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Full Download Book Science and Technology of Liquid Metal Coolants in Nuclear Engineering PDF
Full Download Book Science and Technology of Liquid Metal Coolants in Nuclear Engineering PDF
T. Gnanasekaran
Formerly Associate Director, Chemistry Group,
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research,
Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, India
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Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional
practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
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To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
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ISBN: 978-0-323-95145-6
Epilogue 437
Annexure 1 Radial density function 441
Annexure 2 Ferromagnetic materials 447
Annexure 3 Basics of heat transfer by liquid metals 455
Annexure 4 Thermochemical aspects of dissolution of solutes in liquid
metals 465
Annexure 5 Kinetics of precipitation of solutes from solutions 473
Annexure 6 Magnetic effects of current, inductance, and eddy currents 481
Annexure 7 Propagation of sound waves through matter 491
Annexure 8 Piezoelectricity and piezoelectric materials 499
Annexure 9 Solid electrolytes 507
Index 523
Foreword by Anil Kakodkar
Nuclear energy would play a significant role in meeting the energy needs and climate
challenges because of its immense energy potential and low carbon footprint. In addi-
tion to rapid deployment of current nuclear reactor systems to meet the net zero dead-
lines, new and innovative nuclear reactors and transmutation systems need to be
developed to meet this requirement on a sustainable basis. In addition to advanced
thermal reactors, high temperature gas-cooled reactors and molten-salt-based breeder
reactors, liquid metalecooled fast breeder reactors (FBRs), and accelerator-driven sys-
tems (ADS) occupy important positions in this development strategy. While liquid so-
dium is chosen as a coolant for present generation FBRs, liquid lead is a candidate for
future reactors. Liquid lead or lead-bismuth eutectic alloy also serves as coolant cum
spallation target in ADS. Fusion reactors, which are expected to contribute signifi-
cantly to the longer term energy security, could also use either liquid lithium or
lead-lithium alloy as coolant and for generation of tritium. Thus, liquid metals would
play an important role in these future nuclear energy systems.
Understanding of properties and performance of liquid metals is crucial to develop-
ment and engineering of systems that are based on them. Although there have been
earlier publications covering this domain, there was a felt need for a book that is
more up to date and comprehensive, covers all aspects of behavior and properties of
liquid metals including their microscopic origins, and deals with interface between
liquid metals and equipment/environment in which they work. This book would
address that need. Entry-level scientists or engineers starting their work involving
liquid metals would find this book particularly helpful in getting started with their
work.
This book provides a unique coverage on all properties and technological aspects of
liquid metal coolants: thermophysical, nuclear and chemical properties, handling, pu-
rification, fire hazards, and methods for their safe disposal, instrumentation required in
heat transfer circuits, and corrosion and mass transfer aspects. Starting from their
manufacture, methods to handle them safely in the laboratory, and the heat transfer cir-
cuits that leverage them are outlined. Pumps and various instruments needed in the
heat transfer circuit are dealt in detail. Their operating principles with description of
their basic design, capabilities, and limits are discussed. Corrosion and mass transfer
processes observed in the liquid metal circuits and the mechanisms involved are
discussed.
I congratulate Dr. T. Gnanasekaran on this important initiative that will provide a
unique source of information for all researchers and technologists who would be
x Foreword by Anil Kakodkar
associated with the development of liquid metal science and technology in the years to
come. For a country like India with limited uranium resources, fast reactors are abso-
lutely essential to enhance and sustain nuclear energy contribution to the country and
for launching the third stage of the Indian nuclear program based on utilization of
thorium. Mastering of sodium technology is a vital component of fast reactor develop-
ment. It is in this context, particularly that this book assumes importance, in that this
will be an excellent reference material for human resource development in the domain
of sodium-cooled fast reactors.
I am also happy that the Homi Bhabha National Institute (HBNI) is supporting such
endeavors. India is one of the world leaders in fast reactor science and technology and
it is but natural that HBNI makes efforts to develop useful educational resources for the
fast reactor community across the globe.
Advanced nuclear systems such as fast breeder reactors and fusion reactors are power-
intensive systems and necessitate liquid coolants with high heat transfer properties.
