Journal of Environmental Management 169 (2016) 223e235

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Review

A review on paint sludge from automotive industries: Generation,

characteristics and management
Guray Salihoglu*, Nezih Kamil Salihoglu
Environmental Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Uludag University, Bursa, 16059, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The automotive manufacturing process results in the consumption of several natural sources and the
Received 7 September 2015 generation of various types of wastes. The primary source of hazardous wastes at an automotive
Received in revised form manufacturing plant is the painting process, and the major waste fraction is paint sludge, which is
28 December 2015
classified with EU waste code of 080113* implying hazardous characteristics. The amount of the paint
Accepted 30 December 2015
Available online 12 January 2016
sludge generated increases every year with the worldwide increase in the car production. The charac-
teristics of the paint sludge, which mainly designate the management route, are mainly determined by
the type of the paint used, application technique employed, and the chemicals applied such as floccu-
Keywords:
Automobile manufacturers
lants, detackifiers, pH boosters, antifoam agents, and biocides as well as the dewatering techniques
Spray booth preferred. Major routes for the disposal of the paint sludges are incineration as hazardous waste or
Cement kiln combustion at cement kilns. Because of high dissolved organic carbon content of the paint, the paint
Solvent-based sludge cannot be accepted by landfills according to European Union Legislations. More investigations are
Water-based needed in the field of paint sludge recycling such as recycling it as a new paint or as other formulations,
Detackifier or making use of the sludge for the production of construction materials. Research on the applicability of
the paint sludge in composting and biogasification can also be useful. Ongoing research is currently being
conducted on new application techniques to increase the effectiveness of paint transfer, which helps to
prevent the generation of paint sludge. Advancements in paint and coating chemistry such as the
reduction in the coating layers with its thickness also help to decrease the level of paint sludge gener-
ation. Investigations on the effects of the chemicals on the recycling potential of paint sludges and
consideration of these effects by the chemical manufacturer companies would be extremely important.
This review presents the formation of paint sludge, the factors affecting its characteristics, common
disposal routes, the findings of the field trips to automotive manufacturing plants in Turkey, and a
summary of the characterization findings of the paint sludge samples from a plant in Turkey.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction: automotive manufacturing plants and their
environmental impact
The demand for vehicles and world car production has been
increasing at a constant rate. The global vehicle production in 2014
reached 89.75 million units compared with 53.12 million units in
1997 (OICA, 2015). In Turkey, there are 13 automotive
manufacturing plants (OEMs), producing over 1 million vehicles
per year (ISPAT, 2014). Fig. 1 shows the yearly increase in the vehicle
production in the world and in Turkey. The global vehicle owner-
ship is reported to have climbed from approximately 47.6 million in
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: gurays@uludag.edu.tr (G. Salihoglu).
1960 to over 573 million in 2002 (Mayyas et al., 2012). The increase
is expected to continue, as it is known that the global automotive
manufacturers in Turkey, such as Toyota, Renault, Fiat, Hyundai,
and Ford plan to increase their investments (ISPAT, 2014).
The presence of automotive manufacturers will naturally attract
investments by automotive suppliers to the same geographical
region, as seen in several cities in Turkey. There are 339 registered
automotive suppliers, of which 47 have revenues exceeding 40
million USD in various Turkish cities (ISPAT, 2014).
Automotive companies and customers are usually concerned
about the environmental and safety impacts of the use of auto-
mobiles. However, the environmental impacts of the automobile
manufacturing process are also significant. The automotive
manufacturing process results in the consumption of several nat-
ural sources and the generation of various types of gaseous, liquid

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.12.039
0301-4797/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
224 G. Salihoglu, N.K. Salihoglu / Journal of Environmental Management 169 (2016) 223e235

Fig. 1. Vehicle production in the world and in Turkey.

and solid wastes, both hazardous and non-hazardous. Fig. 2 shows generated during the manufacturing of a vehicle. The data were
the environmental aspects of a car manufacturer in Turkey. Table 1 obtained from the sustainability reports of the companies
gives a summary of the amounts of different types of wastes indicated.

Fig. 2. Environmental aspects of an automobile manufacturer in Turkey.

Table 1
Environmental indicators of automotive companies.

G. Salihoglu, N.K. Salihoglu / Journal of Environmental Management 169 (2016) 223e235

Name of the Total waste Hazardous Metallic Waste recycled/ Hazardous Waste Water Wastewater Energy CO2 VOCs Environmental Environmental Reference
company produced (kg/ waste produced waste (kg/ recovered (kg/ waste recycled disposed use (m3/ release (m3/ consumption emissions (kg/ investment costs operation costs
vehicle)a (kg/vehicle) vehicle) vehicle)a (kg/vehicle) (kg/ vehicle) vehicle) (MWh/ (t-CO2/ vehicle) (Euro/vehicle) (Euro/vehicle)
vehicle) vehicle) vehicle)

