Energy and Exergy Analyses of a Cold Storage Unit

Model Using DWSIM

An Undergraduate Thesis Proposal

Presented to the
School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
Mapúa University

TITLE PAGE

In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering

By

DE GUZMAN, Chase Q.
2016130425

DELA CRUZ, Joseph Howard M.

2016142050

PARROCHA, Zirak N.
2016144125

RODRIGUEZ, Sherwin-Raiden Jr. L.

2016142394

July 2022
 APPROVAL SHEET
This thesis,

Energy and Exergy Analyses of a Cold Storage Unit Model Using DWSIM

by

de Guzman, Chase Q.; Dela Cruz, Joseph Howard M.; Parrocha, Zirak N.; Rodriguez, Sherwin-Raiden Jr. L.

has been approved for oral defense

Engr. Ricky Umali Engr. Gawayne Escalona

Thesis Coordinator Thesis Advisor

Thesis Evaluation Committee

Engr. Jaime Honra

Panel Member

Engr. Reylina Tayactac Engr. Ricky Umali

Panel Member Panel Member

Accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of

Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering

Dr. Aldrin D. Calderon

Dean, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, we would like to thank God who gives us strength and knowledge in
the long run of our journey. It is not possible without his guidance and blessings that he has given
to us. As we experience different pathways, he still gives his hands and lead where the light will
come through.
We would like to express our gratitude to our thesis adviser Engr. Gawayne M. Escalona
for the guidance, motivation and continuously advice in helping in strive to complete the study.
We would like to thank him because he is the one who helped us rationalize and think of better
ways to further process our thesis despite the numerous changes of our topic.

We would also like to give acknowledgements to our family who always supports us during
our studies and always cheer for us whenever we feel sad and tired. Our families are the ones who
gave us inspiration and motivation to finish this study. During the times that we are studying, they
are the ones who gave whatever they can, especially financial needs, and taught us that how
difficult the road that may be ahead, we will still be able to surpass all the challenges that it is
going to bring to us. Those encouragements are important because it boosted our confidence while
we are studying.

We would like to thank our classmates and friends who help us during our process of this
study. Whenever we have questions, they are the ones who helped us to accomplish those
objectives. Our friends did not leave us behind during those times because they know how tiring
and draining conducting a research paper is. They have always reminded us during the deadlines
of the paper, on what are processes of requirements and giving us opinion on whatever we should
do.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i

APPROVAL SHEET ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF FIGURES ix

LIST OF APPENDICES xi

ABSTRACT xii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview and Background 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 3

1.3 Objectives of the Study 4

1.3.1 General Objectives 4
1.3.2 Specific Objectives 4

1.4 Significance of the Study 5

1.5 Scope and Limitations 5

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Simulation and Optimization of Energy Consumption in 7

Cold storage Chambers from the Horticultural Industry
(Alves et al., 2014)

2.2 Comparative Experimental Study of Low GWP 13

Alternative for R134A in a Walk-in Cold Room
(Bassuoni et al., 2016)

2.3 An Experimental Study of R-454C Pull Down 20

Performance as a Drop-in Refrigerant in a Walk-
in Cold Store System (Elgendy et al., 2021)

2.4 Experimental Comparison of R22 with R417A 25

iv
 Performance in a Vapor Compression Refrigeration
Plant Subjected to a Cold Store (Aprea & Renno, 2004)

2.5 Experimental Performance Evaluation of a Vapor 30

Compression Refrigerating Plant when Replacing
R22 with Alternative Refrigerants (Panno & Rocca, 2011)

2.6 Techno-economic and Environmental Analysis 32

of Low-GWP Alternative Refrigerants in Cold
Storage Unit under Year-round Working
Conditions (Deng et al., 2021)

2.7 Thermo-economic and Environmental Analysis 35

of an Inverter Cold Storage Unit Charged
R448 (Deng et al., 2021)

2.8 Non-azeotropic Refrigerant Charge Optimization 37

For Cold Storage Unit Based on Year-round
Performance Evaluation (Hu et al., 2018)

2.9 Performance of R407C as an Alternative to R22: 40

A Review (Bhadburi & Kasera, 2017)

2.10 Computational Energy and Exergy Analysis of 41

R13a, R1234yf, R1234ze and their mixtures
in Vapor Compression System (Gaurav & Kumar, 2018)

2.11 Experimental Study of R1234yf as a Drop-in 43

Replacement for R134a in a Domestic Refrigerator
(Belman-Flores et al., 2017)

2.12 A New Correlation for Performance Prediction of a 46

Small and Large Capacity Single-Effect Vapor
Absorption Refrigeration Systems (Hassan et al., 2022)

2.13 The Effect of Stage Number on the Performance of 49

A Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle Using
Refrigerant R32 (Ambarita et al., 2020)

2.14 The Optimum Intermediate Pressure of Two-Stages 53

Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle for Air-
Conditioning Unit (Amabrita & Sihombing, 2018)

2.15 Evaluation on Expressions for Optimum Intermediate 56

Condition of Two-Stage Vapor Compression
Refrigeration Cycle (Ambarita, 2018)

v
 2.16 Effect of Inter-stage Pressure on the Performance of 58
a Two Stage Refrigeration Cycle Using Inter Cooler
(Dasgupta et al., 2016)

2.17 Optimization of Energy Systems (Ahmadi et al., 2017) 61

2.18 Summary of Refrigerants 63

CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL CONSIDERATION

3.1 Vapor Compression Cycle 65

3.2 Multi-Stage Vapor Compression Cycle 67

3.3 Energy and Exergy Balance 69

3.3.1 First Law Analysis 69
3.3.2 Second Law Analysis 70

3.4 Refrigerant Flow 73

3.5 Cooling Load 74

3.6 Compressor Power 75

3.6 Refrigerating Effect 76

3.6 Coefficient of Performance 76

3.6 Superheating Temperature 77

3.6 Subcooling Temperature 78

3.6 Departure Functions 79

3.6 DWSIM 80

3.6 Peng-Robinson Property Package 80

CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY

4.1 Research Design 82

4.2 Refrigeration Selection 83

vi
 4.3 Cold Storage Unit Operating Conditions and Parameters 84

4.4 Cooling Load Calculation 85

4.5 Modeling the VCR in DWSIM 87

4.6 Energy Analysis and Validation 97

4.6 Exergy Analysis 100

4.6 Optimization 103

CHAPTER 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Cooling Load Calculation 105