Liquid metal coolants are ideally suited for this purpose. A thorough understanding
of the properties of liquid metals, improvement of existing technologies and equip-
ment, and development of new ones is essential for operating safely with high effi-
ciency the coolant circuits with the liquid metals. Liquid sodium has been the
coolant of choice for the fast breeder reactors right from the early years and hence
lot of experience has been generated with liquid sodium. Liquid lithium and lead-
lithium eutectic alloy are chosen for tritium breeding and as coolant for fusion reactors.
Liquid lead and lead-bismuth eutectic alloy are the candidate coolants cum neutron
multipliers for accelerator-driven systems and are also considered as coolants for
some future fast breeder reactors.
O.J. Foust published a five-volume handbook on alkali metals in the 1970s. In the
1980s, two books were published both dealing with the chemistry of liquid alkali
metals. One was by C.C. Addison and the other was by H.U. Borgstedt and C.K. Math-
ews. After these publications, enormous amount of research work has been carried out
as part of liquid metal fast reactors and fusion reactors technologies development.
More recently, a collaborative work is going to be published by IAEA (Tecdocs)
focused on physical and chemical properties, heat transfer, and pressure drop correla-
tions, only for sodium. However, the information generated by the research lies scat-
tered as journal papers, reports, patents, and other publications, and nowhere these data
are consolidated. In the past 25 years, several studies have been carried out on liquid
lead and lead-bismuth eutectic alloy also. A handbook providing the data on lead and
lead-bismuth eutectic alloy (Handbook on Lead-bismuth Eutectic Alloy and Lead
Properties, Materials Compatibility, Thermal hydraulics and Technologies) has been
published in 2015. However, this handbook does not discuss the details of various in-
struments used in the heavy liquid metals and their principles.
There is definitely a need for a comprehensive book discussing all the properties of
liquid metals including their microscopic origins and also discussing the basic
principles and operational experience of special instruments and equipment needed
for operating liquid metal systems. This book by T. Gnanasekaran amply fulfills the
requirement.
In this book, the thermophysical properties of liquid metals including their correla-
tion with the strength of their metallic bond, the relevant nuclear properties of the
candidate coolants, and their chemical properties are discussed in detail. Besides the
xii Foreword by Christian Latgé
above, the methods of the manufacture of the coolants, their purification and safe
handling in laboratory as well as in heat transfer circuits, and the fire safety aspects
and safe disposal of these materials have also been extensively covered in this
book. Detailed discussion on the pumps and various instruments needed in the heat
transfer circuit includes their operating principles, their basic design, capabilities,
and limits. Corrosion and mass transfer phenomena and wetting of structural materials
by liquid metals are the other topics discussed in this book which are of importance
from the technology development point of view.
It is indeed very rare to find a book that covers such a wide range of topics right
from the basic properties of liquid metals up to the corrosion aspects, and hence, I
am certain this book will become a source book on liquid metal coolants to the scien-
tists or engineers at the entry level starting their work involving liquid metals and also
for practicing technologists.
Dr. Christian Latgé
CEA Cadarache (France)
Preface
Advanced nuclear systems such as fast breeder reactors, fusion reactor facilities and
accelerator-driven systems generate high power and require coolants with very effi-
cient heat transport properties. Liquid metals possess excellent heat transfer character-
istics and are chosen for use in these systems. While liquid sodium is the coolant of
choice for the current generation fast breeder reactors, liquid lithium and lead-
lithium eutectic alloys are candidate coolant-cum-tritium breeders in fusion reactor
systems. Liquid lead and lead-bismuth eutectic alloys are being investigated for use
as coolant-cum-neutron multipliers in accelerator-driven systems and also as a coolant
for future fast breeder reactors. The technology of liquid alkali metals has been under
intensive development since the 1950s. Similar investigations on heavy liquid metal
coolants are being carried out over the past 20e30 years. Several systems and compo-
nents needed for reliable operation of these liquid metal circuits are under various
stages of development: pumps (mechanical and electromagnetic types), instruments
to measure the flow and levels of the liquid metals, and for viewing components
immersed in the liquid metals, which are opaque; chemical and physical sensors for
on-line surveillance of the concentration of the dissolved non-metallic impurities in
the liquid metals etc.
Many of the instruments developed for use in liquid metal circuits exploit the ther-
mophysical and chemical properties of liquid metals. Methodologies for safe handling
of liquid metals, particularly the very reactive liquid alkali metals, have now become a
routine. Techniques for online purification of the liquid metals in the heat transfer cir-
cuits and maintaining them at desired purity levels are at different stages of maturity.