Nissan 44.62 39.86 4.76 7.02 5.84 2.19 0.57 2.66 (Nissan,
2014)
Audi 76.91 40.94 327.86 63.67 28.10 13.24 3.60 2.39 2.66 0.62 2.02 (Audi, 2013)
Fiat 3.50 209.0b 2.71 3.23 1.76 0.52 (Fiat, 2013)
Volkswagen 46.53 21.14 196.18 36.68 10.90 9.85 4.33 3.54 1.08 0.42 3.62 12.36 191.73 (Volkswagen,
2013)
PSA 73.00 4.85 2.42 0.24 3.75 (PSA, 2010)
Toyota 12.40 3.10 0.41 1.90c (Toyota,
2014)
GM Europe 267.00b 5.51 3.22 0.95 2.90 (GM, 2013)
GM North 436.00b 5.66 3.87 1.50 2.80 (GM, 2013)
U.S.
GM South 224.00b 3.54 1.25 0.23 4.30 (GM, 2013)
U.S.
Ford 7.00 8.10 4.00 2.44 0.78 (Ford, 2013)
BMW 5.73 2.18 0.47 2.36 0.68 1.59 (BMW, 2013)
Daimler 1.04 1.18 (Daimler,
2013)
Tata 1.41 0.68 (Tata, 2013)
TOFAS-Fiat 58.80 11.20 196.20 58.80 11.20 0.00 3.55 2.22 1.31 0.46 3.10c (TOFAS-Fiat,
2012)
a
Excluding the metallic waste.
b
These values indicate all the waste including the metallic waste.
c
The value was calculated assuming the estimations of average bodywork surface area painted (Hahn et al., 2009), which are 100 m2 for Toyota, and 80 m2 for Fiat. The references by Toyota and TOFAS-Fiat reported the VOC
emissions as 19.0 g/m2 and 38.7 g/m2, respectively.

225
226 G. Salihoglu, N.K. Salihoglu / Journal of Environmental Management 169 (2016) 223e235
According to Table 1, the total solid waste (excluding metallic
waste) produced per vehicle ranges from 12.40 to 76.91 kg. Metallic
waste ranges from 196.18 to 436.00 kg/vehicle. According to the
European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) (2015),
the amount of the waste produced by a car fluctuated between 80
and 100 kg/car between the years 2005e2013. The portion of
hazardous waste in the total waste per vehicle varied between 19%
and 53% (Table 1). Daimler (2013) reported that 19% of the total
waste produced by the company is hazardous, while BMW (2013)
reported approximately 16%.
Automotive assembly plants worldwide are facing increasing
pressures in the environmental arena recently. These pressures
come in the form of stringent, complex and costly regulations and
demands from a growing number of stakeholders for improved
environmental performance (Geffen and Rothenberg, 2000). Man-
ufacturers constantly work on decreasing the environmental load
of an individual vehicle. The CO2 emissions per vehicle produced
was reported to have dropped by 14.1% between 2005 and 2013,
0.85 ton/car in 2005 and 0.71 ton/car in 2013 (ACEA, 2015). Table 1
shows the variations for different vehicles, with CO2 emissions
ranging from 0.23 to 1.50 ton CO2/vehicle, energy consumption
ranging from 1.08 to 3.87 MW/vehicle, and VOC emissions ranging
from 1.18 to 4.30 kg/vehicle. The water used per vehicle varies from
2.18 to 7.02 m3/vehicle, while the wastewater release ranges from
0.47 to 5.84 m3/vehicle. Fig. 3 shows yearly inputs and outputs of an
automobile manufacturer in Turkey. The environmental load
resulting from automotive manufacturing processes leads manu-
facturers to make environmental investments. Volkswagen re-
ported the environmental investment cost per vehicle as 12.36
Euro, and the environmental operation costs per vehicle as 191.73
Euro (Table 1). Fig. 4 shows the distribution of yearly environmental
management costs of an automobile manufacturer in Turkey. The
highest share of the costs belongs to the management of hazardous
wastes (39.8%), followed by the management of industrial waste-
water (21.8%). Paint sludge management constitutes the major part
of the environmental costs of hazardous waste management with
57.6% (Fig. 4).
2. Hazardous wastes generated by automotive manufacturing
plants
An automobile is manufactured through four main processes: 1)
Fig. 3. Environmental inputs and outputs of an automobile manufacturer in Turkey.
Stamping (press shop), 2) Welding (body shop), 3) Painting (paint
shop) and 4) Assembly. The press shop marks the beginning of the
production process, where metal blanks cut from steel and
aluminum rolls are shaped by metal presses. Subsequently, the
pressed metal parts are welded by robots in the body shop.
Aluminum and steel components are first made into smaller as-
sembly units, such as doors, frame fore-structures or underbodies,
and then welded, glued or bolted together in the body shop. The
next station is the paint shop, where the body is brought onto an
automated conveyor belt. The body is first cleaned and degreased in
immersion baths and then coated with a layer of zinc phosphate.
After this, three or four additional layers of paint are applied to
protect the automobile from environmental conditions and to give
a long lasting brilliance and luster. The last process is assembly,
where components such as armchairs, steering wheels, wheels,
headlights, and mirrors are installed.
Several hazardous wastes are generated during the whole
manufacturing process of an automobile. Fig. 5 shows the hazard-
ous waste generation points and the major hazardous waste types
generated (including the waste codes defined by the EWC, Euro-
pean Waste Catalogue). However, depending on the company and
waste management system, the number of possible hazardous
waste types from the automotive manufacturing process can be
much more than those shown in Fig. 5. Supplementary Table 1 and
Supplementary Table 2 give lists of possible hazardous and non-
hazardous wastes, respectively, that can be generated from auto-
motive manufacturing processes (MoEU, 2013). The lists are given
with the waste codes which are indicated in the EWC and Com-
mission Decision 2000/532/EC (SEPA, 2013). Several hazardous
wastes that can be originated from the automotive industry, but not
necessarily from the manufacturing process, are given in
Supplementary Table 3.
Hazardous wastes generated by two Turkish automotive
manufacturing plants were examined from the official waste
declaration documents; Fig. 6a and b show the distribution of the
hazardous wastes generated. Paint sludge constitutes the most
abundant hazardous process waste generated in both plants. The
percentages differ, however; the paint sludge amounted to 21% of
the total hazardous waste from automotive manufacturing plant 1
(AM1) whereas it was 35% for plant 2 (AM2). The difference in the
percentage is mostly because different code definitions of the same
wastes were used within each plant. For example, AM1 declared
 G. Salihoglu, N.K. Salihoglu / Journal of Environmental Management 169 (2016) 223e235 227

Fig. 4. Distribution of environmental management costs of an automobile manufacturer in Turkey.

