical source is a device that supplies electrical
power to a circuit in the form of a voltage source or a
current source. A voltage source is a device that generates
an output voltage. A current source is a device that supplies
a current to a circuit.
•Electrical sources, both as a voltage source or a current
source can be classed as being either independent or
dependent, that is whose value depends upon a voltage or
current elsewhere within the circuit.
•An independent voltage source provides a voltage supply whose
magnitude does not depend on the value of the current flowing
through the source. For example, a car battery has a 12V
terminal voltage that remains constant.
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 Electrical Sources
•A dependent voltage source provides a voltage supply
whose magnitude depends on either the voltage across or
current flowing through some other circuit element. In other
words, the output of a dependent voltage source is
controlled by another voltage or current. A dependent
voltage source is indicated with a diamond shape.
•An independent current source provides a current supply
whose magnitude does not depend on the value of the
voltage across the source. An independent current source
symbol is shown with a circle having an arrow inside to
indicate the direction of the flow of the current.

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 Electrical Sources
•A dependent current source provides
a current supply whose magnitude
depends on either the voltage across
or current flowing through some
other circuit element. In other words,
the output of a dependent current
source is controlled by another
voltage or current. A dependent
current source symbol is shown with
a diamond shape having an arrow
inside to indicate the direction of the
flow of the current.

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Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
A node is a junction where more than 2 circuit elements join.

In a node, we can write KCL in 3 different ways as follows:

1) Sum of outgoing currents = Sum of incoming currents
2) Sum of incoming currents =0
3) Sum of outgoing currents=0

IT = I1 + I2
-IT +I1 + I2 = 0
IT - I1 - I2 = 0

So if I1 is 3A and I2 is 2A, then IT will be 3 + 2 = 5A

5=3+2
-5+3+2=0
5-3-2=0
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Node Voltage (Nodal) Analysis

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Obtain values for the unknown voltages
across the elements in the circuit below.

KCL at node 1

KCL at node 2

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 No. of unknown: v1, v2, v3

No. of linear equation : 3

Setting up nodal equation with

KCL at Node 1, Node 2, Node 3

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 Problem with node 3, it is rather
v3
hard to set the nodal equation at
node 3, but still solvable. Why?
As there is no way to determine
the current through the voltage
source, but v3=Vs

Problem with node 3, it is rather

hard to set the nodal equation at
node 3 but still solvable.

Same as before.

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 May Not Be That Simple

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 Circuits with Voltage Sources
We obtain equations if we use all of the nodes in a
network to write KCL equations.

Any branch with a voltage source:

• define SUPERNODE, sum all current either in or
out at the supernode with KCL
• use common sense to set up equation involving
the voltage source.

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 Supernode
•A supernode is a node that consists of more than one node.
For example, we can form a supernode combining Node1
and Node2. We can apply KCL even at supernode.
•At Node1, KCL 10+5=9+6
•At Node2, KCL 6+4=3+7
•At Supernode, KCL 10+5+4=9+3+7
Supernode
5A
3A
10A 6A
Node1 Node2
7A

9A 4A

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 Expanded view of the region defined
as a supernode; We can apply KCL
also at supernode.

At node 1, KCL:

At the supernode, KCL:

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Node-Voltage Analysis with a
Dependent Source
•First, we write KCL equations at each node, including the
current of the controlled source just as if it were an
ordinary current source.
•Next, we find an expression for the controlling variable in
terms of the node voltages.

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 Node-Voltage Analysis
1. Select a reference node and assign variables for the unknown node
voltages. If the reference node is chosen at one end of an independent voltage
source, one node voltage is known at the start, and fewer need to be
computed.
2. Write network equations. First, use KCL to write current equations for nodes
and supernodes. Write as many current equations as you can using all of the
nodes. Then if you do not have enough equations because of voltage sources
connected between nodes, use common sense to write additional equations.

3. If the circuit contains dependent sources, find expressions for the controlling
variables in terms of the node voltages. Substitute into the network equations,
and obtain equations having only the node voltages as unknowns.
4. Put the equations into standard form and solve for the node voltages.
5. Use the values found for the node voltages to calculate any other currents or
voltages.

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Step 1.Reference node
Step 1. v1
Step 2.

Step 1 v2

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 Step 1 Step 1
v2 Step 2
v1 v3 KCL at node 1

KCL at supernode

Step 1
ref supernode
Step 3

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 v1 -10
v1
At node1, KCL

0V Reference node

We get the same from last slide

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
KVL states that for a closed loop series path, the algebraic sum of
all the voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is equal to zero.
ΣV = 0
The term “algebraic sum” means to take into account the polarities
and signs of the sources and voltage drops around the loop.

-Vs +IR1 + IR2 = 0

So if Vs = 60V, R1=10Ω and R2=20Ω, then using

KVL we can find the value of I as follows:
-60+10I+20I=0 or, 30I=60 or, I=60/30=2A

Now we can find the same value of I using Ohm’s law as follows:
Req=R1+R2=10+20= 30Ω I=60/30=2A

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 Mesh Current Analysis

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 Choosing the Mesh Currents

When several mesh currents flow through

one element, we consider the current in
that element to be the algebraic sum of
the mesh currents.

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 Writing Equations to Solve
for Mesh Currents

If a network contains only resistors and

independent voltage sources, we can write
the required equations by following each
current around its mesh and applying
KVL.