Structural materials, which possess required mechanical properties at the high oper-
ating temperatures and radiation environments, and which are chemically compatible
with the candidate liquid metal coolant, are also being developed. The final choice
among the candidate structural materials is based on the outcome of the long term
corrosion and mass transfer studies under the intended operating conditions in the
liquid metal circuit. Details of most of these technological advances are available as
publications in journals, reports, conference proceedings and certain book chapters
in a scattered form. For an efficient design and for the operation and utilization of a
liquid metal system, an understanding of all these technologies starting from the
manufacture of liquid metals is required. Also, basic knowledge of the thermophysical
and chemical properties of liquid metals and the correlations among them is also
needed.
xiv Preface
During the 40þ years of research work on liquid metals, the author has always felt
the absence of such a book dealing with all these aspects of the liquid metals, in a
consolidated manner. This book is expected to fill this gap and be useful for imparting
training and education to the young scientists and engineers who begin their career in
the exciting field of liquid metal technology. Also, this book is intended to serve as a
source of information for the practicing scientists and engineers.
The book is divided into five interwoven chapters. The first chapter deals with the
thermophysical properties of liquid metals, which form the basis of several compo-
nents and instruments developed for use in liquid metal systems (discussed in
Chapter 4). Starting from their structure, the microscopic origins of surface tension,
viscosity, thermal conductivity and heat capacity of liquid metals are discussed.
Correlation of the relevant thermophysical properties to the strength of the metallic
bond, which is expressed as cohesive energy, is brought out. The surface tension of
a liquid metal determines the wetting of a solid by it and influences heat transfer char-
acteristics and corrosion phenomena (discussed in Chapter 5) while viscosity, thermal
conductivity and specific heat influence the heat transfer by the liquid metals. High
electrical conductivity of liquid metals, which is exploited in flow and level indicators
and in electromagnetic pumps (described in Chapter 4) as also the magnetic properties
and vapor pressures of the liquid metals are discussed with their atomistic origin.
Relevant nuclear properties of the candidate coolants considered for advanced nuclear
energy systems are then presented. Factors which favor the choice of the coolant sys-
tems for fast breeder and fusion reactors and accelerator-driven systems are then dis-
cussed by comparing the thermophysical, chemical and nuclear properties of the
different candidates.
The second chapter deals with industrial methods of manufacturing the liquid metal
coolants (Li, Na, K, Pb, NaeK alloys, PbeLi and PbeBi alloys) and with their chem-
ical properties. Methods to prepare these metals in a very pure state are also outlined.
Reactions of these candidate coolants with constituents of air, hydrogen and carbon-
bearing materials, which need to be understood for safe handling of liquid metals
(described in Chapter 3) are dealt with in detail. Thermochemical stability of the com-
pounds formed in these reactions and mutual interactions between non-metallic impu-
rities dissolved in the liquid metal medium, which have a bearing on corrosion and
mass transfer phenomena (described in Chapter 5) are then discussed. The correlation
of enthalpy of dissolution to the radius ratio of the solvent and solute in the case of
metallic impurities is brought out. Kinetics of dissolution and precipitation of non-
metallic impurities such as oxygen and hydrogen in liquid metals, which are of rele-
vance in their purification (described in Chapter 3) are then discussed.
The third chapter deals with the safe handling of liquid metal coolants in the labo-
ratory and in operating coolant circuits, and on techniques used for their purification
(removal of radioactive and non-radioactive impurities) in these circuits. Methods to
obtain representative samples from the liquid metal systems and to chemically charac-
terize them are elaborated. Fires due to leaks of liquid alkali metals and methods to
extinguish them, disposal of sodium metal wastes on small and large scales and regen-
eration of cold traps of liquid sodium circuits are also described. The theoretical basis
of each technique/method employed is discussed in detail.
Preface xv
The fourth chapter deals with the components and instruments required for the safe
and reliable operation of the heat transfer circuits with liquid metals. Centrifugal and
electromagnetic pumps used for circulating liquid metal in these circuits are described
in detail. Instruments for detecting the levels and flow of liquid metals, as well as ul-
trasonic transducers for viewing components immersed in liquid metals are described
in depth. Methods to detect liquid alkali metal leaks and for online monitoring of im-
purities in liquid metal, circuits are also discussed in detail. Theoretical principles of
operation of these pumps and instruments are explained.