Fig. 5. Hazardous waste generation points in an automobile manufacturing process.

that it generates paint sludge, waste solvent, waste mastic, waste
sealant and metal sludge. While AM2 declared that it generates
more paint sludge than AM1 (Fig. 6b), it can be inferred that AM2
categorized the waste solvent, mastic, and sealant under the code
for paint sludge. When the non-hazardous wastes from AM1 and
AM2 were examined, it was observed that sewage sludge consti-
tutes the majority, with 19% and 36% in the total hazardous waste of
AM1 and AM2, respectively. Sewage sludge was followed by
contaminated waste in both plants.
3. Painting in the automotive industry
The data from the two plants agree with the literature (Geffen
and Rothenberg, 2000), which reports that the primary source of
hazardous wastes at an automotive manufacturing plant is gener-
ally traced to a single unit operation: automotive painting.
According to Papasavva et al. (2001), the paint shop creates the
greatest environmental load among all manufacturing stages of an
automobile. Geffen and Rothenberg (2000) reported that over 80%
of the environmental concerns at automotive manufacturing plants
stem from the paint shop and related operations. Similarly, ac-
cording to Zorpas and Inglezakis (2012), painting and coating ac-
count for the largest share of environmental impacts (62%) during
the manufacture of automobiles.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are the pollutants of pri-
mary concern emitted from paint shops. Chang et al. (2002) con-
ducted a survey to determine the volume and composition of the
exhaust gases from 80 stacks of 5 automobile assembly plants in
Taiwan and found that VOC emissions from spray painting (primers
and clear coats) were the major sources (approximately 85% of the
total VOC emissions). Due to the increase in vehicle production,
automotive paint consumption has been increasing, and it is
228 G. Salihoglu, N.K. Salihoglu / Journal of Environmental Management 169 (2016) 223e235
Fig. 6. Types of the hazardous wastes generated by two of the automotive manufacturing plants (AM1 and AM2) in Turkey a) all types, b) major types.
anticipated that the market for automotive paints will continue to
grow. This increase in the demand for automotive paints raises
concerns about the hazards caused by the VOCs in the paints. To
meet the demands of the existing and upcoming environmental
regulations, automotive manufacturers have been shifting to low
VOC products such as water-based paints. It has been reported that
the VOC emissions for a car decreased from 4.10 kg/car in
2005e2.58 kg/car in 2013 (ACEA, 2015), a reduction of 35.6% per
vehicle over 8 years, due to the use of water-based paints as a
replacement for solvent-based paints. It has been reported that in
North America and Europe, many automotive manufacturers have
already converted their plants to water-based paints to lower VOC
emissions (Linn, 2011). The water consumption per car has also
been reported to have decreased by 33.5% between 2005 and 2013,
from 6.1 m3/car to 4.05 m3/car (ACEA, 2015).
3.1. Painting process
The painting process is a complex, multistage operation that is
extremely energy intensive. Fig. 7 shows the process flowchart for
automobile painting. Automotive paint consists of a system of
several layers of different coating materials that are applied
separately but must work together to provide corrosion protection,
durability and color. Each of these layers has its own special per-
formance requirements and must be formulated to bond with the
next layer to form a durable coating that will not flake or peel
(Geffen and Rothenberg, 2000).
Phosphatizing (Fig. 7) is the treatment of metal body with
phosphoric acid, leading to the following reactions on the zinc-rich
surface of the steel (Debnath, 2013), yielding a mixture of zinc
phosphates:
2H3 PO4 þ 3Zn /3H2 þ Zn3 ðPO4 Þ2 (1)
2H3 PO4 þ Fe þ 2Zn /3 H2 þ FeZn2 ðPO4 Þ2 (2)
The electrocoat paint binds better to the zinc phosphates than to
the steel alone, and the zinc phosphate corrodes much more slowly
than does pure steel (Debnath, 2013). Electrocoat is the first
physical coating applied to the metal body to provide corrosion
protection. The metal body is immersed in a tank where the
charged paint is electrostatically attracted to the metal surface,
followed by baking in an oven at 170e180  C for 30 min.
The primer surfacer shown in Fig. 7 is a coating sprayed on top of
 G. Salihoglu, N.K. Salihoglu / Journal of Environmental Management 169 (2016) 223e235
Fig. 7. Painting process flow chart.
the electrocoat to provide a smooth metal surface, which results in
a more appealing reflective appearance. It is followed by baking in
an oven at 180  C for 30 min. In many modern paint lines, the base
and clear coats are applied in a “wet on wet” fashion. Water-based
base coat is applied after the baking of the primer surface, and the
body is dried in a flash off oven at 80  C for 10 min. After this step,
clear coat is applied and then both the base coat and clear coat are
cured concurrently in the same oven for 30 min at 160  C. Baking
causes different polymer chains to crosslink, forming a very strong,
flexible, interconnected network of polymers over the whole sur-
face of the car. Table 2 gives several characteristics of the coating
layers of an automobile. Chang et al. (2002) reported that 70%e80%
of VOCs were emitted from the spray booth system, while 10%e20%
were emitted through drying ovens.
3.2. Paints
Automotive paints are formulated according to their proposed
use: primer, base coat or special finishes (matt, gloss, heat resis-
tance, anticorrosion, abrasion resistance). The paints contain
organic polymers and solvents. Specifically, paints contain: 1) Pig-
ments to impart color and opacity, 2) Binder (resin), a polymer
forming a matrix to hold the pigment in place, 3) Extender, larger
pigment particles added to improve adhesion, strengthen the film
and save binder, 4) Solvent (sometimes called a thinner), either an
organic solvent or water to reduce the viscosity of the paint for
better application, 5) Additives to modify the properties of the
liquid paint or dry film.
The solvent content of the paints contribute to air pollution as
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during the operations. To
reduce the solvent content in paints, water-based paints and
powdered paints have been developed. Water-based paint alter-
natives are found to be ecologically more efficient than their
solvent-containing counterparts (Schulz, 2013), although water-
based paints are not entirely free of organic solvents. The use of
water-based and powdered paints has been limited for various
reasons; “shine” and “depth” are sometimes considered not to be as
attractive as with solvent-based paints (Kelly, 2009; Kim, 2011). In
addition, water-based systems require more time for drying. The
overall environmental footprints of water-based and powder paints
Table 2
Several characteristics of coating layers of an automobile.
Order (bottom to top: 1 to 4) Name of the layer Thicknessa
4 Clear coat 35e45 mm
3 Base coat 12e18 mm
2 Primer surfacer 15e40 mm
1 Electrocoat 18e25 mm
a
Hannour and Szela (2013).
b
Nakouzi et al. (1998).
c
Hilt (2011).
229
may not necessarily be smaller than those of solvent-based paints.
Papasavva et al. (2001) conducted a life cycle analysis using three
painting scenarios: 1) solvent based primer þ water-based
basecoat þ solvent-based clear coat, 2) powder primer þ water-
based basecoat þ solvent-based clear coat, 3) powder
primer þ water-based basecoat þ powder clear coat, and concluded
that the last involved the least energy use, water consumption,
solid waste and VOCs, but exceeded the other scenarios in terms of
particulate matter, SOX and CO2 equivalent emissions. However,
because the VOCs in paints and varnishes are restricted by Euro-
pean Directive 2004/42/EC, the trend for converting to water-based
systems has already commenced in Europe and in the United States
(Kelly, 2009). Directive 2004/42/EC on the content of VOCs in
coating products places limits on the VOC concentration of coatings
for paints and varnishes.
Water-based paint is mostly applied in base-coat applications,
and solvent-based paint is still the most preferred form of clear coat
(Deters, 2006). According to Deters (2006), three forms of paint
(solvent-based, water-based, powder) will continue to be used as
primer surfacer, and solvent will continue to be converted to water
in basecoats. Solvent-based paint is reported to remain the major
form in clear coats (Deters, 2006). Latex paint, water-borne paint
and water-based paint are equivalent terms. Rink and Mayer (1998)
reported a comparison of water-based and solvent-based basecoats
as given in Table 3.
The chemical compositions of different water-based and
solvent-based paints used at automobile manufacturing plants are
given in Table 4 and Table 5, respectively. The chemicals of concern
in paint products are as follows: for activators: ethyl acetate,
toluene, aliphatic polyisocyanate, hexamethylene diisocyanate; for
thinners (solvents): butyl acetate, ethylbenzene, toluene/xylene,
methyl ethyl ketone; for primers: barium sulphate, resins and
fillers, toluene/xylene, isocyanates; for basecoats: methyl ethyl
ketone, titanium dioxide, metallic pigments, xylene; for clear coats:
Table 3
A comparison of water-based and solvent-based basecoats (Rink and Mayer, 1998).
Solvent-based basecoat Water-based basecoat
Solids content (%) 13e20 13e20
Solvent content (%) 80e87 up to 15
VOC (g/l) 650e800 <420
Organic polymer units insideb Usage in car (kg)c On car (kg)c
Melamine, acrylic 2.1 1.0
Acrylic, melamine, pigments (15% TiO2) 4.0 0.5
Polyester, melamine, BaSO4 2.5 0.8
Epoxy, polyester, urethane 4.5 3.0
230 G. Salihoglu, N.K. Salihoglu / Journal of Environmental Management 169 (2016) 223e235

