Computer

Types of Computer

There are two bases on which we can define the types of computersSuper Computer

 Mainframe computer

 Mini Computer

 Workstation Computer

 Personal Computer (PC)

 Server Computer

 Analog Computer

 Digital Computer

 Hybrid Computer

 Tablets and Smartphone

Supercomputer

When we talk about speed, then the first name that comes to mind when thinking of computers is supercomputers. They are the
biggest and fastest computers (in terms of speed of processing data). Supercomputers are designed such that they can process a
huge amount of data, like processing trillions of instructions or data just in a second. This is because of the thousands of
interconnected processors in supercomputers. It is basically used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather
forecasting, scientific simulations, and nuclear energy research. It was first developed by Roger Cray in 1976.

Characteristics of Supercomputers

 Supercomputers are the computers that are the fastest and they are also very expensive.

 It can calculate up to ten trillion individual calculations per second, this is also the reason which makes it even faster.

 It is used in the stock market or big organizations for managing the online currency world such as Bitcoin etc.

 It is used in scientific research areas for analyzing data obtained from exploring the solar system, satellites, etc.

Mainframe computer

Mainframe computers are designed in such a way that they can support hundreds or thousands of users at the same time. It also
supports multiple programs simultaneously. So, they can execute different processes simultaneously. All these features make
the mainframe computer ideal for big organizations like banking, telecom sectors, etc., which process a high volume of data in
general.

Characteristics of Mainframe Computers

 It is also an expensive or costly computer.

 It has high storage capacity and great performance.

 It can process a huge amount of data (like data involved in the banking sector) very quickly.

 It runs smoothly for a long time and has a long life.

Minicomputer
Minicomputer is a medium size multiprocessing computer. In this type of computer, there are two or more processors, and it
supports 4 to 200 users at one time. Minicomputer is similar to Microcontroller. Minicomputers are used in places like institutes
or departments for different work like billing, accounting, inventory management, etc. It is smaller than a mainframe computer
but larger in comparison to the microcomputer.

Characteristics of Minicomputer

 Its weight is low.

 Because of its low weight, it is easy to carry anywhere.

 less expensive than a mainframe computer.

 It is fast.

Workstation Computer

A workstation computer is designed for technical or scientific applications. It consists of a fast microprocessor, with a large
amount of RAM and a high-speed graphic adapter. It is a single-user computer. It is generally used to perform a specific task with
great accuracy.

Characteristics of Workstation Computer

 It is expensive or high in cost.

 They are exclusively made for complex work purposes.

 It provides large storage capacity, better graphics, and a more powerful CPU when compared to a PC.

 It is also used to handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation, and editing.

Personal Computer (PC)

Personal Computers is also known as a microcomputer. It is basically a general-purpose computer designed for individual use. It
consists of a microprocessor as a central processing unit(CPU), memory, input unit, and output unit. This kind of computer is
suitable for personal work such as making an assignment, watching a movie, or at the office for office work, etc. For example,
Laptops and desktop computers.

Characteristics of Personal Computer (PC)

 In this limited number of software can be used.

 It is the smallest in size.

 It is designed for personal use.

 It is easy to use.

Server Computer

Server Computers are computers that are combined data and programs. Electronic data and applications are stored and shared
in the server computer. The working of a server computer is that it does not solve a bigger problem like a supercomputer but it
solves many smaller similar ones. Examples of server computer are like Wikipedia, as when users put a request for any page, it
finds what the user is looking for and sends it to the user.

Analog Computer

Analog Computers are particularly designed to process analog data. Continuous data that changes continuously and cannot have
discrete values are called analog data. So, an analog computer is used where we don’t need exact values or need approximate
values such as speed, temperature, pressure, etc. It can directly accept the data from the measuring device without first
converting it into numbers and codes. It measures the continuous changes in physical quantity. It gives output as a reading on a
dial or scale. For example speedometer, mercury thermometer, etc.

Digital Computer

Digital computers are designed in such a way that they can easily perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It
takes raw data as input and processes it with programs stored in its memory to produce the final output. It only understands the
binary input 0 and 1, so the raw input data is converted to 0 and 1 by the computer and then it is processed by the computer to
produce the result or final output. All modern computers, like laptops, desktops including smartphones are digital computers.

Hybrid Computer

As the name suggests hybrid, which means made by combining two different things. Similarly, the hybrid computer is a
combination of both analog and digital computers. Hybrid computers are fast like analog computers and have memory and
accuracy like digital computers. So, it has the ability to process both continuous and discrete data. For working when it accepts
analog signals as input then it converts them into digital form before processing the input data. So, it is widely used in
specialized applications where both analog and digital data are required to be processed. A processor which is used in petrol
pumps that converts the measurements of fuel flow into quantity and price is an example of a hybrid computer.