5.2 Vapor Compression Refrigeration System 106

DWSIM model

5.3 Energy Analysis of VCR System Model 107

and Refrigerant Charge Test

5.4 Exergy Analysis of VCR System Model 111

5.2 Energy and Exergy Analyses Interpretation 115

and Model selection

5.6 VCR Cold Storage System Optimization 117

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Conclusion 122

6.2 Recommendation 123

REFERENCES 125

APPENDICES 128

vii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Parameters of the Accommodated Product (Alves et al., 2014) ................................. 10
Table 2.2: Parameters for the Cold Storage Experiment (Alves et al., 2014) .............................. 10
Table 2.3: Component Variables for Present Work & Reference Study (Bassuoni et al., 2016) .. 15
Table 2.4: System Variables for Present Work and Reference Study (Bassuoni et al., 2016) ...... 15
Table 2.5: Exergy Values of each Component for R134a (Bassuoni et al., 2016) ....................... 20
Table 2.6: Exergy Values of each Component for R1234ze (Bassuoni et al., 2016) ................... 20
Table 2.7: Refrigerant Properties (Elgendy et al., 2021) ............................................................ 21
Table 2.8: Greenhouse Effect of Refrigerants (Panno & Rocca, 2011) ....................................... 30
Table 2.9: TEWI Trend in function of Glycol Water Load (Panno & Rocca, 2011) ................... 32
Table 2.10: Experimental Variablers (Deng et al., 2021) ........................................................... 33
Table 2.11: AEER under Different Super-Heating Degrees (Deng, et al., 2021) ........................ 35
Table 2.12: Power Consumption of Cold Storage Unit (Deng, et al., 2021)................................ 37
Table 2.13: Optimal Refrigerant Charge Ranges of Cold Storage Unit (Hu et al., 2018) ............ 38
Table 2.14: Parameter Comparison of Refrigerants (Bhadburi & Kasera, 2017)......................... 41
Table 2.15: ASPEN Plus Simulation Results (Ambarita et al., 2020) ......................................... 52
Table 2.16: Simulation Results of Refrigerant R32 (Ambarita et al., 2020)................................ 53
Table 2.17: Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerants ............................................................. 64

Table 4.1: Decision Matrix ........................................................................................................ 84

Table 4.2: Parameters of the Accommodated Product (Alves et al., 2014) ................................. 84
Table 4.3: Parameters for the Cold Storage Experiment (Alves et al., 2014) .............................. 85
Table 4.4: Parameters at each State Point .................................................................................. 98
Table 4.5: Energy Analysis Results ......................................................................................... 100

Table 5.1: Compressor Unit Specifications .............................................................................. 120

Table B-1: Proposed Budget for the Research………………………………………. ............... 129

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle (Alves et al., 2014) .....................................8
Figure 2.2: Refrigeration Chamber Schematic Diagram (Alves et al., 2014) ................................9
Figure 2.3: Contribution of Thermal Load (Alves et al., 2014) .................................................. 11
Figure 2.4: Energy Consumption vs. Inner Temperature (Alves et al., 2014) ............................. 11
Figure 2.5: Energy Consumption vs. Initial Temperature of Product (Alves et al., 2014) ........... 12
Figure 2.6: Test Rig Experimental Schematic Diagram (Bassuoni et al., 2016) .......................... 14
Figure 2.7: Compressor Temperature vs Time at 600 W (Bassuoni et al., 2016)) ....................... 16
Figure 2.8: Cooling Capacity and Evaporator Temperature vs. Time (Bassuoni et al., 2016) ..... 17
Figure 2.9: COP and Refrigerating Effect vs. Evaporator Temperature (Bassuoni et al., 2016) .. 18
Figure 2.10: Actual Storage Unit (Elgendy et al., 2021)............................................................. 21
Figure 2.11: Cold Store System Test Rig Schematic Dgram (Elgendy et al., 2021).................... 22
Figure 2.12: Cooling Capacity and Compressor Power vs Cold Storage Temperature (Elgendy et
al., 2021) ............................................................................................................. 23
Figure 2.13: System COP vs. Cold Store Temperature (Elgendy et al., 2021) ............................ 24
Figure 2.14: Refrigeration Plant Experimental Setup (Aprea & Renno, 2004) ........................... 25
Figure 2.15: Plant COP in Summer vs. Cold Store Air Temperature (Aprea & Renno, 2004) .... 26
Figure 2.16: Plant COP in Winter vs. Cold Store Air Temperature (Aprea & Renno, 2004)....... 27
Figure 2.17: Exergy Destroyed in Refrigeration Plant (Aprea & Renno, 2004) .......................... 28
Figure 2.18: Components Efficiency Defects and Exergy Efficiency (Aprea & Renno, 2004).... 29
Figure 2.19: Cold Storage Testing System Schematic Diagram (Deng, et al., 2021) .................. 33
Figure 2.20: Inverter Cold Storage Testing System Schematic Diagram (Deng, et al., 2021) ..... 36
Figure 2.21: Cold Storage Unit Experimental Setup (Hu et al., 2018) ....................................... 38
Figure 2.22: Exergy Efficiency of every Refrigerant (Gaurav & Kumar, 2018) ......................... 42
Figure 2.23: Exergy Destruction for every Refrigerant (Gaurav & Kumar, 2018) ...................... 42
Figure 2.24: Refrigerant Charge vs. Temperatures and Pressures (Belman-Flores et al., 2017) .. 44
Figure 2.25: Refrigerant Charge vs. Cooling Capacity and Temperatures (Belman-Flores et al.,
..2017) .................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 2.26: Single-Stage Absorption Cycle with Solution and Cold Heat Exchangers (Hassan et
..al., 2022) ............................................................................................................... 46
Figure 2.27: Single Effect VAR using NH3-Water Mixture as Working Fluid in ASPEN Plus
(Hassan et al., 2022) ............................................................................................. 47
Figure 2.28: Single Effect VAR using Water-LiBr Mixture as Working Fluid in ASPEN Plus
(Hassan et al., 2022) ............................................................................................. 48
Figure 2.29: Single-Stage VCR in ASPEN Plus (Ambarita et al., 2020) .................................... 49
Figure 2.30: Two-Stage VCR in ASPEN Plus (Ambarita et al., 2020) ....................................... 50
Figure 2.31: Three-Stage VCR in ASPEN Plus (Ambarita et al., 2020) ..................................... 51
Figure 2.32: Schematic and P-h diagram of the Two-Stage Compression Cycle (Ambarita &
Sihombing, 2018) ................................................................................................. 54
Figure 2.33: Compressor Power vs. Intermediate Pressure (Ambarita & Sihombing, 2018) ....... 54
Figure 2.34: Coefficient of Performance vs. Pressure (Ambarita & Sihombing, 2018) ............... 55
Figure 2.35: P-h Diagrams for a Two-Stage VCR (a) subcritical cycle (b) supercritical cycle
(Dasgupta et al., 2016))......................................................................................... 58
Figure 2.36: Variation of COP with Condenser Exit Temperatures (Dasgupta et al., 2016) ........ 59
Figure 2.37: Single Stage vs. Two Stage Performance (Dasgupta et al., 2016) ........................... 60