Table 4 4. Paint sludge

Chemical composition of a water-based paint used in automotive industry.

Material Level (%)a Level (%)b 4.1. Formation

2-butoxyethanol 10
Isopropyl alcohol 2.5 Spraying of the water-based and solvent-based paints is carried
2,4,7,9-teramethyl-5-decyn-4,7-diol 1 out in a series of paint spray booths with powerful exhaust systems,
2,2’-(ethylenedioxy) diethanol 2 water curtains flowing down the sides and a grating on the floor. An
Titanium dioxide 21
illustration of a paint spray booth operating system is shown in
Naphta 4
Polyurethane 3 Fig. 8. As items are painted in these booths, a certain amount of
Polyester resin 7 paint does not contact the article being painted and forms a fine
Melamine formaldehyde 4 mist of paint in the air surrounding the article. This paint must be
Ethylene glycol monobuthyl ether 7
removed from the air. To accomplish this, the contaminated air is
2-hexyloxyethanol 2
Polymethylmethacrylate 10
pulled through the paint spray booth by exhaust fans. A curtain of
Water 40 circulating water is maintained across the path of the air in such a
a way that the air must pass through the water curtain to reach the
Composition of the paint used by an automotive plant in Turkey (Data taken
from Safety Data Sheet of the paint manufactured by BASF). exhaust fans. As the air passes through the water curtain, the paint
b
Composition of the paint manufactured by DuPont is reported by Papasavva mist is “scrubbed” from the air. Water curtains help to purify the air
et al. (2001). flow inside the booth by partially absorbing the airborne paint mist.

