Psychologists at Work

Psychology: the scientific study of behavior and mental

processes.
Psychologists try to describe, predict, and explain human
behavior and mental processes using scientific methods to
find answers.
These behaviors and mental processes encompass not just
what people do but also their thoughts, emotions,
perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, and even the
biological activities that maintain bodily functioning.

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 MODULE 1 FIGURE 1 1

Psychological Truths?
Test your knowledge of psychology. Which of the following are “True,” and which “False”?
1. Infants love their mothers primarily because their mothers fulfill their basic biological needs, such as
providing food.
2. Geniuses generally have poor social adjustment.
3. The best way to ensure that a desired behavior will continue after training is completed is to reward
that behavior every single time it occurs during training rather than rewarding it only periodically.
4. People with schizophrenia have at least two distinct personalities.
5. Parents should do everything they can to ensure their children have high self-esteem and a strong
sense that they are highly competent.
6. Children’s IQ scores have little to do with how well they do in school.
7. Frequent masturbation can lead to mental illness.
8. Once people reach old age, their leisure activities change radically.
9. Most people would refuse to give painful electric shocks to other people.
10. People who talk about suicide are unlikely to actually try to kill themselves.

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 Subfields of Psychology 1

• Behavioral genetics.

• Behavioral neuroscience.

• Clinical psychology.

• Clinical neuropsychology.

• Cognitive psychology.
• Counseling psychology.

• Cross-cultural psychology.

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 Subfields of Psychology 2

• Developmental psychology.

• Educational psychology.

• Environmental psychology.

• Evolutionary psychology.

• Experimental psychology.
• Forensic psychology.

• Health psychology.

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 Subfields of Psychology 3

• Industrial/organizational psychology.

• Personality psychology.

• Program evaluation.

• Psychology of women.

• School psychology.
• Social psychology.

• Sport psychology.

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 What Are the Biological Foundations
of Behavior?
People are biological organisms.
Behavioral neuroscience focuses on how the brain and the
nervous system, as well as other biological aspects of the
body, determine behavior.

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 How Do People Sense, Perceive,
Learn, and Think About the World?
Experimental psychology studies the processes of sensing,
perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world.

Cognitive psychology is a sub-specialty of experimental

psychology focusing on higher mental processes, such as
thinking, memory, reasoning, problem-solving, judging,
decision making, and language.

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 What Are the Sources of Change and
Stability in Behavior Across the Life Span?
Developmental psychology studies how people grow and
change from the moment of conception through death.
Personality psychology focuses on consistency in people’s
behavior across their lives as well as traits that differentiate
one person from another.

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 How Do Psychological Factors Affect
Physical and Mental Health?
Health psychology explores the relationship between
psychological factors and physical ailments or disease.
Clinical psychology deals with the study, diagnosis, and
treatment of psychological disorders.
Counseling psychology focuses primarily on educational,
social, and career adjustment problems.

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 How Do Our Social Networks Affect
Behavior?
Social psychology studies how people’s thoughts, feelings,
and actions are affected by others.
Cross-cultural psychology investigates the similarities and
differences in psychological functioning in and across various
cultures and ethnic groups.

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 Expanding Psychology’s Frontiers
Evolutionary psychology considers how behavior is
influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors.
• This field stems from Darwin’s On the Origin of Species.

Behavioral genetics seeks to understand how we might

inherit certain behavioral traits and how the environment
influences whether we actually display such traits.
Clinical neuropsychology unites the areas of neuroscience
and clinical psychology and focuses on the origin of
psychological disorders in biological factors.

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 Working at Psychology
Psychologists are employed in a variety of settings:
• Institutions of higher learning;
• Private practice treating clients;
• Hospitals, clinics, mental health centers;
• Government human-services organizations;
• Business, schools, prisons, the military;
• Department of Homeland Security.

Most work in academic settings.

All share a commitment to improving individual lives as well
as society in general.

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 Psychologists: A Portrait 1

Today, after historically being discouraged to become

psychologists, women far outnumber men in the field.