ix
Figure 3.1: Vapor Compression Cycle (Dheeraj et al., 2018) ..................................................... 65
Figure 3.2: Schematic Diagram and T-s Diagram of a Two-Stage VCR (Kharagpur, 2008) ....... 67

Figure 4.1: Methodological Framework..................................................................................... 82

Figure 4.2: DWSIM Application Process Flow Chart ................................................................ 87
Figure 4.3: DWSIM Home ........................................................................................................ 88
Figure 4.4: DWSIM Compounds Selection................................................................................ 89
Figure 4.5: DWSIM Property Packages ..................................................................................... 90
Figure 4.6: DWSIM Blank Flowsheet ....................................................................................... 91
Figure 4.7: DWSIM Compressor Block ..................................................................................... 92
Figure 4.8: DWSIM Condenser Block ....................................................................................... 92
Figure 4.9: DWSIM Expansion Valve Block ............................................................................. 93
Figure 4.10: DWSIM Evaporator Block .................................................................................... 94
Figure 4.11: DWSIM Recycle Block ......................................................................................... 95
Figure 4.12: DWSIM Compressor Inlet Input ............................................................................ 95
Figure 4.13: DWSIM Compound Amount ................................................................................. 96
Figure 4.14: DWSIM VCR Model............................................................................................. 97
Figure 4.15: DWSIM VCR Model for Validation ...................................................................... 99
Figure 4.16: Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet for Exergy Calculations .......................................... 101
Figure 4.17: Exergy Destroyed in Components Using R22 ...................................................... 102
Figure 4.18: Exergy Defects & Exergy Efficiency when R22 is used as Working Fluid ........... 102

Figure 5.1: Cooling Load Calculation Excel Spread Sheet ....................................................... 105
Figure 5.2 Vapor Compression Refrigeration System Model ................................................... 106
Figure 5.3 Relationship of COP and Mass Flow of R22 ........................................................... 108
Figure 5.4 Relationship of COP and Mass Flow of R134A ...................................................... 109
Figure 5.5 Relationship of COP and Mass Flow of R404A ...................................................... 109
Figure 5.6 Relationship of COP and Mass Flow of R407C ...................................................... 110
Figure 5.7 Relationship of COP and Mass Flow of R1234yf .................................................... 111
Figure 5.8 Relationship of Exergy Efficiency and Mass Flow of R22 ...................................... 112
Figure 5.9 Relationship of Exergy Efficiency and Mass Flow of R134A ................................. 112
Figure 5.10 Relationship of Exergy Efficiency and Mass Flow of R404A ............................... 113
Figure 5.11 Relationship of Exergy Efficiency and Mass Flow of R407C ................................ 114
Figure 5.12 Relationship of Exergy Efficiency and Mass Flow of R1234yf ............................. 114
Figure 5.13 COP of the VCR at Optimal Refrigerant Charge ................................................... 115
Figure 5.14 Exergy Efficiency of the VCR at Optimal Refrigerant Charge .............................. 116
Figure 5.15 Exergy Destruction in R407C VCR Components .................................................. 117
Figure 5.16 Two-Stage Vapor Compression Refrigeration System DWSIM Model ................. 118
Figure 5.17 Danfoss High-Pressure Side Compressor .............................................................. 119
Figure 5.18 COP and Exergy Efficiencies of VCR Setups ....................................................... 120
Figure 5.19 COP and Exergy Efficiencies of VCR Setups Including Optimized Setup............. 121

x
 LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix A: GANTT CHART 128

Appendix B: BUDGET PROPOSAL 129

Appendix C: NOMENCLATURE 130

Appendix D: COOLING LOAD CALCULATIONS 131

Appendix E: EXERGY CALCULATIONS 132

Appendix F: COMPRESSOR UNIT SPECIFICATIONS 134

xi
 ABSTRACT

The ongoing depletion of the ozone layer, which protects the surface of the Earth from UV
radiation, has resulted in a trend of international treaties, such as the Montreal Protocol and Kyoto
Protocol, requiring halogenated fluids to be phased out gradually. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
have been banned since 1996, and partially halogenated hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are
also on their way out because they do not contain chlorine and HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) which
are candidates for definite substitution of both CFCs and HCFCs. In the Philippines, the cold
storage industry is mostly comprised of refrigeration systems which make use R134A and R22
refrigerants. R22 is a HCFC substance which has an ozone depletion potential, while R134A is an
HFC refrigerant which causes global warming potential. These refrigerants are on their way to
being phased out. Having said that, the Philippines must find an alternative refrigerant which will
not harm the environment and efficient enough for the industry. To address this problem, the study
focuses on the energy analysis of conventional and alternative refrigerants, namely R134A, R22,
R404A, R407C, and R1234yf, running on a vapor compression refrigeration system for a cold
room. The energy analysis will be conducted using a software named DWSIM, which will simulate
the vapor compression cycle. In addition to that, the study includes exergy analysis to attain the
exergy destroyed on every component and the entire system. The analyses will be conducted to
determine the refrigerant with the best optimum thermodynamic performances.

Keywords: Cold Room, Energy analysis, Exergy analysis, Refrigerants, Vapor compression

xii
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

This study focuses on performing energy and exergy analyses on a vapor compression

refrigeration system that runs on R407A and R407C. This chapter discusses the overview,

background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives, significance, and scope and

limitation of the study.

1.1 Overview and Background

The ongoing depletion of the ozone layer, which protects the surface of the Earth from UV

radiation, has resulted in a trend of international treaties, such as the Montreal Protocol and Kyoto

Protocol, requiring halogenated fluids to be phased out gradually. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

have been banned since 1996, and partially halogenated hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are

also on their way out because they do not contain chlorine and HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) which

are candidates for definite substitution of both CFCs and HCFCs (Bhadburi & Kasera, 2017).