Table 5
Chemical composition of a solvent-based paint used in automotive industry.

Material Level (%)a Level (%)b Level (%)c

n-buthyl acetate 35 3
xylene 5 18 41.64
butan-1-ol 3 14
1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6-triamine, polymer with formaldehyde 20
butylated ethylbenzene 1 1
naphtha (petroleum), hydrotreated light 1 3
2-(2-butoxyethoxy) ethanol 1
heptane 1
naphtha (petroleum) light alkylate 0.25
solvent naphtha (petroleum) light a. 0.25
naphtha (petroleum) hydrodesulphurized heavy 0.25
1,2,4-trimethylbenzene 0.25
solvent naphtha (petroleum), medium aliphatic 0.2
methanol 2
melamine formaldehyde 12
cumene 1
3-methacryloxypropy-trimethoxy-silane 5
polymethylmethacrylate 42
carbon black 3.15
calcium carbonate 8.97
thickener 2.97
triethylamine 0.32
toluene 19.92
drying agents 1.59
talc 9.98
polycarboxylic acid 0.54
methyl-ethyl-cetoxime 0.16
bonding agent 1
a
Composition of the paint used by an automotive plant in Turkey (data taken from safety data sheet of the paint of the paint manufactured by PPG).
b
Composition of the paint manufactured by DuPont is reported by Papasavva et al. (2001).
c
Composition of the paint is reported by Arce et al. (2010).

methyl ethyl ketone, toluene, mixed dibasic esters, petroleum
naphtha (Cushmac et al., 2015). Kim et al. (2000) grouped the
solvents used in solvent-based paint at an automotive
manufacturing plant into hydrophobic and hydrophilic types. The
hydrophobic group contained aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g., toluene,
xylene, ethyl benzene, 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene and naphthalene),
aliphatic hydrocarbons (e.g., n-heptane and naphtha), and other
hydrocarbon mixtures (e.g., mineral spirits). The hydrophilic group
contained ketones (e.g., acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, methyl iso-
butyl ketone, methyl amyl ketone, and di-isobutyl ketone), esters
(e.g., ethylacetate, n-butylacetate, ethyl propionate and isobutyl
isobutyrate), alcohols (e.g., methanol, ethanol, propanols and bu-
tanols) and glycolethers (e.g., butyl cellosolve acetate and butyl
carbitol).
The booth air that exits the system goes through a filter house or
wet electrostatic precipitator to remove the remaining paint par-
ticulates. The overspray paint washed with the help of continuously
circulating water curtains passes through the floor grating system
and is collected in a sludge pit located under the booth. This
mixture of water and overspray paint is called paint sludge. The
sludge pit functions as a flotation tank, where the paint sludge is
separated from the water by flotation. The flotation process is
helped by the addition of coagulants and flocculants. The generated
sludge, called paint waste, is managed as hazardous waste, and the
water remaining in the flotation tank is recirculated to the painting
booth. The paint sludge is removed periodically or continuously
from the spray booth. According to Consejo et al. (2005), the
recirculation is stopped when the water reaches a COD level of
 G. Salihoglu, N.K. Salihoglu / Journal of Environmental Management 169 (2016) 223e235 231

only.
Ruffino and Zanetti (2010) reported that Italian automotive
plants produce from 2.5 to 5.0 kg of paint sludge per painted car,
while the Turkish automotive plants interviewed stated a paint
sludge production rate ranging from 1.5 to 2.5 kg/car expressed as
dry solids. Papasavva et al. (2002) reported a sludge generation rate
of 2.5 kg/car expressed as dry solids, which is comparable with the
statements from Turkish automotive plants. For a total of 1,218,848
vehicles produced in Turkey in 2014 (ISPAT, 2014) and a mean value
of 2.05 kg DS paint sludge generated per car, the paint sludge
production was approximately 2500 tons paint sludge (DS)/year.
The paint consumed is estimated to be 14,419 tons/year. Fig. 9
shows a mass balance for a car painting process in a spray booth
based on the data from a Turkish automotive plant.