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 Determine the two mesh currents, i1 and i2, in the circuit below.

For the left-hand mesh,

-42 + 6 i1 + 3 ( i1 - i2 ) = 0

For the right-hand mesh,

3 ( i2 - i1 ) + 4 i2 - 10 = 0

Solving, we find that i1 = 6 A and i2 = 4 A.

(The current flowing downward through
the 3-Ω resistor is therefore i1 - i2 = 2 A. )

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 Mesh Currents in Circuits
Containing Current Sources
*A common mistake is to assume the voltages across current
sources are zero. Therefore, loop equation cannot be set up at
mesh one due to the voltage across the current source is
unknown
Anyway, the problem is
still solvable.

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As the current source common to two mesh, combine meshes 1 and 2 into
a supermesh. In other words, we write a KVL equation around the
periphery of meshes 1 and 2 combined.
It is the supermesh.

Mesh 3:

Three linear equations

and three unknown

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Find the three mesh currents in the circuit below.

Creating a “supermesh” from meshes 1 and 3:

-7 + 1 ( i1 - i2 ) + 3 ( i3 - i2 ) + 1 i3 = 0 [1]

Around mesh 2:
1 ( i 2 - i1 ) + 2 i2 + 3 ( i2 - i3 ) = 0 [2]

Finally, we relate the currents in meshes 1 and 3:

i 1 - i3 = 7 [3]
Rearranging,
i1 - 4 i2 + 4 i3 = 7 [1]
-i1 + 6 i2 - 3 i3 = 0 [2]
i1 - i3 = 7 [3]

Solving,
i1 = 9 A, i2 = 2.5 A, and i3 = 2 A.

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supermesh of mesh1 and mesh2

Ohm’s Law

current source

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 Mesh-Current Analysis
1. Define the mesh currents flowing around each of the open areas defined by the
network. For consistency, we usually select a clockwise direction for each of the mesh
currents.

2. Write network equations, stopping after the number of equations is equal to the
number of mesh currents. First, use KVL to write voltage equations for meshes that do
not contain current sources. Next, if any current sources are present, write expressions
for their currents in terms of the mesh currents. Finally, if a current source is common to
two meshes, write a KVL equation for the supermesh.
3. If the circuit contains dependent sources, find expressions for the controlling variables
in terms of the mesh currents. Substitute into the network equations, and obtain
equations having only the mesh currents as unknowns.
4. Put the equations into standard form. Solve for the mesh currents by use of
determinants or other means.
5. Use the values found for the mesh currents to calculate any other currents or voltages
of interest.

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 Superposition
• Superposition Theorem – the response of a
circuit to more than one source can be
determined by analyzing the circuit’s
response to each source (alone) and then
combining the results

Insert Figure 7.2

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 Superposition

Insert Figure 7.3

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 Superposition
• Analyze Separately, then Combine Results

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Use superposition to find the current ix.

Current source is zero – open circuit as I = 0 and solve iXv

Voltage source is zero – short circuit as V= 0 and solve iXc

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 Use superposition to find the current ix.

The controlled voltage source is included in all cases as

it is controlled by the current ix.

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 Voltage and Current Sources

Insert Figure 7.7

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 Voltage and Current Sources

Insert Figure 7.8

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 Voltage and Current Sources

Insert Figure 7.9

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 Source Transformation
Under what condition, the voltage and
current of the load is the same when
operating at the two practical sources?
For voltage source

For current source

,

We have,

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 Voltage and Current Sources
• Equivalent Voltage and Current Sources – for every
voltage source, there exists an equivalent current
source, and vice versa

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 Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin’s Theorem – any resistive circuit
or network, no matter how complex, can be
represented as a voltage source in series
with a source resistance

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 Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin Voltage (VTH) – the voltage
present at the output terminals of the circuit
when the load is removed

Insert Figure 7.18

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 Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin Resistance (RTH) – the resistance
measured across the output terminals with
the load removed

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 Thévenin Equivalent
Circuits

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 Finding the Thévenin
Resistance Directly
When zeroing a voltage source, it becomes
a short circuit. When zeroing a current
source, it becomes an open circuit.

We can find the Thévenin resistance by

zeroing the sources in the original
network and then computing the resistance
between the terminals.

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 Superposition

As the voltage source does not contribute any output voltage,

Only the current source has the effect.

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Determine the Thévenin and Norton Equivalents of Network A in (a).
Source transformation

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 Norton’s Theorem
• Norton’s Theorem – any resistive circuit or network,
no matter how complex, can be represented as a
current source in parallel with a source resistance

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 Norton’s Theorem
• Norton Current (IN) – the current through
the shorted load terminals

Insert Figure 7.35

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 Norton’s Theorem

• Norton Resistance (RN) – the resistance

measured across the open load terminals
(measured and calculated exactly like RTH)

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 Norton’s Theorem
• Norton-to-Thevenin and Thevenin-to-Norton
Conversions

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 Step-by-step
Thévenin/Norton-Equivalent-Circui
t Analysis
1. Perform two of these:
a. Determine the open-circuit voltage Vt = voc.
b. Determine the short-circuit current In =
isc.
c. Zero the sources and find the Thévenin
resistance Rt looking back into the terminals.

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2. Use the equation Vt = Rt In to compute
the remaining value.

3. The Thévenin equivalent consists of a

voltage source Vt in series with Rt .

4. The Norton equivalent consists of a

current source In in parallel with Rt .

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