One of the first projects of the Montreal Protocol was to minimize the use of CFC

refrigerants such as R12. In the year 1992, the said refrigerant was phased out in the automotive

industry in the United States. Because of that, R12 was replaced with a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC)

refrigerant called R134A. This refrigerant has its edge because it does not contain chlorine, which

means it does not harm the ozone layer. This refrigerant is commonly used in air conditioning and

refrigeration applications. Although its ozone depletion potential (ODP) is zero, its global warming

potential (GWP) is high. There is a high possibility that the production of R134A may be

completely banned in the future because it was already restrained in the Tokyo Protocol and

Montreal Protocol (Bassuoni et al., 2016)

1
 2

In accordance with the Montreal Protocol, the Philippines has pledged to phase out ozone-

depleting refrigerants such as R22, an HCFC substance. In compliance with the direction, DAIKIN

Philippines has decided to phase out all R22 products by the year 2017, which is three years earlier

than the target year of 2020 set by the Philippines' Department of Environment and Natural

Resources. DPH, which is ahead of the curve in research and development, is replacing all its

products with environment-friendly refrigerants that have no ozone depleting potential. After the

order of the Montreal Protocol regarding refrigerant R22, there was a demand on the development

of an alternative refrigerant. The substitute refrigerant, R404A, is utilized in both low and medium

temperature refrigeration systems, usually applied in commercial supermarket chillers, cold

storages, and refrigerated transport. This refrigerant has good thermophysical properties and at the

same time has zero ODP. However, this refrigerant has a GWP of 3300. In January 2020, the UK

and EU legislation ordered the ban on the sale of new refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment

that runs with refrigerants with GWP greater than 2500 (DAIKIN Philippines, 2017).

According to Abad et. al (2019), in the Philippines, refrigerant R22 is still present in

refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment and contributes 30% of the sales in self-contained

air-conditioners, 5% in split residential air-conditioners, 7% in split commercial air-conditioners,

and 20% in centralized systems for supermarkets, in the year 2020. On the other hand, R134A still

contributes 80% of the sales in air conditioning chillers, domestic refrigeration, and centralized

systems for supermarkets in the year 2020.

In correspondence to these policies, alternative refrigerants for R134A have been

developed. R1234yf is one of the commonly used drop-in replacement for the conventional

refrigerant. R1234yf is a hydrofluoro-olefin (HFO) refrigerant which has mild flammability.

Although its system performance is similar as that of R134A, this refrigerant has a significantly
 3

lower GWP of 4. In line with this, alternative refrigerants for R22 and R404A have been developed

as well. R407C is one of the many alternative refrigerants developed. R407C is an HFC blend

containing R32, R125, and R134a. It is classified with a safety of A1. R407C has zero ODP and a

lower GWP than R404A (Bhaduri & Kasera, 2017).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

In the Philippines, the cold storage industry is mostly comprised of refrigeration systems

which make use of refrigerants R134A and R22. These refrigerants are not only used for

refrigerators, but for air conditioning units as well. R22 is a HCFC substance which has an ozone

depletion potential, which is why the Montreal Protocol orders the phasing out of such refrigerants.

On the other hand, R134A is an HFC refrigerant which causes global warming potential. c

However, this refrigerant is still being used in refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment and

contributes many sales in the cold storage industry for the year 2020. The same goes for R134A.

Having said that, the Philippines must find an alternative refrigerant which will not harm the

environment and efficient enough for the industry.

Food waste is a problem around the world, but it differs depending on whether a country

is developed or developing. It is more commonly associated with consumption in the developed

world, whereas it occurs earlier in the supply chain in developing regions, wherein food rots on

farms or spoils during storage. Post-harvest losses for fruits and vegetables are a major problem

for farmers in the Philippines. According to Simeon (2020), in a collaborative program with the

Japan International Cooperation Agency, the Philippines Department of Science and Technology

estimated that post-harvest loss in the Philippines has a range of 5% to 48% for fruits and 16% to

40% for vegetables. According to Department of Agriculture (DA) Philippines lacks in terms of

cold storage facilities, which is why post-harvest loss is high. Because of that, in the year 2020,
 4

the DA emphasized the need to create more cold storage facilities in the Philippines. Agriculture

Secretary William Dar urged the Cold Chain Association of the Philippines (CCAP) to work with

the DA in establishing more cold storage facilities situated adjacent to major farm production

areas. Furthermore, in cooperation with the National Meat Inspection Service (NMIS), the DA

aims to build cold storage facilities with complete equipment for meat cutting. The cooperative

will partner with pig farmers, poultry raisers, industry stakeholders, and the local government units

to develop cold storage facilities for meat. With the growth of the industry, it is important to

consider the environmental impacts that they may bring, depending on the refrigerant used for the

refrigeration and air-conditioning systems.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 General Objective

The main objective of the study is to assess the performance of refrigerants R134A, R22,

R404A, R407C, and R1234yf by conducting energy analysis on them and exergy analysis

on the components of the cold room refrigeration system. Specifically, the objectives are:

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

1.3.2.1 Model and validate a vapor compression refrigeration system for a cold room

in DWSIM.

1.3.2.2 Simulate the model and perform energy analysis on R134A, R22, R404A,

R407C, and R1234yf.

1.3.2.3 Evaluate exergy destroyed and exergy efficiencies by performing exergy

analysis on the refrigeration system and optimize the system accordingly.

 5

1.4 Significance of the Study

This paper is beneficial to the air-conditioning and refrigeration industry. One of the major

problems the industry is currently facing involves global warming and ozone layer depletion.

Several refrigerants harm the environment and will be phased out in the following years. The

industry is still yet to discover the best applications for the developed alternative refrigerants.

Having said that, this project addresses the problem by studying multiple refrigerants, subjected in

a vapor compression cold storage unit. In addition to that, this study may help the Cold Chain

Association of the Philippines (CCAP) on their project on expanding the development of cold

storage facilities in the Philippines. CCAP plans on building more cold storage facilities to reduce

food waste and post-harvest losses. The results of this study may help in the development of a cold

storage unit considering its impact on the environment and its system performance. Furthermore,

the data acquired will serve as a guide for future studies regarding the search for the most optimal

refrigerant for cold storage facilities.

