Physics Emanual

JPC 2211: ENGG. PHY & EVS LAB DEPT.
OF S&H 2023-24
Fig 1 Determination of Numerical Aperture
Fig 2 Determination of Angle of Divergence
Fig.3 Determination of number of grooves per unit length
1
JPC 2211: ENGG. PHY & EVS LAB DEPT. OF S&H 2023-24
EXPT.NO: LASER- Determination of Numerical Aperture, Acceptance Angle,

DATE: Angle of Divergence and Determination of width of the groove in CD
Aim
(i). To determine the numerical aperture, acceptance angle and angle of
divergence of optical fiber
(ii) To determine the spacing between the grooves of a compact disc
Apparatus required
A laser source, grating, fine micro particle (say lycopodium powder), glass plate,
screen, optical fiber cable, NA measurement fig and scale.
Principle
Plane diffraction grating is a plane glass consisting of large no. of transparent and
opaque parallel strips of equal spacing between them. When laser beam is incident on a grating
or fine particles, diffraction (bending of light waves around the edges of the obstacle) occurs.
Numerical aperture of fiber is a measure of its light gathering ability and is numerically
equal to sine of the acceptance angle. Acceptance angle is the maximum angle with respect to the
fiber axis with which a ray of light entering the fiber undergo total internal reflection and is
transmitted.
Formula
Numerical Aperture = NA = and degree
Angle of Divergence =
Number of grooves per unit meter m-1
Spacing between grooves n m
2
Table 3: To find the numerical aperture of optical fibre cable (NA)

Diameter of the Distance between the source
S. No NA =
spot W and the screen L
x 10-3m x 10-3m No unit
Mean NA= .................... (no unit)
To Calculate Φ
R1 = ..................................(m)
R2 = ..................................(m)
D1 = ..................................(m)
D2 = ..................................(m)
3
Procedure
To determine the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of optical fibre
One end of the fibre cable (usually one meter length) is connected to the given laser source
and the other end to the NA jig as shown in figure. The laser source is switched ON and the
position of white screen with four concentric circles is adjusted such that the light emitted from the
fibre spread over the circumference of a given circle (say 10mm).The distance of the screen from
the fibre end L and the diameter W of the spot are noted. The NA can be calculated using the
formula NA = . The same procedure is repeated for 15mm, 20mm, 25mm diameter
circles and the readings are tabulated. The acceptance angle can be calculated by finding the sin-1
of the numerical aperture i.e., degree.
To determine the number of grooves per unit length

Scratch the label surface of the CD and use a sticky tape to peer on the label and the
reflecting layer. Compact disc has pre-groove to help the burner follow the spiral path. The
compact disc is mounted on a holder and the light from the laser source is made to fall
perpendicular to the surface. As the polycarbonate layer is transparent, the stripped CD acts as a
transmission grating. The distance of the CD and the screen is measured and is denoted as D. A
diffraction pattern is produced as shown in figure. The distance between the central bright spot and
first bright spot on the left is measured, similarly, the distance between the central bright spot and
the second bright spot on the left is measured. This is repeated upto the fifth bright spot on the left.
The distances are tabulated. Similarly, the distance between the central bright spot and the bright
spots on the right side are measured and tabulated.
With the known wavelength of the given laser source, the spacing between the grooves in a
CD is determined.
4
m = 1 (no unit) λ = 6900 × 10−10m

S .No. Distance between the
Distance central bright spot x2
between and mth order spot
screen
CD & D Left Right Mean
d1 d1
10−2m 10−2m 10−2m 10−2m 10−4m2 10−2m no unit m−1
1.
2.
3.
Mean N = ............ m−1
Calculation



 Numerical Aperture = NA = 

5
Acceptance Angle = degree
Angle of Divergence =
Number of grooves per unit meter m-1
6
Spacing between grooves n m
7
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Define NA and Acceptance angle. Mention their units.