4.2. Characteristics

Paint spray booth water is generally treated with several

chemicals, such as paint detackifiers, pH boosters, flocculants,
antifoam agents, and biocide to clean the booth and collect the
sludge formed. Therefore, these chemicals affect the characteristics
of the sludge. Table 6 gives the chemical composition of a flocculent
Fig. 8. An illustration of paint spray booth.
and detackifiers used by the automotive industry. Paint detackifier
is a special chemical for the disruption of the paint globules by
denaturing the paint into non-adhering floating particles. The
approximately 6000 mg O2/L. detackifiers are long-chain organic polymers with charged groups
Paint sludge is a very complex material; it contains uncured along the length of the chain. These charges are responsible for the
polymer resins, pigments, curing agents, flotation agents and other neutralizing charges on the surface of paint globules, preferably at
minor formulation ingredients. In addition, paint sludge contains low pH. This results in the formation of non-sticky neutralized
water and a variety of organic solvents. The presence of uncured particles, which in turn agglomerate into large floating masses that
paint resins, which cure and form a film upon heating, make the can be skimmed off. Flocculants are liquid emulsion polymers for
sludge very sticky and difficult to handle. Therefore, detackification maximum recovery of detackified paint particles and paint sludge
agents are often added to the circulating water and end up with the from the recirculating water in the paint spray booth. They make
sludge. The first purpose of detackification is to prevent the paint the sludge float on the surface, where it can be readily removed
from sticking to the booth equipment and fouling the paint system. from the sludge pit. The subnatant clean water can then be recir-
The second purpose is to efficiently collect the paint solids that are culated back to the booth system. Biocides reduce the microbial
sprayed into the system and remove them from the water for activities inside the closed system, keeping the water circulation
disposal. The term “paint killing” usually refers to the act of
detackifying oversprayed paint in paint spray booths.
Paint sludge is classified in the EWC with a waste code of
080113* as “sludges from paint or varnish containing organic sol-
vents or other dangerous substances” with mirror entry (M) code,
which implies the possibility of the waste possessing hazardous
characteristics (SEPA, 2013).
According to Albu and Cheung (2008), only 50%e80% of the
paint actually reaches the vehicle in traditional automotive
manufacturing wet paint-spraying operations. The remaining 20%e
50% is carried away in the booth airstream and subsequently
removed by the recirculating water wash. Viguri et al. (2005) re-
ported that 40% of the paint used is converted into paint sludge in a
paint spray booth. A Turkish automotive manufacturer, which
manufactured 131,504 cars in 2014, stated their consumption of
paint was 1,558,462 kg (11.83 kg paint/car), and their generation of
paint sludge as dry solids (DS) was 269,495 kg (2.05 kg DS paint
sludge/car). This implies that 17% of the paint was converted into
paint sludge. The results differ and are not comparable because the
studies in the literature give the weight of the sludge before dew-
atering, although the Turkish company gave the weight after
dewatering in terms of dry solids (DS). Additionally, application of
the paints and, therefore, paint transfer efficiency would affect the
amount of the paint sludge generated, along with the sludge
dewatering methods applied. The Turkish company stated the
distribution of the paint consumed was 67% water-based paint and
33% solvent-based paint; water based paint was used as a base-coat Fig. 9. Mass balance for a car painting process in a spray booth based on the data from
a Turkish automotive plant.
232 G. Salihoglu, N.K. Salihoglu / Journal of Environmental Management 169 (2016) 223e235

Table 6
Chemical composition of a flocculent and two detackifiers used by an automotive plant in Turkey (manufactured by PPG).

Flocculent Detackifier for water-based paint sludge Detackifier for solvent-based paint sludge

Content Level (%) Content Level (%) Content Level (%)

Acetic acid 10 Aluminum sulphate 20 Aluminum sulphate 20

Ammonium chloride 3 Ammonium, diallyldimethyl-,chloride, polymers 0.25 Amines, polyethylenepoly-, polymers with 1,2-dichloroethane 0.25

system clean, hygienic, and odor free.
In this study, water-based and solvent-based sludge samples
generated by a Turkish automotive plant were obtained in wet form
and analyzed. Table 7 gives the chemical composition of the sludge
samples analyzed and the analytical methods used. Also shown in
Table 7 is a comparison of the parameters measured with the waste
acceptance criteria of the EU Landfill Directive. The parameter that
makes both the water-based and solvent-based sludges unaccept-
able to landfills is “dissolved organic carbon (DOC)”; the DOC level
is much higher even than the limit of hazardous waste landfill
acceptance criteria. The total organic carbon (TOC) levels of water-
based and solvent-based sludge samples were 18.6 ± 3.2% and
31.3 ± 5.4%, respectively (Method EN 13137). Water-based sludge
had higher levels of barium, chlorine, dissolved organic carbon,
total dissolved solids and mineral oil compared to solvent-based
sludge, while the levels of sulphate, phenol index, BTEX, PCBs and
loss on ignition were higher for solvent-based sludge. Flash points
for both sludge samples were found to be higher than 105  C
(Method ASTM D93). The calorific value for water-based sludge was
negative, while that of solvent-based sludge was found to be
1510 kcal/kg (ASTM D 5865). pH levels for water-based and solvent-
based sludge samples were 6.63 and 7.67, respectively (EN 12176).
Paint sludge is generally considered to be hazardous because of
the possible presence of toxic metals and organic solvents; how-
ever, the composition of the sludge may vary because of the dif-
ferences in the paints used. Paint sludge has the potential to be
ecotoxic (LFU, 2004). It has been reported that paint sludge samples
were classified with toxicity class 2 (toxic) in the toxicity tests
(algae test, bacteria contact test and plant test) (LFU, 2004). It has
also been reported that volatile hydrocarbons (ethylbenzene and
xylene) were detected in the mg/L range, whereas the BTEX con-
centration was found to be 277 mg/kg, which is much higher than
the levels measured in this study. Viguri et al. (2005) reported the
characterization of a solvent-based paint waste, which had a high
level of VOC content (toluene þ xylene: 7e18% wt) leading to high
flammability (Flash point: 25  C) and high TOC content (2160 mg/
L). However, this material was not considered to be ecotoxic. Arce
et al. (2010) reported the flash point of a solvent-based paint
sludge as 22  C, the DOC content as 3700 mg/L, and BTEX as 14%.

Table 7
Chemical composition of water-based and solvent-based paint sludge samples generated at paint spray booths of a Turkish automotive plant.