Despite this, women still lag behind when it comes to salaries

and high-status positions within the field.

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 Psychologists: A Portrait 2

Only 14% of active psychologists are members of racial

minority groups.
There are consequences to the underrepresentation of racial
and ethnic minorities among psychologists:
• The field is diminished by a lack of diverse perspectives and
talents.
• Underrepresentation deters minorities from entering the field.
• Because people tend to prefer to receive therapy from their own
ethnic group, minorities are underserved.

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 The Education of a Psychologist
Most psychologists have a doctorate degree.
A PhD (doctor of philosophy) is a research degree that
requires a dissertation based on an original investigation.
A PsyD (doctor of psychology) is obtained by psychologists
who want to focus on the treatment of psychological
disorders.
Note, psychologists are distinct from psychiatrists—doctors
who have a medical degree to specialize in the diagnosis
and treatment of psychological disorders.

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 Careers for Psychology Majors 1

Undergraduates who specialize in psychology develop

good critical thinking and analytical skills, and they are able
to synthesize and evaluate information well.
According to the American Psychological Association,
undergraduate psychology programs should instruct
students in:
• The key content of psychology;
• Critical thinking and an understanding of the scientific method;
• Ethical and social responsibility;
• Strong communication skills; and
• Opportunities for professional development.

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 Careers for Psychology Majors 2

The most common area of employment are in the social

services:
• As administrators;
• As counselors; and
• Providing direct care.

In addition, psychology majors often enter the fields of

education or business or work for federal, state, and local
governments.

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 MODULE 2 - A Science Evolves: The
Past, the Present, and the Future
What are the origins of psychology?
What are the major approaches in contemporary psychology?

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 The Roots of Psychology 1

Structuralism: a focus on uncovering the fundamental

mental components of consciousness, thinking, and other
kinds of mental states and activities.
• A perspective developed by Wilhelm Wundt.

Introspection: a procedure used to study the structure of the

mind in which subjects are asked to describe in detail what
they are experiencing when they are exposed to a stimulus.

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 The Roots of Psychology 2

Over time, structuralism and the procedure of introspection

were challenged.
• Introspection was not truly a scientific technique, because there
were few ways an outsider could confirm its accuracy.
• People had difficulty describing some kinds of inner
experiences, such as emotional responses.

Functionalism: an approach that concentrates on what the

mind does and the role of behavior in allowing people to
adapt to their environments.
• Developed by William James.

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 The Roots of Psychology 3

Gestalt psychology uses a series of principles to describe

how we organize bits and pieces of information into
meaningful wholes.
• Advocated by German scientists Hermann Ebbinghaus and Max
Wertheimer.

Gestalt psychologists propose that “The whole is different

from the sum of its parts,” meaning our perception, or
understanding, of objects is greater and more meaningful
than the individual elements that make up our perceptions.

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 Women in Psychology: Founding
Mothers 1

Margaret Floy Washburn worked on animal behavior.

• First woman to receive a doctorate in psychology.

Leta Stetter Hollingworth was one of the first psychologists

to focus on child development and on women’s issues.
• Refuted the view that women’s abilities periodically declined
during their menstrual cycle.

Mary Calkins studied memory and was the first female

president of the American Psychological Association.

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 Women in Psychology: Founding
Mothers 2

Karen Horney focused on the social and cultural factors

behind personality.
• Founded the American Journal of Psychoanalysis.

June Etta Downey was the first woman to head a psychology

department at a state university, spearheading the study of
personality traits.
Anna Freud, Sigmund Freud’s daughter, made notable
contributions to the treatment of abnormal behavior.
Mamie Phipps Clark pioneered work on how children of color
grew to recognize racial differences.

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 Today’s Five Major Perspectives
Those who laid the foundations of psychology shared a
common goal: to explain and understand behavior using
scientific methods.
Today’s perspectives emphasize different aspects of behavior
and mental processes.
Each takes our understanding of behavior in a somewhat
different direction.

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 MODULE 2 FIGURE 2

The major perspectives of psychology.