The fifth chapter dwells on corrosion and mass transfer processes that occur in the
liquid metal coolant circuits. It first deals with the driving forces for this corrosion and
mass transfer phenomenon. Since the structural materials used are dependent on the
coolant employed, the corrosion and mass transfer phenomena are unique for each sys-
tem. Hence, the observed corrosion phenomenon in each liquid metal e structural ma-
terial system and the underlying mechanisms are described. This chapter also deals
with the experimentally observed characteristics of wetting of surfaces of the structural
materials by liquid metals, which is the prerequisite for corrosion and mass transfer
processes in the system to set in.
The book has nine annexures. Being a book dealing with multi-disciplinary subjects
and primarily intended for those embarking on liquid metal technology at entry-level,
the annexures discuss the basic science behind relevant phenomena/processes dealt
with in the main text. This would facilitate easy reading of the main text. Annexures
provided are on (1) radial distribution function for a better understanding of the struc-
ture of liquid metals based on their atomic arrangements, (2) ferromagnetic materials,
which are used in some types of flow meters and electromagnetic pumps, (3) basics of
heat transfer, to describe the heat transfer coefficient and the correlations used for
liquid metals, (4) thermochemical aspects of dissolution of solutes in liquid metals,
(5) kinetics of precipitation of solutes from a liquid metal, (6) magnetic effects of cur-
rent, which are needed to understand the operation of level detectors and flow meters in
liquid metal circuits, (7) propagation of sound waves through matter to understand the
operating principles and limitations of the ultrasonic transducers used for viewing
components immersed in liquid metals, (8) piezoelectricity and piezoelectric materials
to understand the principles of generation of ultrasonic waves and operation of ultra-
sonic transducers and (9) basics of solid electrolyte materials, which are used in chem-
ical sensors employed for on-line monitoring of dissolved impurities in liquid metals.
The Epilogue lists some of the unsolved problems and the developments required in
the field of liquid metal coolants.
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1
Fig. 1.5 Fig. 5 in Ref. 17 Walter de Gruyter and Company
Fig. 1.6a Fig. 13 in Ref. 17 Walter de Gruyter and Company
Fig. 1.6b Fig. 14 in Ref. 17 Walter de Gruyter and Company
Fig. 1.11 Fig. 1.1 in Ref. 33 Elsevier
Fig. 1.27 Fig. 1 in Ref. 65 IOP Publishing Ltd.,
Fig. 1.32 Fig. 16.1 in Ref. 72 Elsevier
Fig. 1.33 Fig. 1 in Ref. 79 IOP Publishing Ltd.,
Fig. 1.42 Fig. 1 and 3 in Ref. 84 Elsevier
Chapter 2
Fig. 2.3 Fig. 1 in Ref. 8 Springer Nature
Fig. 2.4 Fig. 1 in Ref. 9 Springer Nature
Fig. 2.7 Fig. 5 in Ref. 12 MDPI, Switzerland (CC BY 4.0)
Fig. 2.8 Fig. 1 in Ref. 19 Springer Nature
Fig. 2.9 Fig. 1 in Ref. 20 Springer Nature
Fig. 2.10 Fig. 1 in Ref. 24 Springer Nature
Fig. 2.11 Fig. 4 in Ref. 29 Springer Nature
Fig. 2.13 Fig. 1 in Ref. 64 Springer Nature
Fig. 2.14 Fig. 1 in Ref. 65 Springer Nature
Fig. 2.15 Fig. 19 in Ref. 67 Springer Nature
Fig. 2.16 Fig. 1 in Ref. 68 Springer Nature
Fig. 2.18 Fig. 1 in Ref. 72 Elsevier
Fig. 2.19 Fig. 1 in Ref. 123 Elsevier
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.6 Fig. 5 in Ref. 33 Elsevier
Fig. 3.11A Fig. 6 in Ref. 55 Elsevier
Fig. 3.11B Fig. 6 in Ref. 55 Elsevier
Fig. 3.11C Fig. 5 in Ref. 55 Elsevier
Fig. 3.11D Fig. 5 in Ref. 55 Elsevier
Fig. 3.11E Fig. 4 in Ref. 55 Elsevier
Fig. 3.14 Fig. 1 in Ref. 70 Elsevier
Fig. 3.15 Figs. 3 and 5 in Ref. 80 Taylor and Francis Ltd.,
© American Nuclear Society
Fig. 3.17 Fig. 2 in Ref. 96 Argonne National Laboratory,
USA.