1.5 Scope and Limitations

The study focuses on performing energy analysis on refrigerants R134A, R22, R404A,

R407C, and R1234yf and exergy analysis on a vapor compression refrigeration system cold

storage unit. The specifications of the cold storage unit are based on an existing study by Alves, et

al. (2014). The experiment will mainly be conducted through a software program called DWSIM

with Peng-Robinson as its property package. This software will be used to develop a vapor

compression refrigeration system having input parameters such as inlet and outlet pressures and

temperatures, efficiencies, and vapor mole fraction.

The energy analysis will be conducted to obtain the heat absorbed, heat rejected, and

compressor work. In the analysis, it is assumed that all components are in the steady state
 6

condition. Furthermore, pressure losses in the pipelines and equipment are neglected. In addition

to that, kinetic and potential energy losses are not considered as well. The economic aspect of the

system is not included in the analysis.

On the other hand, the exergy analysis will determine the exergy destruction and exergy

efficiency of the system. This will be conducted through a series of computations using the

equations provided by existing studies. In addition to that, the refrigeration system will be

optimized to maximize efficiency for performance. This will be done by incorporating multi-stage

compression in the cycle to minimize the temperature lift. The original components of the system

will not be replaced nor configured differently. An intercooling flash tank and mixing chamber

will be added to the cycle. In addition to that, a second compressor will be added, which will be

based on an actual model canvased by the researchers. Optimizing the refrigeration system by

changing specific components will not be done. Only two-stage compression is applied into the

cycle.
 Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter provides studies from international journals and books which contain

information about refrigerants, vapor compression cycle, cold storage, energy, and exergy

analyses. Summarized in the end of the chapter are the properties of the refrigerants to be analyzed

in this paper.

2.1 Simulation and optimization of energy consumption in cold storage chambers from the
horticultural industry (Alves et al., 2014)

This study is about helping companies have the ideal efficiency measure that is being

produced by a cold storage which is done by developing a methodology wherein the authors

simulated and optimized a cold storage by having an improvement of both the constructive and

operating parameters which is changed as these contributes to the heat that is entering the cold

storage. With this methodology, it would also identify which of the given parameters would

perform well with how much energy is being consumed by the overall simulation of the cold

storage.

The main objective in conducting the experiment is to have the deviations between the

simulated and actual data of the consumed energy of the cold storage, identify which of the

performed parameters would have the most changes with the thermal loads in the final data of the

energy consumed by the cold storage, and have an evaluation of the feasibility in economics of the

data that was simulated. The authors performed the study by conducting an experiment wherein

the process is performed in multiple trials to have data that would define what they needed.

7
 8

The results gathered in this experiment proved that it was possible in the two experiment

that about 95% of the heat that is taken out of the storage. This data suggested that in research

about the efficiency of the energy improvement in cold storages, the priority should be having the

ideal measures which would target on reducing the thermal loads and then only go for the

remaining ones.

Figure 2.1 Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Figure 2.1 presents a diagram of a vapor compression refrigeration system which serves as

the basis of the experimental setup. In the cold storage industry, the system usually follows the

principle of a compression cycle of a refrigerant since this method provides good efficiency ratio.

In this cycle, the working fluid utilized is typically a hydrocarbon compound. The refrigerant is

subject to change in physical states which allows it to transfer heat from the evaporator, which is

found inside the chamber, to the condenser, which is found outside of the chamber.
 9

Figure 2.2 Refrigeration Chamber Schematic Diagram

Shown in Figure 2.2 is the schematic composition of the cold storage unit. The authors

created an actual setup wherein the method of freezing that would be used by the storage would

be specifically based on having a forced cold air that would be circulated around the storage which

would be achieved having two working air fans. These fans would then be mounted on the

evaporator. The entrance of the cold storage would have a sealed tight door but no additional

thermal protection. The environmental condition of the chamber is measured with the help of an

automated switchboard. This apparatus can measure the temperature and humidity using sensors.

The tested measurements and the parameters to be used are adjusted to have optimized

energy consumptions, achieve the ideal energy saved, and have the time back for the estimated

investment on the experiment. Listed in Table 2.1 are the description and parameters of the product
 10

load which is subjected in the cold storage unit. On the other hand, Table 2.2 presents the

parameters of the cold storage unit and the components involved in the system.

Table 2.1 Parameters of the Accommodated Product

Product Description Values

Accommodated Product Garlic
Mass of Product in Chamber 1,000 kg
Storage Life 6-7 Months
Storage Temperature -3-0ºC / 64-70% RH

Table 2.2 Parameters for the Cold Storage Experiment

Input Parameter Values

Chamber Dimensions, (m) 8.98 x 5.09 x 4.33
Total Experiment Time (s) 49,500
Panels Insulation 100 mm
Average External Temperature 21.75
(ºC)
Relative Humidity of Air Outside 40
Chamber (%)
Average number of people inside 1
chamber per access
Electric Power of Light Bulb (W) 400
Total Thermal Power of Air 316
Circulating Fans (W)
 11

Figure 2.3 Contribution of Thermal Load in Cold Storage

Figure 2.3 reports on the sensitivity analysis of the contribution of every thermal load

within the test chamber. It can be noticed that one of the biggest factors which influenced the

energy consumption of the refrigeration system is the internal temperature. Next to that is the

number of accesses to the chamber which is transmitted through enclosures. The observations

made by the authors confirmed the results because all the parameters mentioned are directly related

to the greatest contributors of thermal loads.

Figure 2.4 Energy Consumption vs. Inner Temperature

 12

Figure 2.4 reports on the sensitivity analysis of the relationship of energy consumption and

inner temperature of the test chamber. The graph shows that as the temperature inside the chamber

rises, the energy consumption decreases. This proves an indirect proportional relationship between

the energy consumption and inner temperature. At -2ºC, the energy consumption in the chamber

is 3.726 kW-h.

Figure 2.5 Energy Consumption vs. Initial Temperature of Product

Figure 2.5 presents the sensitivity analysis of the relationship of the energy consumption

of the chamber and the initial temperature of the product. As mentioned previously, the product

which is subjected to the chamber is garlic. This product supplies heat through introduction of new

goods into the space which are at a higher temperature. As seen in the graph, as the temperature of

the product rises, the energy consumption of the chamber rises as well. This projects a direct

proportional relationship between the energy consumption and the initial temperature of the

product.
 13

It is concluded in this study that the methodology performed in this experiment is

completely relevant and may be applicated in using it as to estimate the contributions from the

input parameters and the thermal loads. In this study, it is also proven that the experiment was able

to be of help in finding the probable gains of energy that was the result of simulating the efficiency

measures and performing the analysis on the feasibility in terms of economics. Another that is

concluded in the experiment is that the methodology in this study would be of great tool to help

future researchers in conducting experiments to find the energy efficiency by defining the most

suitable measures for cold chambers.