2. How a CD can be compared to a grating?
3. How LASER light can be achieved?
4. What is population inversion?
5. List the characteristics of LASER
Result
1. The numerical aperture to the given fibre cable is found to be .......................(no unit)
2. The acceptance angle of the given fibre cable is found to be ......................... degree.
3. The divergent angle of the given fibre cable is found to be........................... degree.
4. The spacing between the grooves in a compact disc is found to be n =........ ……….m
8
Fig. 1 Determination of angle of Prism
Fig. 2 Determination of angle of minimum deviation
9
EXPT NO:
SPECTROMETER- Determination of Dispersive Power of a Prism
DATE:
Aim
To determine the refractive index and dispersive power of a prism using spectrometer
Apparatus Required
Spectrometer, Mercury vapour lamp, small angle prism and spirit level
Principle
Refractive index of a medium depends upon the velocity of light in that medium and
therefore varies with wavelength of light. The ability of the material of a prism to separate two
colors (wavelengths) is called the dispersive power of the material of the prism.
Formula
(i) Refractive index of the given prism is given by
No unit
(ii) Dispersive power of the prism in the wavelength region of λ1 & λ2 is
No unit
Symbol Explanation Unit

A Angle of the prism Degree
D Angle of minimum of deviation Degree
μv Refractive index of the prism for Violet colour No unit
μR Refractive index of the prism for Red colour No unit
μG Refractive index of the prism for Green colour No unit
10
Table –To find the angle of minimum deviation (D) and refractive index (μ)
ʹ 1
Least Count (LC) = 1/n × 1 MSD; n-= 30 div & 1MSD = 1/2 degree = 30 LC= x 30ʹ= 1ʹ
30
Direct ray reading: Vernier I =V1= 00; Vernier II=V2 = 1800 Angle of the prism = 600
Vernier I Vernier II Mean
Reading at minimum Angle of Reading at minimum Angle of
D1  D2
Spectral deviation minimum deviation minimum D=
Deviation Deviation 2
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR
line D1=V1~TR D2=V2~TR
Deg div deg deg deg div Deg deg deg
Violet
Blue
Green
Orange
Yellow
Red
11
Procedure
The initial adjustments of the spectrometer are made. The focusing of collimator and
telescope are not altered after initial adjustments are made. The telescope is brought in line with
collimator, which is in front of the source, and the slit of the collimator is viewed through the telescope.
Then set the cross wire of the eyepiece in the telescope to coincide with the image of the slit and the
telescope is fixed. Vernier table is released and rotated to get Vernier I and Vernier II coinciding with
and of the main scale and Vernier table is fixed. Now note down the direct ray reading as Vernier I = 0o
and Vernier II = 180o
Now the prism is placed on its table. The prism table is rotated such that the collimated beam is
incident on one of the refracting faces of the prism. It gets refracted and emerges out through the other
refracting face. The refracted image (say bright violet line) is observed through the telescope. By
looking through the telescope, the prism table is rotated such that the image travels towards the position
of the direct ray. At one position, the image retraces its path. This position corresponds to the angle of
minimum deviation. The telescope is fixed and the readings are noted for all the spectral lines. The
difference between the reading corresponding to direct ray and the position of minimum deviation, in
respective Vernier gives the angle of minimum deviation D.
Then, by substituting the values of D and A in the given formula, the refractive indices (μ) for
each and every color can be calculated. Finally, by choosing any one of the color refractive index as μ1
and the any other as μ2 the dispersive power of the prism is calculated using the given formula. Similarly
for various values of μ1 and μ2 the dispersive powers are calculated and the mean of all the dispersive
powers is calculated.
12
Calculation
1. Refractive index of the given prism is given by
No unit
13

2. Dispersive power of the prism in the wavelength region of λ1 & λ2 is

  No unit




Precautions
i) The tangential screw should be used for fine adjustment.
ii) During rotation of the telescope, if the Vernier zero crosses the zero mark of the main circular
scale, then in the calculations, R1~ R2.should be replaced by 3600 - (R1~R2). R1 and R2 are the
readings on either side of the Vernier zero.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is refractive index?

2. What is the principle of this experiment?
3. What do you mean by dispersion?
4. Mention the differences between diffraction and dispersion.
5. Will you get dispersion for a monochromatic light?
Result
1. Refractive index of the given prism is μ= ............................. (no unit)
2. Dispersive power of the prism is ω=.............................(no unit)
14
Fig 1 Air wedge arrangement
Fig 2 Interference Fringe Pattern
15
EXPT NO:
AIR WEDGE - Determination of thickness of a thin wire
DATE:
Aim
To determine the thickness of a thin wire by forming interference fringes using air
wedge arrangement.
Apparatus Required
Two optically plane glass plates, given wire, sodium vapour lamp and traveling
microscope.
Principle
The air wedge arrangement is illuminated by a monochromatic light. Interference
takes place between the rays reflected at the upper and lower boundaries of the air film. An
interference band is observed which consists of alternate bright and dark fringes.
Formula
Thickness of the thin wire