Fig. 3.18 Fig. 7 in Ref. 96 Argonne National Laboratory,
USA.
Fig. 3.20 Fig. 1 in Ref. 103 Taylor and Francis Ltd.,
Fig. 3.24 Fig. 5 in Ref. 133 Elsevier
Fig. 3.25 Fig. 7 in Ref. 133 Elsevier
Fig. 3.26 Fig. 1 in Ref. 156 Office of the Scientific and
Technical Information (OSTI),
Department of Energy (DOE),
USA
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Language: Finnish
Kirj.
Albert Kukkonen
SISÄLLYS:
Runoilijan alkulause.
Johdanto.
Eero Varis Albert Kukkoselle
Runoilija Pentti Lyytisen patsasta paljastaissa.
Nykyinen aika.
Kansanjuhlassa Rautalammilla.
Kansanopistolla Äänekoskella lukuvuotta alkaissa.
Vanhan miehen miettehiä Lomakurssien lopussa.
Nuorisoseuran kokouksessa.
Vielä virttä viinan töistä.
Maamiespäivillä Rautalammilla.
Pellervon päivillä Helsingissä.
Valtiopäiväin avaamisesta.
Keisari Aleksanterin kuolinpäivästä.
Kiistelystä kielen päältä valtiopäivillä.
Suomenkielen asia ritari- ja aatelisäädyssä valtiopäivillä.
Hiljaiset Valtiopäivät.
Nuorisollen neuvoksi välttämähän väkijuomat.
Entisistä ja nykyisistä ajoista.
Rautatie-kokouksessa Pieksämäellä.
Muistelmia Iisalmen näyttelyssä käynnistä.
Teaterihuoneella juhlassa kylvettäjäin hyväksi Kuopiossa.
Kirurgisessa sairaalassa olostani Helsingissä.
Muistelmia vuosisadan vaihteessa.
RUNOILIJAN ALKULAUSE.
Rupeaisinpa runollen,
Läksisinpä laulutyöllen,
Kuin ois oppia otsassa,
Tuntoa tuolla tukan alla
Eli taitoa takana;
Vaan olen aivan oppimaton
Kirjoitusta koittamahan,
Paperille piirtämähän.
———
Kuin ois kaunis Kalevala,
Kantelettaret kädessä,
Niissä oppia olisi,
Oivallista ojennusta,
Kaikki kaunista tekoa,
Niissä on runot rustattuna,
Niissä laulut laitettuna,
Sananlaskutkin saneltu,
Kaikki laatunsa mukaiset,
Joka sorttihin sopivat:
llolaulut, surulaulut,
Miesten laulut, naisten laulut,
Vaimojen valituslaulut,
Laulut lapsille hyville,
Laulut päiville pahoille,
Neitosille naitaville,
Kosioillen katsottuna.
Vielä on vanhan Väinämöisen
Loihturunot runsahasti
Kalevalahan koottu,
Joissa on oppi oivallinen,
Kaikki taito tarpeellinen,
Suomen kielellen sopiva
Suomalaisten suosioksi.
———
Kiitän vielä viimeseksi
Niiden herrojen hyvyyttä,
Jotka ylös ottelevat,
Vanhat laulut laittelevat,
Kelpo kirjaksi kyhäävät.
Olkoon kiitos kirjoitettu,
Sanottu Savon ukolta,
Teillen taitavat tekiät,
Hyvät herrat Helsingissä,
Että ootten etsinynnä
Suomesta suloiset laulut.
Niinpä saatamme sanoa
Maamme puolelta puhua:
Ei ne herrat helpommasti
Maata, ruualle rupia,
Jotka kaikki kiertelevät,
Laajaa maata matkustavat,
Suomen sukua hakevat.
Suomella on vähän sukua,
Aivan vähä aatelia,
Vielä on Virossa vähäsen,
Venäjällä veikkosia.