Tablet and Smartphones

Tablets and Smartphones are the types of computers that are pocket friendly and easy to carry is these are handy. This is one of
the best use of modern technology. These devices have better hardware capabilities, extensive operating systems, and better
multimedia functionality. smartphones and tablets contain a number of sensors and are also able to provide wireless
communication protocols.

Differences between Hardware and Software

Computer Hardware

Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer or a machine that we can see and touch. It contains circuit board,
ICs, or other electronics in a computer system. It is a physical component that is used in different ways to build a computer or
any other machine. The Memory Devices, Processor, Central Processing Unit, Mouse, and the keyboard all are the examples of
the hardware in the computer system. On the other hand, the screen on which you are viewing this page is the best example of
the hardware, whether you are viewing this page on the tablet, monitor, or smartphone. A computer system would not be
existing without any hardware and not able to run any software. An example of an external hardware peripheral, a keyboard, is
shown in the picture. It allows users to give input to the computer.

Different types of Computer Hardware

1. Input Devices: Data and instructions are entered into computers via input devices. They let users communicate with
the system and enter data. Keyboards, mice, scanners, microphones, webcams, and joysticks are examples of input
devices.

2. Output Devices: They show or provide the user with the processed information. Users may view or experience the
outcomes of their interactions with the computer by using them. Examples of common output devices are printers,
speakers, headphones, and monitors or display screens.

3. Storage Devices: Storage devices are important for storing and accessing data on a computer. They store both user-
generated data and the operating system. SSD and HDD are the two most commonly used types of storage devices.
While SSDs use flash memory technology, HDDs store, and access data using rotating magnetic discs.

4. Internal Components: Internal components are the electronic circuits and pieces that comprise the basic
infrastructure of a computer system. Those components are in charge of how the computer processes
 information and functions. The central processing unit (CPU), which serves as the computer's "mind" through carrying
out computations and executing instructions, is certainly one of its essential internal components. The CPU can swiftly
retrieve data and instructions temporarily stored in random access memory (RAM). The primary circuit board, or
motherboard, links and controls all the computer's internal parts and creates paths for data transmission.

Computer Software

Software is a collection of procedures, instructions, documentation that tells a computer exactly what to do or allows users to
interact with a computer. Sometimes it is abbreviated as S/W and SW, which is most important for a computer or other similar
devices. Most of the computers may be useless without software. For example, if a software program, MS-Word is not installed
into your computer, you cannot make any document that can be completed through MS-Word. Also, you cannot surf
the Internet or visit any website if your system has no Internet browser software. Additionally, the browser could not run on the
computer without an operating system. The Google Chrome, Photoshop, MS Word, Excel, MySQL and more are examples of
software. The picture is shown below, is an example of software, which is a picture of Google Chrome, which is an Internet
software program.

Different types of Computer Software

1. System Software

Difference between JDK, JRE, and JVM

System software is the software that maintains and controls the basic functions of a computer system. It serves as a bridge
between the user and the hardware, ensuring the computer runs smoothly. Operating systems, device drivers, and utility
programs are a few examples of system software.

o Operating systems: An OS, or operating system, is the essential software that controls the resources of computer
hardware and applications.

o Device Drivers: Device drivers are software elements that help the operating system, and other linked hardware
devices communicate with one another.

o Utility programs: They are software applications created to perform particular tasks to enhance system performance or
offer extra features.

2. Application Software

Application software refers to programs and software applications executing certain tasks or giving end users features. These
programs are made to satisfy users' requirements in various areas, including communication, creativity, entertainment, and
productivity.

o Productivity Software: project management tools, word processors, spreadsheets, and presentation software
programs are all examples of productivity software. Users might also create, edit, and control files, spreadsheets,
presentations, and work-related activities with those tools.

o Creative Software: 3-D modeling programs, photograph- and video-editing programs, image design tools, and music-
production software are all examples of creative software. Users can express their creativity and produce digital
material because of these programs.

o Entertainment Software: Video games, multimedia players, and streaming programs are examples of entertainment
software. These programs allow users to participate in engaging, entertaining, and recreational activities.
 o Communication Software: Email clients, instant messaging programs, video conferencing tools, and web browsers are
all examples of communication software. These programs allow users to connect, work together, and access internet
resources.

Software is a collection of instructions run on the computer, whereas hardware is a physical device used with or on the
computer. On the other hand, the software cannot be touch and held in your hand, whereas hardware can be touch and held in
your hand.

Below is given a table that holds the differences between hardware and software.