T Thickness of the thin wire M
Distance between the wire and the tied end of the
L M
glass plates
Λ Wave length of the sodium vapour lamp 5893 Å Å
Β Fringe width M
16
Table 1-Determination of mean fringe width (β) using traveling microscope

Least count derivation for traveling microscope
Least Count (LC) = 1/n X 1 MSD
1 MSD – One Main Scale Division = 0.05 cm
N- No. of Vernier Scale Division = 50 divisions
Least Count (LC) = 1/50 X 0.05 cm = 0.001 cm
Order Microscope reading Width of Fringe width

of the MSR VSC TR=MSR+(VSC x LC) five fringes β
fringe
x 10-2m div x 10-2m x 10-2m x 10-2m
N
n+5
n+10
n+15
n+20
n+25
n+30
n+35
n+40
n+45
n+50
Mean fringe width β = .................X 10-2m
17
Procedure
Parallel rays of sodium light are allowed to fall on a glass plate G inclined at an angle 45º to
the horizontal. The air wedge is placed in such a way that the light reflected from the glass plate
falls normally on the air wedge. The interference fringes are observed through a traveling
microscope, M, as shown the in figure 1.the microscope is focused to obtain the fringes most
clearly. By working the tangential screw, vertical cross wire is made to coincide with one of the
band (say nth dark band).The microscope reading on the horizontal scale is taken. Similarly the
microscope is adjusted so that the crosswire coincides with n+5 n+10….dark bands and the
corresponding reading are noted from these reading the mean fringe width β is determined. The
movement of vernier should be in onedirection to avoid backlash error. The length ‘T’ between the
wire and the line of contact of the plate is measured by using traveling microscope. Assuming the
wavelength of the sodium light 5893 Aº, the thickness of the wire is calculated.
18
Table 2 Determination of distance between wire &tied end of the glass plate (l)
LC= 0.001cm
Microscope reading Distance between
wire & tiedend
Position MSR VSC TR=MSR+(VSC x LC) I=A~B
x 10-2m div x 10-2m x 10-2m
Wire (A)
Tied end of
the glass plate
(B)
Calculation
Mean fringe width β =..................x 10-2m
Distance between wire and the tied end of the glass plates l = ....................... x 10-2m
Wavelength of sodium vapour lamp λ = 5893 Å
l
t = m
2
19
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Write the principle of this experiment?
2. Define interference of light.
3. What are the conditions to get interference pattern?
4. What happens if monochromatic light is replaced with polychromatic light?
5. How the fringe width gets affected when the distance between the wire and tied end of
the glass plate is altered?
6. How the light ray is splitted here?
Result
The thickness of the given thin wire by forming interference fringes using air wedge is found
to be = ………………………..m
20
Fig.1 Working principle of a solar cell
Fig.2 Solar Cell Characteristics Apparatus
21
EXPT.NO: SOLAR CELL - Determination of fill factor by plotting V-I