2.2 Comparative Experimental Study of Low GWP Alternative for R134A in a Walk-In
Cold Room (Bassuoni et al., 2016)

One of the main problems in the refrigeration and air conditioning industry is the ongoing

increase in global warming potential which harms the environment. It was discovered that the

refrigerants in the market today are high in global warming potential (GWP), which is why

researchers are searching for alternatives to these conventional refrigerants which may achieve the

same operation in the same system but with less harmful effects. In this paper, a walk-in cold room

storage running in a vapor compression cycle is subjected to an experiment. Refrigerants R134a

and R1234ze are compared when subjected into the walk-in cold room storage. It is known that

R1234ze has lower GWP than that of R134a, which is why this was tested to provide a solution to

the problem.
 14

Figure 2.6 Test Rig Experimental Schematic Diagram

Shown in Figure 2.6 is the schematic diagram of the vapor compression cycle for a walk-

in cold room storage. In this specific vapor compression cycle, there are seven state points which

include the temperature and pressure of the refrigerant. The unit is designed with a reciprocating

compressor lubricated by ester oil, air cold condenser, 150-W fan, thermostatic expansion valve,

and a fan coil evaporator with fan. The room has inside dimensions of 2.4 m x 1.7 m x 2.5 m for

its length, width, and height respectively. The walls are insulated with prefabricated polyurethane

foam panel which is 10 cm in thickness. The panels are layered with still sheets.

To assess the coefficient of performance (COP) of the vapor compression cycle for this

walk-in cold room storage, there are exactly eight experiments conducted, four tests for each

refrigerant. The first test does not consider product load while the three remaining have varying

values for product load, including 200, 400, and 600 W. The product loads were achieved using

electric heaters with the said capacities. The superheating degree at the outlet of the evaporator
 15

was measured to be 7-10 K, while the sub-cooling degree at the outlet of the condenser was 2-6

K. The cooling capacity is the sum of the product load, and all loses from the room, which include

transmission, equipment, infiltration load, cycle losses, and other factors. The present experimental

work was compared with previous literature authored by Leighton in 2012. Since it was difficult

to present the current work, the performance trends in some cases were compared with the work

of Leighton. Shown in Tables 2.3 and 2.4 are the trends for some of the important valuables in the

vapor compression cycle for refrigerants R134a and R1234ze.

Table 2.3 Component Variables for Present Work & Reference Study

Variable Leighton et al. Present work Present work

(20212) R1234ze R134a
Compressor cooling capacity 0.0962 [5:2.6] [5:2.6]
(kW)
Compressor discharge pressure 1095.4 1520:933 1700:950
(kPa)
Evaporator air inlet temperature -10.2 22: -5 22: -6
(ºC)
Condenser air inlet temperature 32.8 30:24 33:26
(ºC)
Condenser volumetric air flow 0.0283 0.67521 0.67521
rate (m3/s)

Table 2.4 System Variables for Present Work and Reference Study

Variable R134a R1234ze R134a R1234ze

Present Present Work Leighton et al. Leighton et al.
Work (2012) (2012)
COP 2.175 2.2919 1.604 1.731
Compressor Power 1.5168 1.1927 0.1213 0.0882
(kW)
Evaporator Capacity 3.2936 2.6464 0.1945 0.1527
(kW)
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s) 0.02083 0.01855 0.001251 0.00128
Discharge Pressure 1076.22 901.77 1196 851
(kPa)
Suction Pressure (kPa) 310.65 163.07 132.6 102
 16

Figure 2.7 Compressor Pressures vs. Time at 600 W Load (a) R134a (b) R1234ze
In this section, the experimental results obtained from the system running on both R134a

and R1234ze are presented. Shown in Figure 2.7 is the relationship of the inlet and outlet pressures

of the compressor with time at 600 W product load. The diagram on the left is for R134a, while

the one on the right is for R1234ze. As seen in both diagrams, the discharge pressure of R134a is

noticeably higher than that of R1234ze. The same trend happens for the suction pressure of both

refrigerants. In addition to that, the compression ratio of R134a is higher than that of R1234ze as

well. At the same evaporator temperature, the discharge pressure of both refrigerants have a

difference of 25-40%.
 17

Figure 2.8 Cooling Capacity and Evaporator Temperature vs. Time (a) no load (b) 200 W load
(c) 400 W load (d) 600 W load
Shown in Figure 2.8 is the relationship of the cooling capacity and evaporator temperature

with time at different product loads. In general, it is noticeable that the cooling capacity of R134a

is higher than that of R1234ze. Another relationship which can be concluded here is that the

cooling capacity decreases by decreasing the evaporator temperature. In the case of the system

with no load at 20ºC evaporator temperature and at the start of the experiment, the cooling

capacities were 4.54 kW and 4.56 kW for R1234ez and R134a respectively. In the case of the
 18

system with 200 W load, R134a still has a higher cooling capacity. Next, for the case of 400 W

load at 20ºC evaporator temperature at the start of the experiment, the cooling capacities are 4.25

and 4.35 for R1234ze and R134a respectively. There is a decrease of about 2.3% through time.

Lastly, for the case with 600 W load at 21ºC evaporator temperature at the beginning of the

experiment, the cooling capacities were 4.64 kW and 4.93 kW for R1234ze and R134a

respectively.

Figure 2.9 COP and Refrigerating Effect vs. Evaporator Temperature (a) no load (b) 200 W load
(c) 400 W load (d) 600 W load
 19

Figure 2.9 reports on the relationship of the coefficient of performance of the system and

refrigerating effect with the evaporator temperature at different product loads. In general, the

coefficient of performance of R1234ze is higher than that of R134a. The difference between them

decreases by reducing the evaporator temperature for all instances as seen in the diagrams. In Case

A at evaporator temperature 14.8ºC, the deviation is approximately 28.5% which decreases to

12.23% at evaporator temperature -7.1ºC. In Case B with 200 W load at -3.67ºC evaporator

temperature, the deviation between R1234ze and R134a is 29.2% and decreases to 6.87% when

the evaporator temperature drops to -13.1ºC. For Case C, where the load is 400 W, at 11.3ºC

evaporator temperature, the deviation of the two refrigerants is 31.9% but decreases to 4.7% when

the evaporator temperature drops to -12ºC. Lastly, for Case D at 600 W load, the deviation is 33%

at evaporator temperature 13.6ºC and decreases to 12.1% when the temperature reaches -11.2ºC.