Parameters Method Level in water based Level in solvent based WAC for inert waste WAC for non-hazardous WAC for hazardous
Paint sludge (mg/l) Paint sludge (mg/l) Landfilla (mg/l) waste Landfilla (mg/l) waste Landfilla (mg/l)

Eluate Based Analysis (L/S ¼ 10 L/kg), (EN 12457)

Total EN ISO 17294-1/2, SM <0.05 <0.05 0.05 1 7
chromate 3112/B, EN ISO 11885
Nickel <0.05 <0.04 0.04 1 4
Cupper <0.1 <0.1 0.2 5 10
Zinc <0.1 <0.1 0.4 5 20
Arsenic <0.05 <0.05 0.05 0.2 2.5
Selenium <0.01 <0.01 0.01 0.05 0.7
Molybdenum <0.05 <0.05 0.05 1 3
Cadmium <0.004 <0.004 0.004 0.1 0.5
Antimony <0.006 <0.006 0.006 0.07 0.5
Barium 0.64 ± 0.02 <0.1 2 10 30
Mercury <0.001 <0.001 0.001 0.02 0.2
Lead <0.05 <0.05 0.05 1 5
-
Chlorine SM 4500-Cl /C 44.0 ± 1.2 29 ± 1 80 1500 2500
-
Fluorine SM 4500-F /D <0.32 <0.32 1 15 50
2
Sulphate SM 4500- SO4 /E 2.52 ± 0.38 204 ± 31 100 2000 5000
Dissolved SM 5310/B 1430 ± 28 854 ± 17 50 80 100
organic
carbon
Total dissolved SM 2540/C 2378 ± 182 1742 ± 133 400 6000 10000
solids
Phenol index SM 5530/D 0.96 ± 0.03 1.20 ± 0.04 0.1

Parameters Method Level in water based Level in solvent based WAC for inert waste WAC for non-hazardous WAC for hazardous
paint sludge (mg/kg) paint sludge (mg/kg) landfilla (mg/kg) waste Landfilla (mg/kg) waste landfilla (mg/kg)

