Metabolism & Homeostasis

Metabolism: is the sum of all of the chemical & physical changes that take place in the
body.

Homeostsis: the state in which the internal environment of the body remains relatively
stable by responding appropriately to changes.

Negative Feedback Mechanism: a control system in which body response to reverse the
stimulus to keep some aspect of the body within its normal range.

Two types of Cellular Fluid

a. Extracellular Fluid (ECF): includes all body fluids outside the cell.
b. Intracellular Fluid (ICF): fluids contain within the cell.

Directions in Body

Anatomic Position: body erect with arms at the side and palms forward; head facing forward
and feet pointing forward and slightly apart.

Main Directional Term:

1. Superior: above, or higher; towards the head
Inferior: below, or lower; towards the feet
2. Anterior (ventral): front, in front of; towards the front
Posterior (dorsal): back, or in back of; towards the back
3. Medial: toward the midline of the body
Lateral: toward the side of the body
4. Proximal: toward or nearest the trunk of the body, or nearest to the point of origin of
a body part.
Distal: away from or farthest from the trunk of the body, or farthest to the point of
origin of a body part.
5. Internal: within, or interior to
External: outside, or exterior to

Body Planes and Section

Plane: is an imaginary flat surface that separates two portion of the body or an organ.
1. Sagittal plane: plane runs from the front to back, dividing the body into left & right side.
a. Parasagittal: divide body into ® & (L) but not equal
b. Midsagittal: divide body into symmetrical ® & (L) halves
2. Frontal (coronal) plane: plane runs side to side and divides the body into anterior and
posterior part.
3. Transverse (horizontal) plane: is a “crosswise” plane that divides body into upper and
lower part.

Body Cavities & Their Membranes

Two groups of Cavities:
1. Dorsal Cavity: lined with membranes called meninges.
a. Cranial cavity: form by the skull and contains the brain
b. Spinal cavity: form by the backbone and contains the spinal cords.
2. Ventral Cavity: the diaphragm separates the thoracic & abdominal cavities.
a. Thoracic cavity: located above the diaphragm and includes the heart and the
lungs.
b. Abdominopelvic cavity: located below the diaphragm
 Abdominal cavity: upper most and contains the stomach, most of the
intestine, liver, the kidney, the gallbladder, pancreas and the spleen.
 Pelvic cavity: lower portion, set off by an imaginary line across the top of
the hipbone. Contains the urinary bladder, the rectum and internal parts
of the reproductive system.
Abdominopelvic Quadrant:a horizontal &
vertical line that cross at the umbilicus
that divides the abdomen into four
quadrants.

1. ® Upper quadrant
2. (L) Upper quadrant
3. ® Lower quadrant
4. (L) Lower quadrant

Nine Areas: two transverse plane and two sagittal plane divide the abdomen into 9 areas.

1. Epigastric region: part of the ® & (L) lobes of the liver & large portion of the
stomach.
2. Umbilical Region: portion of the transverse colon & loops of small intestine.
3. Hypogastric region: loops of small intestine, urinary bladder & appendix
4. ® Hypochondriac region: ® lobe of the liver and gallbladder.
5. (L) Hypochondriac region: small portion of the stomach and large intestine.
6. ® Lumbar region: part of the large and small intestine.
7. (L) Lumbar region: loops of small intestine & part of colon
8. ® Iliac region: cecum & part of the small intestine
9. (L) Iliac region: portion of the colon & small intestine

References:
 Tortora. Introduction to the Human Body, the essentials of anatomy & physiology, 7 th Edition
 Mader. Understanding Human Anatomy and Physiology, 5th Edition
 Marieb. Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 8th Edition.
 Memmler, Cohen & Woods. Structure & Function of the Human Body, 5th Edition
 Scanlon & Sanders. Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 3rd Edition.
 Thibodeau & Patton. Anatomy and Physiology, 2nd Editio

CELLS

Cell: is the smallest living unit of the structure and function of the body.

Structure of the Cell:

1. Cell (plasma) membrane: outer covering and forms the boundary of the cell &
surrounds the cytoplasm, organelles and nucleus. The membrane is made of
phospholipids, protein, & cholesterol.
 Serves as a boundary of the cell & regulates the passage of materials into &
out of the cell.

1. Cytoplasm: thick fluid filling inside the cell and holds the cell content found between
the cell membrane and the nucleus, particularly organelles.

2. Organelles: a variety of intracellular structures suspended in the cytoplasm, with

each structure suited to perform a specific function.
a. Nucleus: largest organelle and the control center of the cell because it
contains the chromosomes (made of DNA & protein), which govern all
activities of the cell.

b. Nucleolus: a small structure found within the nucleus made of DNA, RNA &
protein. Play an essential role in the formation of ribosomal RNA.
 c. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): a network of membranous channels that serves
as a passageway for the transport of materials within the cell and synthesis of
lipids.
Types: > Rough ER: have numerous ribosomes on its surface.
> Smooth ER: has no ribosomes & function to synthesize lipids.

d. Ribosomes: very small structures & function to synthesize protein. Many are
attached to the ER and many lie freely scattered through the cytoplasm.

e. Mitochondria: are round or bean shape structure with folded membranes on

the inside. Function in the synthesis of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), source
of energy of the cell.

f. Golgi apparatus: series of flat membranous sac. Synthesizes carbohydrates &

packages materials for secretion from the cell.

g. Lysosomes: small sacs that contain digestive enzymes to digest ingested

material or dead damaged tissue.

h. Centriole: rod shape structure perpendicular to one another, located just

outside the nucleus and function in cell division.
 Mitosis: cell division in which single parent cell produces two
genetically identical daughter cells. It is the way in which body
cells are produce for both growth and repair.

i. Cell extentions:
 Cilia: small, hair like projections from the surface of the cell. It
sweeps materials across the cell surface.
 Flagellum: long whip like extension from the cell. It provides
motility or movement for the sperm cell.
 Microvilli: folds of the cell membrane on the free surface of a
cell. It increases a cell’s surface area for absorption.

CELLULAR TRANSPORT MECHANISM

Mechanism Definition
A. Passive Process : Transport process that do not require any energy expenditure
of the cell membrane.
1. Diffusion : Movement of molecules from an area of greater concentration
to an area of lesser concentration.
2. Osmosis : Diffusion of water though a selectively permeable membrane.
Water diffuses to an area of less water, that is to an area of
more dissolved material.
3. Facilitated diffusion : Carrier or membrane proteins move molecules across cell
membrane.
4. Filtration : Movement of water & dissolved substances from an area of
greater pressure to an area of lower pressure (blood pressure).

B. Active Process : Transport process that requires energy expenditure.

1. Active transport : Movement of molecules from an area of lesser concentration
to an area of greater concentration (requires ATP).
2. Endocytosis : Plasma membrane traps some extracellular material & bring it
into the cell.
a. Phagocytosis : Condition of “cell eating”, large particle are engulf by plasma
membrane & enter the cell in vesicle; vesicle fuse with
lysosome where particles are digested.
b. Pinocytosis : Condition of “cell drinking”, droplets of fluid are engulf by the
cell membrane.
3. Exocytosis : Plasma membrane excrete some intracellular material & bring
it outside the cell.