The next part of the experiment involves the exergy analysis of the vapor compression

system and components. It is significant to analyze the exergy destruction in every component in

the refrigeration cycle to optimize the entire cycle performance. The exergy destruction of every

component is obtained by computing for the entropy generation inside the components. In addition

to that, the second law efficiency is computed for the entire cycle for the two refrigerants. Presented

in Tables 2.5 and 2.6 are the results from the calculations at specific operating conditions (-13ºC

evaporator temperature, -5ºC evaporator inlet air temperature, and internal load of 600 W) for

R134a and R1234ze respectively. Based on the tables, the second law efficiency of the cycle which

ran on R1234ze is approximately 17% higher than that of R134a. Furthermore, for both cycles, the

major components which caused exergy destruction are the compressor, condenser, and evaporator

respectively.
 20

Table 2.5 Exergy Values of each Component for R134a

Component Entropy Exergy Exergy Refrigeration

Generated Destroyed Destruction Efficiency (%)
(kW/K) (kW) (%)
Compressor 0.00093 0.2891 41.86 51.4
Evaporator 0.00034 0.1073 19.66
Condenser 0.00056 0.1745 28.07
Expansion Valve 0.00017 0.0551 7.56
Suction Line 2.210E-5 0.00694 2.07
Discharge Line 3.689E-5 0.01115 0.73
Liquid Line 1.052E-6 0.00031 0.06

Table 2.6 Exergy Values of each Component for R1234ze

Component Entropy Exergy Exergy Refrigeration

Generated Destroyed Destruction Efficiency (%)
(kW/K) (kW) (%)
Compressor 0.0009 0.2724 44.15 60.2
Evaporator 0.0004 0.1118 22.37
Condenser 0.0004 0.1277 23.12
Expansion Valve 0.0002 0.0471 7.17
Suction Line 1.57E-5 0.0049 1.95
Discharge Line 4.319E-5 0.0133 1.22
Liquid Line 1.05E-6 0.0001 0.02

2.3 An experimental study of R-454C pull-down performance as a drop-in refrigerant in a

walk-in cold store system (Elgendy et al., 2021)

According to the author, heat removal is the most common type of food preservation in the

food processing industry, and it involves lowering food temperatures to prevent the growth of

microbes that could spoil the product. As a result, walk-in freezers are used, which have been

identified as consuming a significant amount of energy in the service sector since the 1990s. For

this type of systems, the refrigerant R404a is typically applied since it is best used for low to

medium temperatures. However, this refrigerant belongs to the HFC group, which means that it

contributes to the greenhouse gases. Shown in Table are the thermophysical properties of the two
 21

refrigerants referred to in the study. Having said that, this study proposes the use of R454c as an

alternative refrigerant for a cold store system. The said alternative has similar properties with that

of R404a and has a lower GWP.

Table 2.7 Refrigerant Properties

Refrigerant R404a R454c

Composition, mass percentage 44% R125 21.5% R32
52% R143a 78.5% R1234yf
4% R134a
Safety classification A1 A2L
ODP 0 0
GWP 3922 148
Normal boiling point, ºC -46.220.75 -45.567.80
Molecular weight, g mol-1 97.6 87.5
Latent heat of vaporization, kJ kg-1 201.1 227.5
(at 100 kPa)
Liquid density, kg m-3 (at 0ºC) 1150.00 1136.3
Vapor density, kg m-3 (at 0ºC) 30.32 20.43

Figure 2.10 Actual Cold Storage Unit

Shown in Figure 2.10 is the actual cold storage unit used in this study. The cold store has

a volume of 20 cubic meters. It is built with polyurethane panels which was constructed from two

sheets of metal and a polyurethane layer. This layer has a density of 40 kg m3 and a thickness of
 22

0.1 m. This facility has a fan coil unit which is equipped with four fans which has a combined

power of 150 W. The refrigeration system consists of an evaporator, semi-hermetic compressor, a

shell and coil condenser, and a thermostatic expansion valve.

Figure 2.11 Cold Store System Test Rig Schematic Diagram

Figure 2.11 presents the schematic representation of the entire walk-in cold store system.

This test rig is utilized to analyze the performance characteristics of the two refrigerants R454C

and R404A subjected to various operating conditions. The system is composed of the cold storage

unit, a refrigerant circuit, and a cooling water circuit. In addition to that, instrumentation used for

safety and operational controls are integrated into the system, as seen in the image.

Experiments were carried out with R454c and R404a as primary working fluids and water

and air as secondary working fluids in the condenser and evaporator, respectively. First a system

performance comparison is performed using both R454c and R404a. The effect of internal and

external conditions on system performance characteristics is then investigated using R454c. It was
 23

opted to vary the product thermal load so that the indoor conditions could be analyzed. However,

for assessing the outdoor conditions, the water-cooling temperature was changed.

Figure 2.12 Cooling Capacity and Compressor Power Vs. Cold Store Temperature
Reported in Figure 2.12 is the relationship of the cooling capacity with the cold store

temperature at constant water condenser inlet temperature. Based on the results, the cooling

capacity decreases by 12.6% in average over the range of cold store temperatures measured. The

same results were obtained from a previous study. In addition to that, this graph presents the

influence of the cold store temperature on the compressor power for both refrigerants. Obviously,

the compressor power for both refrigerants decreases when the temperature in the cold store

achieves the set point temperature. However, it was found out that the compressor power obtained

using R404A is higher than that of R454C by 20%.

 24

Figure 2.13 System COP vs. Cold Store Temperature

Figure 2.13 presents the relationship of COP and the cold store temperature for systems

running on R404A and R454C. As seen in the graph, the system COP increases as the cold store

temperature increases. This statement is true for both refrigerants. This happens because of the

high rate of increase in cooling capacity as compared with the compressor power. However, the

COP obtained from the system running on R454C is significantly higher than that of R404a by

10.8%.

Basing on the results, R404a achieves the required set point temperature quicker than

R454c by approximately 23%. During the experiments carried out for both refrigerants, the energy

consumption of the system was taken note of and was found to be 1.64 kWh for R404a and 1.98

kWh for R454c. Furthermore, the COP of the system increases as the cold store temperature

increases. This is true for both refrigerants. However, the system COP is greater over the whole

system using R454c by 10.8%.