DATE: characteristics
AIM:
To plot the V-I Characteristics of the solar cell and hence determine the fill factor
APPRATUS REQUIRED:
Solar cell mounted on the front panel in a metal box with connections brought out on
terminals. Two meters mounted on the front panel to measure the solar cell voltage and current.
Different types of load resistances selectable using band switch also provided on the front panel.
Three single points and two inter connectable patch chords for connections. Wooden plank with
half meter scale fitted on it and a lamp holder with 100 watt lamp.
THEORY:
The solar cell is a semi conductor device, which converts the solar energy into electrical
energy. It is also called a photovoltaic cell. A solar panel consists of numbers of solar cells
connected in series or parallel. The number of solar cell connected in a series generates the
desired output voltage and connected in parallel generates the desired output current. The
conversion of sunlight (Solar Energy) into electric energy takes place only when the light is
falling on the cells of the solar panel. Therefore in most practical applications, the solar panels
are used to charge the lead acid or Nickel-Cadmium batteries. In the sunlight, the solar panel
charges the battery and also supplies the power to the load directly. When there is no sunlight,
the charged battery supplies the required power to the load.
A solar cell operates in somewhat the same manner as other junction photo detectors. A
built-in depletion region is generated in that without an applied reverse bias and photons of
adequate energy create hole-electrons pairs. In the solar cell, as shown in Fig. 1, the pair must
diffuse a considerable distance to reach the narrow depletion region to be drawn out as useful
current. Hence, there is higher probability of recombination. The current generated by separated
pairs increases the depletion region voltage (Photovoltaic effect). When a load is connected
across the
22
Fig. 3 Circuit Diagram
23
cell, the potential causes the photocurrent to flow through the load. The e.m.f. generated by the
photo-voltaic cell in the open circuit, i.e. when no current is drawn from it is denoted by VOC (V-
open circuit). This is the maximum value of e.m.f. When a high resistance is introduced in the
external circuit a small current flows through it and the voltage decreases. The voltage goes on
falling and the current goes on increasing as the resistance in the external circuit is reduced. When
the resistance is reduced to zero the current rises to its maximum value known as saturation current
and is denoted a ISC, the voltage becomes zero. A V-I characteristic of a photo voltaic cell is shown
in Fig.2.
The product of open circuit voltage VOC and short circuit current ISC is known as an ideal power.
Ideal Power=VOC×ISC
The maximum useful power is the area of the largest rectangle that can be formed under the V-I
curve. If Vm and Im are the values of voltage and current under this condition, then
Maximum useful power=Vm×Im
The ratio of the maximum useful power to ideal power is called the fill factor
Fill factor =
PROCEDURE:
When experiment is performed with 100Watt lamp:
1. Place the solar cell and the light source (100 watt lamp) opposite to each other on a wooden
plank. Connect the circuit as shown by dotted lines (Fig. 2) through patch chords.
2. Select the voltmeter range to 2V, current meter range to 250µA and load resistance (RL)
to50Ω.
3. Switch ON the lamp to expose the light on Solar Cell.
4. Set the distance between solar cell and lamp in such a way that current meter shows 250 µA
deflections. Note down the observation of voltage and current in Table 1.
5. Vary the load resistance through band switch and note down the current and voltage readings
every time in Table 1.
6. Plot a graph between output voltage vs. output current by taking voltage along X-axis and
current along Y-axis.
24
25
When experiment is performed in sunlight:
1. Connect the circuit as shown by dotted lines (Fig.2) through patch chords.
2. Select the voltmeter range to 4V, current meter range to 2.5mA and load resistance (R L) to
50Ω.
3. Expose the solar cell to sun light
4. Note down the observation of voltage and current in Table 1.
5. Varytheloadresistancethroughbandswitchandnotedownthecurrentandvoltage readings every
time in Table 1.
6. Plot a graph between output voltage vs. output current by taking current along X-axis and
voltage along Y-axis. You should get a curve similar to shown in Fig. 2.
Determining Fill factor:
Draw a rectangle having maximum area under the V-I curve and note the values of Vm and
Im. Note the voltmeter reading for open circuit, VOC and milliammeter reading with zero
resistance ISC. Using these values, calculate the fill factor for the cell.
From the Graph:

Value of Vm =…….volts
Value of Im =…..…mA
Maximum useful power=Vm×ImmW
Ideal powerVOC × IOC=………mW
Fill factor =
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The solar cell should be exposed to sunlight before using it in the experiment.
2. Light from the lamp should fall normally on the cell.
3. A resistance in the cell circuit should be introduced so that the current does not exceed the
safe operating limit.
26
27
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Why we use solar cell?
2. List out the applications of solar cell..
3. How solar cell is made up of?
4. Which material is widely used for preparing solar panel?
5. What is the principle of solar cell?
Result:
Solar cell’s V-I characteristics is drawn in graph and fill factor is found to be
=……………………….
28
Fig. 1 Band Gap Determination
Fig. 2 Model Graph
29
EXPT NO:
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE – Determination of band gap
DATE:
Aim
To determine band gap energy of a semiconductor diode
Apparatus Required
A DC power supply, micro ammeter, voltmeter, semiconductor diode, oil bath,

thermometer and connecting wires.
Principle
The principle used in measurement of band gap energy is based on the determination of
saturation current of the diode for various temperatures, at constant reverse bias voltage. When
the temperature is increased, some of the valence electrons gain thermal energy greater than
forbidden energy gap and move to the conduction band, giving rise to a flow of current through
the diode.
Formula
eV

Eg Band gap energy of a semiconductor diode eV
k Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 10-23 JK-1 ) JK-1

Is Saturation current A
T Absolute temperature K
30
Table 1 - To determine band gap energy of semiconductor diode