Hardware Software

Hardware is a physical component of computers that Software is a program that enables users to interact
executes the instruction. with the computer, its hardware.

It is manufactured in factories. It is developed by software programmers or software

development companies.

Storage Devices, Input Devices, Output Devices, and Operating Systems, Application Software, and
Internal components are the primary categories of Programming Software are the main categories of
hardware. software.

Hardware can be seen and touch as it is a physical, The software can be seen but cannot be touched as it is
electronic device. virtual, not physical.

Computer viruses cannot affect hardware. Computer viruses can affect software.

Hardware can be replaced with a new one if it is damaged. The software is reinstalled if it gets damaged.

Through the network, hardware cannot be transferred The software can be transferred easily.
electrically. Only, it can be physically transferred.

What is an Operating System?

An operating system (OS) manages all other applications and programs in a computer, and it is loaded into the computer by a
boot program. It enables applications to interact with a computer’s hardwareOperating System

Operating System lies in the category of system software. It basically manages all the resources of the computer. An operating
system acts as an interface between the software and different parts of the computer or the computer hardware. The operating
system is designed in such a way that it can manage the overall resources and operations of the computer.

Operating System is a fully integrated set of specialized programs that handle all the operations of the computer

An Operating System (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer hardware resources and provides common services
for computer programs. The operating system is the most important type of system software in a computer system.
Why Use an Operating System?

The operating system helps in improving the computer software as well as hardware. Without OS, it became very difficult for
any application to be user-friendly. Operating System provides a user with an interface that makes any application attractive and
user-friendly.. It is one of the most important parts of the system and hence it is present in every device, whether large or small
device.

Windows, Linux, and Android are examples of operating systems that enable the user to use programs like MS Office, Notepad,
and games on the computer or mobile phone. It is necessary to have at least one operating system installed in the computer to
run basic programs like browsers.

Types of Operating Systems

There are several types of Operating Systems which are mentioned below.

 Batch Operating System

 Multi-Programming System

 Multi-Processing System

 Multi-Tasking Operating System

 Time-Sharing Operating System

 Distributed Operating System

 Network Operating System

 Real-Time Operating System

1. Batch Operating System

This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is an operator which takes similar jobs having
the same requirement and groups them into batches. It is the responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with similar needs.

Batch Operating System

Advantages of Batch Operating System

 It is very difficult to guess or know the time required for any job to complete. Processors of the batch systems know
how long the job would be when it is in the queue.

 Multiple users can share the batch systems.

 The idle time for the batch system is very less.

 It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems.

Disadvantages of Batch Operating System

 The computer operators should be well known with batch systems.

 Batch systems are hard to debug.

 It is sometimes costly.

 The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails.
Examples of Batch Operating Systems: Payroll Systems, Bank Statements, etc.

2. Multi-Programming Operating System

Multiprogramming Operating Systems can be simply illustrated as more than one program is present in the main memory and
any one of them can be kept in execution. This is basically used for better execution of resources.

MultiProgramming

Advantages of Multi-Programming Operating System

 Multi Programming increases the Throughput of the System.

 It helps in reducing the response time.

Disadvantages of Multi-Programming Operating System

 There is not any facility for user interaction of system resources with the system.

3. Multi-Processing Operating System

Multi-Processing Operating System is a type of Operating System in which more than one CPU is used for the execution of
resources. It betters the throughput of the System.

Multiprocessing

Advantages of Multi-Processing Operating System

 It increases the throughput of the system.

 As it has several processors, so, if one processor fails, we can proceed with another processor.

Disadvantages of Multi-Processing Operating System

 Due to the multiple CPU, it can be more complex and somehow difficult to understand.

4. Multi-Tasking Operating System

Multitasking Operating System is simply a multiprogramming Operating System with having facility of a Round-Robin Scheduling
Algorithm. It can run multiple programs simultaneously.

There are two types of Multi-Tasking Systems which are listed below.

 Preemptive Multi-Tasking

 Cooperative Multi-Tasking

Multitasking

Advantages of Multi-Tasking Operating System

 Multiple Programs can be executed simultaneously in Multi-Tasking Operating System.

 It comes with proper memory management.

Disadvantages of Multi-Tasking Operating System

  The system gets heated in case of heavy programs multiple times.

5. Time-Sharing Operating Systems

Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets the time of the CPU as they use a
single system. These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be from a single user or different users also.
The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After this time interval is over OS switches over to the next task.

Time-Sharing OS

Advantages of Time-Sharing OS

 Each task gets an equal opportunity.

 Fewer chances of duplication of software.

 CPU idle time can be reduced.