(Neuroscience): Alfred Pasieka/Science Photo Library/Alamy Stock Photo; (Cognitive): David Sanger/The Image
Bank/Getty Images; (Behavioral): Ariel Skelley/Blend Images; (Humanistic): White Packert/The Image Bank/Getty Images;
(Psychodynamic): Athanasia Nomikou/Shutterstock

Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 The Neuroscience Perspective: Blood,
Sweat, and Fears
Neuroscience perspective: the approach that views
behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous
system, and other biological functions.

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 The Psychodynamic Perspective:
Understanding the Inner Person
Psychodynamic perspective: the approach based on the
view that behavior is motivated by inner forces and conflicts
about which we have little awareness or control.
• Its origins are linked to Sigmund Freud.

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 The Behavioral Perspective: Observing the
Outer Person
Behavioral perspective: the approach that suggests that
the focus should be on external behavior that can be
objectively measured and observed.
• John B. Watson was the first to use this approach.
• It was championed by B. F. Skinner, a pioneer in the field.

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 The Cognitive Perspective: Identifying the
Roots of Understanding
Cognitive perspective: the approach that focuses on how
people think, understand, and know about the world.
For many psychologists who adhere to this perspective,
thinking is information processing.

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 The Humanistic Perspective: The Unique
Qualities of the Human Species
Humanistic perspective: suggests individuals naturally
strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and
behavior.
• Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow were central figures in the
development of this perspective.
• The emphasis is on free will.
• The notion of free will stands in contrast to determinism.

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 MODULE 3 - Psychology’s Key Issues
and Controversies
What are psychology’s key issues and controversies?
What is the future of psychology likely to hold?

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 Psychology’s Key Issues and
Controversies 1

Issue 1: Nature (heredity) versus nurture (environment).

• How much of people’s behavior is due to their genetically determined
nature?
• How much is due to nurture—the influences of the physical and social
environment in which a child is raised?
• What is the interplay between heredity and environment?

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 Psychology’s Key Issues and
Controversies 2

Issue 2: Conscious versus unconscious causes of behavior.

• How much of behavior is produced by forces of which we are
fully aware?
• How much is due to unconscious activity?

Issue 3: Observable behavior versus internal mental

processes.
• Should we focus solely on behavior that can be seen by outside
observers, or should we consider unseen thinking processes?

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 Psychology’s Key Issues and
Controversies 3

Issue 4: Free will versus determinism.

• How much of our behavior is a matter of free will, and how much
is subject to determinism?
• Free will: the idea that behavior is caused primarily by choices
that are made freely by the individual.
• Determinism: the idea that people’s behavior is produced
primarily by factors outside their willful control.

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 Psychology’s Key Issues and
Controversies 4

Issue 5: Individual differences versus universal principles.

• How much of behavior is due to a person’s unique and
special qualities?
• How much stems from the culture and society?
• Universal principles are those that underlie the behavior of
all humans.

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 MODULE 3 FIGURE 1

Issue Neuroscience Cognitive Behavioral Humanistic Psychodynamic

Nature (heredity) Nature Both Nurture Nurture Nature (heredity)
versus. nurture (heredity) (environment) (environment)
(environment)
Conscious versus. Unconscious Both Conscious Conscious Unconscious
unconscious
determinants of
behavior
Observable behavior Internal Internal Observable Internal Internal emphasis
versus. internal emphasis emphasis emphasis emphasis
mental processes
Free will versus. Determinism Free will Determinism Free will Determinism
determinism
Individual differences Universal Individual Both Individual Universal
versus universal emphasis emphasis emphasis emphasis
principles

Key issues in psychology and the positions taken by psychologists subscribing to the five major
perspectives of psychology.

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 Psychology’s Future
Several trends seem likely:

Psychology will become increasingly specialized.

Neuroscientific approaches will likely influence other

branches of psychology.

Psychology’s influence on issues of public interest will grow.

Psychologists must follow increasingly strict ethical and
moral guidelines.

The public’s view of psychology will become more informed.

The issue of diversity will become more important.

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