Analysis on the original waste, mg/kg

BTEX EPA 5021 AEPA 8260 B 2.10 ± 0.78 44 ± 16 6
PCBs ISO 10382 <0.009 1.04 ± 0.34 1
Mineral oil EN 14039 5813 ± 2035 2914 ± 1020 500
Loss on EN 12879 71.0 ± 1.0 94.5 ± 1.4 10%
Ignition
a
The EU Landfill Directive (EU, 1999) defines the different classes of landfills (hazardous waste, non-hazardous waste and inert waste) and Waste Acceptance Criteria (WAC)
(EU, 2003) sets the limit values of each class of landfill.
 G. Salihoglu, N.K. Salihoglu / Journal of Environmental Management 169 (2016) 223e235
4.3. Management
As shown in Fig. 6, paint sludge constitutes a major fraction
(~35%) of the hazardous process waste generated by an automotive
manufacturing plant, and its management cost is the highest share
(~58%) of the total environmental cost of hazardous waste man-
agement at the plant (Fig. 4). Because of its solvent content, low
flash point, and heavy metal bearing-pigment content, it is gener-
ally classified as hazardous in terms of ignitability, toxicity, and
ecotoxicity. Because of its high DOC and TOC content, it cannot be
accepted by landfills according to EU Legislations, although several
researchers (Kim, 2011; Nakouzi et al., 1998) have reported on the
landfilling of paint sludge. Nakouzi et al. (1998) reported that
approximately 6803 tons of paint sludge, produced at every year at
Ford plants is disposed of at landfills, although there might have
been changes regarding the management of the paint sludge since
the publication of that research.
Currently, the major route for the disposal of paint wastes in
Turkey is burning at licensed cement kilns as refuse-derived-fuel
(RDF) for energy recovery. A total of 37 of the 66 cement kilns in
Turkey are licensed to receive paint sludge. There are also other
management routes being applied, such as distillation and solvent
recovery from solvent-based paint sludges, conversion of solvent-
based paint sludge into reusable paint, and combustion at haz-
ardous waste incinerators. Plants licensed to treat paint sludge in
Turkey are shown in Fig. 10 (The data are based on the official re-
cords published at the webpage of Ministry of Environment and
Urbanization of Turkey) (MoEU, 2015). Cement kilns have their own
RDF preparation plants; in addition, there are 5 plants licensed to
prepare the paint sludge as RDF to be sent to cement kilns. Three
plants were licensed to modify the paint sludge and convert it into a
second quality paint by adding solvent and grinding with a pearl
mill, and 9 plants were licensed to distill the solvent-based paint
sludge and recover the solvent. Depending on the quality, the
remaining waste after distillation is sometimes converted into
corrosion inhibiting paint, and sometimes sent to cement kilns as
an additional fuel. There are also 21 interim storage plants licensed,
which collect several types of hazardous wastes including paint
sludges. These plants store the waste they collect until they reach a
certain quantity, and then send them to cement kilns or hazardous
waste incinerators.
Several studies to convert paint sludge into useful byproducts
rather than to dispose it in a landfill or to incinerate it have been
reported in the literature. These studies have focused on the
extraction of valuable materials (fuels and titanium compounds),
Fig. 10. Plants licensed to treat paint sludge in Turkey.
233
taking advantage of pyrolytic processes, reuse of the waste in
sealants and the paint industry, and the production of building
materials (Ruffino and Zanetti, 2010). Kim et al. (1996) investigated
the technical feasibility of converting paint sludge into an activated
carbon-like adsorbent by pyrolysis. The paint sludge char they
produced exhibited adsorption capacities between 5% and 20% of
those of a widely used activated carbon (Kim et al., 1996). Nakouzi
et al. (1998) investigated the possibility of converting paint sludge
into ceramic composites that can be used as reinforcing materials
by pyrolyzing the sludge at 1000  C under a nitrogen atmosphere.
The possibility of using these composites was also demonstrated in
the fabrication of metal-mastic composites and reinforced plastic
components (Nakouzi et al., 1998). Sanghvi and Massingill (2002)
developed a process for recovering automotive overspray paint
into usable paint by removing the water and solvent via a vacuum
treatment process and neutralizing the acid catalyst with a base.
The recovered materials were then reformulated with solvents and
chemicals. The reformulated paint showed reasonable properties
for many industrial applications. Arce et al. (2010) investigated a
solidification/stabilization process for the immobilization of the
contaminants in a solvent-based paint sludge; they observed high
stabilization of metals, partial immobilization of Cl, SO42, F, and
limited retention of DOC. Tian et al. (2012) investigated composting
of paint sludge containing melamine resin and reported compost-
ing as an effective method to produce stable end-products that can
be beneficially applied to soils to enhance crop growth. Khezri et al.
(2013) investigated the extraction of titanium dioxide via chemical
digestion and centrifugation of water-based paint sludge from an
automotive industry and reported promising results. Viguri et al.
(2005) conducted distillation experiments with mixtures of
solvent-based paint waste and obtained manageable distillation
waste that allowed for safe disposal (low VOC content, high flash
point and low TOC content). Patent 5,573,587 (St.Louis, 1996) pro-
vides a process for producing building materials (concrete, mortar
or asphalt) from water-based paint sludge by mixing the paint
sludge with caustic soda, quick-lime and agitation.
Ruffino and Zanetti (2010) reported that the costs of incinera-
tion and/or landfill disposal of automotive industry paint sludge
range between 250 and 350 Euro/ton. When the sludge is incin-
erated in a hazardous waste incinerator, the cost is 250 Euro/ton,
according to Turkish automotive manufacturers. An alternative
route of disposal by combustion at cement kilns provides a lower
management cost of approximately 100e150 Euro/ton paint sludge
to automotive manufacturers in Turkey. A Turkish company stated
the cost for environmental management to be 700,038 Euro/year in
234 G. Salihoglu, N.K. Salihoglu / Journal of Environmental Management 169 (2016) 223e235
2014, with 278,572 Euro/year for hazardous wastes. Of the haz-
ardous waste management costs, 160,369 Euro/year, or 58%, was for
paint sludge management. The second highest cost in hazardous
waste management was for wastewater treatment sludge at
74470 Euro/year, followed by the cost for management of
contaminated absorbents at 24,140 Euro/year. Because the incin-
eration or combustion costs of sludge are based on weight and
calorific level calculations, it is important to apply proper drying to
the paint sludge before sending it to cement kilns or incinerators.
Turkish automotive manufacturers generally prefer mechanical
drying. Several attempts are under consideration by several of the
manufacturers.
5. Concluding remarks
The painting process is the primary source of hazardous wastes
at an automotive manufacturing plant, and the paint sludge clas-
sified with a waste code of 080113*, implying hazardous charac-
teristics constitutes the major waste fraction. The amount of paint
sludge generated increases every year in line with the worldwide
increase in car production. The characteristics of paint sludge are
mainly determined by those of the paints used, which can be
broadly categorized as water-based and solvent-based. Water-
based paint alternatives are found to be ecologically more efficient
than their solvent-containing counterparts, although water-based
paints are not entirely free of organic solvents. Water-based paint
is mostly used in base-coat applications, and solvent-based paint is
still the most preferred form for clear coat because of several
drawbacks of water-based paints.
Major routes for the disposal of paint sludges are incineration as
hazardous waste or combustion at cement kilns. Distillation of the
solvent-based paint sludge and sending the remaining part to
incineration is an alternative method of disposal. The remaining
distillate is sometimes converted into new paints as well. Distilla-
tion is not an option for water-based paint sludges. One of the
major costs of automotive manufacturing plants is for the man-
agement of the paint sludges.
Prevention of the generation of paint sludges would be the best
management strategy according to the waste management hierar-
chy. To this end, several avenues are being explored, and research is
currently being conducted on new application techniques. For
example, use of electrostatic paint spray guns and high-speed ro-
tary atomizers add to the efficiency of paint transfer. Advancements
in paint and coating chemistry such as reduction in the coating
layers with its thickness also help to decrease the level of paint
sludge generation.
Recycling of paint sludge at macro level is not very common,
although a limited number of investigations exist in the literature.
The most common application is the distillation of solvent-based
paint sludge. More investigations are needed in the field of paint
sludge recycling, especially for water-based forms. Detackifiers and
flocculants affect the characteristics of the paint sludge and,
therefore, its recycling potential. These chemicals cause the paint
sludge to show different characteristics than those of the paints.
The effects of these chemicals must be controlled if the paint sludge
is to be recycled as a new paint. Therefore, the selection of these
chemicals should consider the recycling potential of paint sludges.
Investigations on the effects of these chemicals on the recycling
potential of paint sludges and consideration of these effects by the
chemical manufacturer companies would be crucially important.
For energy recovery considerations, solvent-based paint sludge
has a higher calorific value and is mostly mixed with water-based
paint sludge and sent to cement kilns as additional fuel. However,
the sludge needs to be dried before it can be accepted by cement
kilns; the drying rate determines the amount of the sludge
generated and thus the disposal costs. Mainly, mechanical drying
techniques are preferred for paint sludge by the manufacturers.
More investigations and applications are needed on alternative
environmental drying techniques such as solar drying.
High DOC content of paint sludge causes it to be unacceptable to
any class of landfill, especially in Europe. Therefore, landfilling is
not an option for paint sludge disposal. However, the high DOC
content can be an advantage for applications such as composting
and biogasification. Research on the applicability of paint sludge in
composting and biogasification can also be useful.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of
Uludag  University with project number: OUAP (M)-2013/8, espe-
cially in the characterization analysis of the paint sludge samples.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.12.039.
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