Reverse bias voltage = ............................ volt
Reverse
S.No Temperature (T) saturation log Is 1/T
current Is
0C K A K-1
31
Calculation

 
eV
Eg = 3.9726×10-4 × slope eV
Procedure
The diode is reverse biased by a variable DC power supply. A micro ammeter is
connected in series with the diode as shown in circuit diagram of Fig 1 voltmeter is connected
across the diode and a constant reverse bias voltage (say 5V) is set across the diode. The diode
and a thermometer are immersed in an oil bath, heated to a temperature of about 363 K (or) 900
C. The reverse saturation current Is flowing through the diode can be measured using the micro
ammeter. The oil bath is cooled slowly and the micro ammeter reading is measured for every two
degree fall of temperature and tabulated.
A graph is plotted by taking 1/T along the X-axis and log Is along Y-axis. The graph is
straight line as shown in Fig.2. Slope of the graph i.e is determined. The band gap energy of
the semiconductor diode can be calculated from the formula eV.
Result
The band gap energy of the semiconductor diode is found to be ...................... eV.
32
Fig 1 Young’s modulus by non uniform bending
33
EXPT NO: NON-UNIFORM BENDING - Determination of Young’s modulus of

DATE: the given beam
Aim
To determine the Young’s modulus of the given material of the beam, by non-uniform
bending and hence find the mass of the given object.
Apparatus Used
Meter scale, Knife edges, traveling microscope, pin, screw gauge, Vernier caliper, weight
hanger, slotted weight and reading leans
Principle
Young’s modulus, the ratio of linear stress by linear strain is a constant for a given
material within its elastic limit. In this experiment, a beam is supported symmetrically on two
knife edges and a load M is applied in the middle of the beam, which causes non-uniform
bending of the beam. The depression y produced at the center is proportional to the applied load
M, from that Young’s modulus can be calculated.
Formula
The Young’s modulus of the given material of the beam,
Nm-2

g Acceleration due to gravity Ms-2
l Distance between the two knife edges m
b Breadth of the beam m
d Thickness of the beam m
y Depression produced for ‘M’ kg of load m
M Load applied for depression kg
34
Table 1 - Measurement of thickness of cantilever beam (d) using screw gauge

Pitch Total
Least count (LC) =
no. of. HSD
Pitch = Distance moved by the screw
No. of revolutions of screw head
5mm 1mm
LC = = 1mm; No. of HSD = 100div; Least count (LC) =
= 0.01mm
5 100
LC =0.01mm ZE =………..div; ZC= .............mm
Pitch Scale Head Scale Observed Correct
Reading Coincidence reading reading
S.No
(PSR) (HSC) (OR=PSR+(HSC x LC)) (CR=OR ZC)
x 10-3m div x 10-3m x 10-3m
1
Mean thickness of the cantilever beam (d) = ................ x10-3m

Table 2 - Measurement of breadth (b) of the cantilever beam using Vernier calipers
Least Count (LC) = 1/n × 1MSD
n = No.of divisions on the Vernier scale = 10 division
1 M.S.D = 0.1 cm; LC = 1/10 × 0.1cm = 0.01cm
LC = 0.01cm ZE = ……………Div; ZC = ………cm
S.No. Main scale Vernier Scale Observed Correct
Reading Coincidence reading Reading
(MSR) (VSC) OR=MSR+(VSCxLC) ( CR =OR  ZC
x10-2 m div x 10-2 m x 10-2 m
1
Mean breadth (b) = ................. x10-2 m

35
Procedure
The given beam is placed on the two knife edges A and B at a distance say 60cm.
A weight hanger is suspended at the centre of the beam and a pin is fixed vertically on the frame
of the hanger as shown in Fig 1.Taking the weight hanger (50g) alone as the dead load the tip of
the pin is focused by the microscope, and is adjusted in such a way that tip of the pin just touches
the horizontal cross wire. The reading on the vertical scale is noted. Now the weight is added in
steps of 50g. Each time the tip of the pin is made to touch the horizontal cross wire and the
readings are noted from the vertical scale of the microscope.
The same procedure is repeated by unloading the weight in steps of same 50g and
the readings are tabulated. From the reading the mean depression is calculated. The thickness and
the breadth of the beam are measured using screw gauge and Vernier calipers respectively and
are tabulated. By substituting the values in a given formula the Young’s modulus of the material
of the beam can be calculated.
A graph is drawn taking load (M) along x axis and corresponding mean
microscope reading along y axis. The graph is a straight line. The slope of the graph is
determined. Substituting the value of the slope in the given formula (ii), the Young’s modulus
can be calculated.
36
Table 3 - To find Depression (y) for M kg of mass
Least count derivation for traveling microscope
Least Count (LC) = 1/n × 1MSD;
1MSD  1 Main Scale Division = 0.05 cm