 Resource Sharing: Time-sharing systems allow multiple users to share hardware resources such as the CPU, memory,
and peripherals, reducing the cost of hardware and increasing efficiency.

 Improved Productivity: Time-sharing allows users to work concurrently, thereby reducing the waiting time for their turn
to use the computer. This increased productivity translates to more work getting done in less time.

 Improved User Experience: Time-sharing provides an interactive environment that allows users to communicate with
the computer in real time, providing a better user experience than batch processing.

Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS

 Reliability problem.

 One must have to take care of the security and integrity of user programs and data.

 Data communication problem.

 High Overhead: Time-sharing systems have a higher overhead than other operating systems due to the need for
scheduling, context switching, and other overheads that come with supporting multiple users.

 Complexity: Time-sharing systems are complex and require advanced software to manage multiple users
simultaneously. This complexity increases the chance of bugs and errors.

 Security Risks: With multiple users sharing resources, the risk of security breaches increases. Time-sharing systems
require careful management of user access, authentication, and authorization to ensure the security of data and
software.

Examples of Time-Sharing OS with explanation

 IBM VM/CMS: IBM VM/CMS is a time-sharing operating system that was first introduced in 1972. It is still in use today,
providing a virtual machine environment that allows multiple users to run their own instances of operating systems and
applications.

 TSO (Time Sharing Option): TSO is a time-sharing operating system that was first introduced in the 1960s by IBM for
the IBM System/360 mainframe computer. It allowed multiple users to access the same computer simultaneously,
running their own applications.

 Windows Terminal Services: Windows Terminal Services is a time-sharing operating system that allows multiple users
to access a Windows server remotely. Users can run their own applications and access shared resources, such as
printers and network storage, in real-time.
6. Distributed Operating System

These types of operating system is a recent advancement in the world of computer technology and are being widely accepted all
over the world and, that too, at a great pace. Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate with each other
using a shared communication network. Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU. These are referred to
as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. These systems’ processors differ in size and function. The major benefit of
working with these types of the operating system is that it is always possible that one user can access the files or software which
are not actually present on his system but some other system connected within this network i.e., remote access is enabled
within the devices connected in that network.

Distributed OS

Advantages of Distributed Operating System

 Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are independent of each other.

 Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed.

 Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable.

 Load on host computer reduces.

 These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the network.

 Delay in data processing reduces.

Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System

 Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication.

 To establish distributed systems the language is used not well-defined yet.

 These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive. Not only that the underlying software is
highly complex and not understood well yet.

Examples of Distributed Operating Systems are LOCUS, etc.

7. Network Operating System

These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other
networking functions. These types of operating systems allow shared access to files, printers, security, applications, and other
networking functions over a small private network. One more important aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the
users are well aware of the underlying configuration, of all other users within the network, their individual connections, etc. and
that’s why these computers are popularly known as tightly coupled systems.

Network Operating System

Advantages of Network Operating System

 Highly stable centralized servers.

 Security concerns are handled through servers.

 New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated into the system.

 Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of systems.
Disadvantages of Network Operating System

 Servers are costly.

 User has to depend on a central location for most operations.

 Maintenance and updates are required regularly.

Examples of Network Operating Systems are Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux,
Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, BSD, etc.

8. Real-Time Operating System

These types of OSs serve real-time systems. The time interval required to process and respond to inputs is very small. This time
interval is called response time.
Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements that are very strict like missile systems, air traffic control
systems, robots, etc.

Types of Real-Time Operating Systems

 Hard Real-Time Systems:

Hard Real-Time OSs are meant for applications where time constraints are very strict and even the shortest possible
delay is not acceptable. These systems are built for saving life like automatic parachutes or airbags which are required
to be readily available in case of an accident. Virtual memory is rarely found in these systems.

 Soft Real-Time Systems:

These OSs are for applications where time-constraint is less strict.

For more, refer to the Difference Between Hard Real-Time OS and Soft Real-Time OS.

Real-Time Operating System

Advantages of RTOS

 Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and systems, thus more output from all the resources.

 Task Shifting: The time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems is very less. For example, in older systems, it takes
about 10 microseconds in shifting from one task to another, and in the latest systems, it takes 3 microseconds.

 Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less importance on applications that are in the queue.

 Real-time operating system in the embedded system: Since the size of programs is small, RTOS can also be used in
embedded systems like in transport and others.

 Error Free: These types of systems are error-free.

 Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these types of systems.

Disadvantages of RTOS

 Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their concentration is very less on a few applications to avoid
errors.

 Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so good and they are expensive as well.

 Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the designer to write on.

 Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and interrupts signal to respond earliest to
interrupts.
  Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these systems are very less prone to switching tasks.

Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems,
weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.

Objectives of OS

The primary goals of an operating system are as follows:

 Convenience – An operating system improves the use of a machine. Operating systems enable users to get started on
the things they wish to complete quickly without having to cope with the stress of first configuring the system.

 Efficiency – An operating system enables the efficient use of resources. This is due to less time spent configuring the
system.

 Ability to evolve – An operating system should be designed in such a way that it allows for the effective development,
testing, and introduction of new features without interfering with service.

 Management of system resources – It guarantees that resources are shared fairly among various processes and users.

Functions of Operating System

1. Memory Management

It is the management of the main or primary memory. Whatever program is executed, it has to be present in the main memory.
Main memory is a quick storage area that may be accessed directly by the CPU. When the program is completed, the memory
region is released and can be used by other programs. Therefore, there can be more than one program present at a time. Hence,
it is required to manage the memory.

The operating system:

 Allocates and deallocates the memory.

 Keeps a record of which part of primary memory is used by whom and how much.

 Distributes the memory while multiprocessing.

 In multiprogramming, the operating system selects which processes acquire memory when and how much memory
they get.

2. Processor Management/Scheduling

Every software that runs on a computer, whether in the background or in the frontend, is a process. Processor management is
an execution unit in which a program operates. The operating system determines the status of the processor and processes,
selects a job and its processor, allocates the processor to the process, and de-allocates the processor after the process is
completed.

When more than one process runs on the system the OS decides how and when a process will use the CPU. Hence, the name is
also CPU Scheduling. The OS:

 Allocates and deallocates processor to the processes.

 Keeps record of CPU status.

Certain algorithms used for CPU scheduling are as follows:

 First Come First Serve (FCFS)

 Shortest Job First (SJF)

  Round-Robin Scheduling

 Priority-based scheduling etc.

Purpose of CPU scheduling

The purpose of CPU scheduling is as follows:

 Proper utilization of CPU. Since the proper utilization of the CPU is necessary. Therefore, the OS makes sure that the
CPU should be as busy as possible.

 Since every device should get a chance to use the processor. Hence, the OS makes sure that the devices get fair
processor time.

 Increasing the efficiency of the system.

3. Device Management

An operating system regulates device connection using drivers. The processes may require devices for their use. This
management is done by the OS. The OS:

 Allocates and deallocates devices to different processes.

 Keeps records of the devices.

 Decides which process can use which device for how much time.

4. File Management

The operating system manages resource allocation and de-allocation. It specifies which process receives the file and for how
long. It also keeps track of information, location, uses, status, and so on. These groupings of resources are referred to as file
systems. The files on a system are stored in different directories. The OS:

 Keeps records of the status and locations of files.

 Allocates and deallocates resources.

 Decides who gets the resources.

5. Storage Management

Storage management is a procedure that allows users to maximize the utilization of storage devices while also protecting data
integrity on whatever media on which it lives. Network virtualization, replication, mirroring, security, compression,
deduplication, traffic analysis, process automation, storage provisioning, and memory management are some of the features
that may be included. The operating system is in charge of storing and accessing files. The creation of files, the creation of
directories, the reading and writing of data from files and directories, as well as the copying of the contents of files and
directories from one location to another are all included in storage management.

The OS uses storage management for:

 Improving the performance of the data storage resources.

 It optimizes the use of various storage devices.

 Assists businesses in storing more data on existing hardware, speeding up the data retrieval process, preventing data
loss, meeting data retention regulations, and lowering IT costs

What are the functions of Operating System

 Security – For security, modern operating systems employ a firewall. A firewall is a type of security system that
monitors all computer activity and blocks it if it detects a threat.
 Job Accounting – As the operating system keeps track of all the functions of a computer system. Hence, it makes a
record of all the activities taking place on the system. It has an account of all the information about the memory,
resources, errors, etc. Therefore, this information can be used as and when required.

 Control over system performance – The operating system will collect consumption statistics for various resources and
monitor performance indicators such as reaction time, which is the time between requesting a service and receiving a
response from the system.

 Error detecting aids – While a computer system is running, a variety of errors might occur. Error detection guarantees
that data is delivered reliably across susceptible networks. The operating system continuously monitors the system to
locate or recognize problems and protects the system from them.

 Coordination between other software and users – The operating system (OS) allows hardware components to be
coordinated and directs and allocates assemblers, interpreters, compilers, and other software to different users of
the computer system.

 Booting process – The process of starting or restarting a computer is referred to as Booting. Cold booting occurs when
a computer is totally turned off and then turned back on. Warm booting occurs when the computer is restarted. The
operating system (OS) is in charge of booting the computer.