n No. of Vernier scale divisions = 50 div
1
 LC = x 0.05 cm = 0.001cm
50
S.No Load Microscope Reading Mean Depression
(M) Loading Unloading (y) for ‘M’
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR kg of mass
x10-3kg x10-2 m Div x10-2m x10-2 m div x10-2m x 10-2 m x 10-2 m
1 50
2 100
3 150
4 200
5 250
6 300
`
Mean (y) = ................ x 10-2 m
37
Calculations
Breadth of the cantilever beam (b) = ..................... x10-2m
Thickness of the beam (d) =..................... x10-3m
Distance between the two knife edges (l) = ..................... x10-2m
Mean depression or M kg of mass (y ) =.......................x10-2m
Young’s Modulus of the beam  Nm-2
Viva questions
1. Define stress and strain. Give their units.
2. Mention the different moduli of elasticity
3. What do you mean by Young’s Modulus?
4. What will happen to the Young’s modulus if dimension of the material is altered?
5. Write the difference between uniform and non-uniform bending.
Result
The Young’s modulus of the given material of the beam = ....................... Nm-2
38

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JPC 2211: ENGG. PHY & EVS LAB DEPT.

Fig 1 Determination of Numerical Aperture

Fig 2 Determination of Angle of Divergence

Fig.3 Determination of number of grooves per unit length

EXPT.NO: LASER- Determination of Numerical Aperture, Acceptance Angle,

Number of grooves per unit meter m-1

Spacing between grooves n m

Table 3: To find the numerical aperture of optical fibre cable (NA)

x 10-3m x 10-3m No unit

Mean NA= .................... (no unit)

To determine the number of grooves per unit length

m = 1 (no unit) λ = 6900 × 10−10m

10−2m 10−2m 10−2m 10−2m 10−4m2 10−2m no unit m−1

Mean N = ............ m−1

Acceptance Angle = degree

Number of grooves per unit meter m-1

Spacing between grooves n m

1. Define NA and Acceptance angle. Mention their units.

Fig. 1 Determination of angle of Prism

Fig. 2 Determination of angle of minimum deviation

(ii) Dispersive power of the prism in the wavelength region of λ1 & λ2 is

Symbol Explanation Unit

D Angle of minimum of deviation Degree

μv Refractive index of the prism for Violet colour No unit

μR Refractive index of the prism for Red colour No unit

μG Refractive index of the prism for Green colour No unit

and Vernier II = 180o

1. Refractive index of the given prism is given by

1. What is refractive index?

2. Dispersive power of the prism is ω=.............................(no unit)

Fig 1 Air wedge arrangement

Fig 2 Interference Fringe Pattern

Thickness of the thin wire

Symbol Explanation Unit

Table 1-Determination of mean fringe width (β) using traveling microscope

Order Microscope reading Width of Fringe width

Mean fringe width β = .................X 10-2m

x 10-2m div x 10-2m x 10-2m

Fig.1 Working principle of a solar cell

Fig.2 Solar Cell Characteristics Apparatus

EXPT.NO: SOLAR CELL - Determination of fill factor by plotting V-I

Fig. 3 Circuit Diagram

Maximum useful power=Vm×Im

When experiment is performed in sunlight:

Determining Fill factor:

From the Graph:

Fig. 1 Band Gap Determination

Fig. 2 Model Graph

A DC power supply, micro ammeter, voltmeter, semiconductor diode, oil bath,

Symbol Explanation Unit

k Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 10-23 JK-1 ) JK-1

Table 1 - To determine band gap energy of semiconductor diode

the semiconductor diode can be calculated from the formula eV.

Fig 1 Young’s modulus by non uniform bending

EXPT NO: NON-UNIFORM BENDING - Determination of Young’s modulus of

The Young’s modulus of the given material of the beam,

Symbol Explanation Unit

Table 1 - Measurement of thickness of cantilever beam (d) using screw gauge

Mean thickness of the cantilever beam (d) = ................ x10-3m