 25

2.4 Experimental comparison of R22 with R417A performance in a vapor compression

refrigeration plant subjected to a cold store (Aprea & Renno, 2004)

In this study, the performance of a vapor compression refrigeration system in the form of

a cold store is experimentally assessed. Cold storage is utilized for preserving food and other

products. In this case, the refrigerants R22 and R417a are compared based on their performance.

This alternative refrigerant R417a is usually applied in air-conditioning split systems, dairy

chillers, cellar cooling, self-contained display cabinets, and supermarket pack systems. The

experimental method includes the energy and exergy analyses of the performance of both

refrigerants when applied to a cold storage facility. The energetic performance of the cold storage

relies on the coefficient of performance, which is also known as the ratio between the refrigeration

capacity and the compressor power. On the other hand, the exergy analysis provides information

about the total irreversibility distribution among the equipment.

Figure 2.14 Refrigeration Plant Experimental Setup

 26

As seen in Figure 2.14, the system is composed of a reciprocating compressor, air

condenser accompanied by a liquid receiver, two expansion valves, and an air-cooled evaporator.

The equipment and devices were originally designed to accommodate R22. The cooling load inside

the facility is simulated using electric heaters connected to a regulator. On the other hand, the

electric power is measured using a wattmeter. The comparison is executed by means of a cold store

refrigeration plant with an evaporator inside the cold store to preserve the food products. The

cooling load was assumed to be constant for the different cold store air temperatures. Based on the

results, it has been observed that as the air temperature in the cold store increases, the coefficient

of performance increases as well.

Figure 2.15 Plant COP in Summer vs. Cold Store Air Temperature
Figure 2.15 illustrates the coefficient of performance of the system during summer with

the temperature inside the cold store. As mentioned previously, the experiment was done for two
 27

different refrigerants. For both R22 and R417A, the coefficient of performance of the system

increases as the temperature inside the cold store increases. However, the COP of the system

running on R22 is significantly higher. The highest COP obtained was at 5ºC, which was 2.6.

Figure 2.16 Plant COP in Winter vs. Cold Store Air Temperature

In Figure 2.16, the coefficient of performance of the system is related to the cold store air

temperature, this time during the winter. The same trend was drawn out from that of the previous

figure. It is evident that the COP of the system increases when the cold store air temperature is

higher. Comparing the two refrigerants, R22 still produces a higher COP during the winter season.

It can be said that the COP of the system is higher when the cold store air temperature is higher,

as well as the ambient air temperature.

 28

Figure 2.17 Exergy Destroyed in Refrigeration Plant

Figure 2.17 presents the exergy destroyed in each component of the refrigeration plant

related to refrigerants R22 and R417A at 32ºC outdoor air temperature and 0ºC cold store air

temperature. It is evident from the figure that the system running on R417A results to more exergy

destroyed in every component than that of the system running on R22. On average, there is a 14%

difference between R22 and R417A in terms of their exergy destroyed in every component.
 29

Figure 2.18 Components Efficiency Defects and Exergy Efficiency

Figure 2.18 reports on the efficiency defects and exergy efficiency of the entire plant for

both refrigerants R22 and R417A. It can be noticed that the evaporator produces less exergy

destroyed than the compressor and condenser. It is important to remember that R22 provides a

higher evaporation pressure than R417A, which defines lower difference in temperature in the

evaporator. Hence, less exergy is destroyed. The same assumption can be done for the condenser.

In addition to that, because R417A has a higher compression ratio than R22, the exergy destroyed

in the expansion valve is higher for R417A. The data from the experiment shows that the efficiency

defects of R417A are consistently higher than the defects of R22 for all components and the entire

system as well. To improve the overall plant performance, the compressor and heat exchangers

must be optimized because these components have the highest efficiency defects,
 30

It can be concluded that when the cold store air temperature decreases, both evaporation

temperature and pressure decrease as well. In these cases, the specific volume at the evaporator

outlet and the compression ratio increase. It has been observed that R22 achieved a better energetic

performance compared to R417a. In fact, R22 allows a lower compression ratio and a higher

volumetric efficiency. It has been confirmed that the percentage difference between the COP of

R22 and R417a is approximately 15%. Moreover, when R417a is used for the system, there is a

greater amount of exergy destroyed, approximately 14% greater than the exergy destroyed when

working with R22.

2.5 Experimental performance evaluation of a vapor compression refrigerating plant when

replacing R22 with alternative refrigerants (Panno & Rocca, 2011)

This paper evaluates the performance of a vapor compression refrigerating plant operating

with R22 and compares it with three alternative refrigerants: R417a, R422a, and R422d. Among

all refrigerants that can replace hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), the most common are the

hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which does not have harmful effects on the ozone layer. They have

less harm to the environment because HFCs do not contain chlorine. However, they produce other

problems. It is true that HFCs are contributors to the global warming of the planet both directly

and indirectly. Table 2.8 summarizes the different the refrigerants and their corresponding

contribution in the harmful effects to the environment.

Table 2.8 Greenhouse Effect of Refrigerants

Refrigerant Load (kg) GWP (ITH=100) Direct Contribution

(kg CO2)
R22 16.15 1500 25,436
R417 18.25 1950 37,367
R422a 21.80 2530 57,912
R422d 19.10 2230 44,723
 31

The experimental refrigeration plant system is composed of a four-cylinder reciprocating

compressor. The condensation is carried through by allowing the heat to transfer outside through

a condenser with a finned heat exchanger. The experimental rig is set in two loops. The

refrigeration system in the first loop consists of a semi-hermetic reciprocating compressor, oil

separator, air condenser linked to a liquid receiver, cartridge filter, thermostatic valve, and a

coaxial evaporator. On the other hand, the second loop is composed of a heating circuit that will

be switched on by the evaporator. It also has a gas boiler that heats the water and ethylene-glycol

mixture. Also included are devices for fluid accumulation, a three-way valve, and a circulation

pump. The entire system is equipped with an online system to record the necessary parameters

including the temperature and pressure.

The main objective of the experiment is to assess the performance of the vapor compression

refrigeration plant when subjected to diverse types of refrigerants. The tests were designed to

evaluate the indications on the performance of the system which was originally built to operate

with R22. For all tests, only one thermostatic expansion valve with replaceable orifice was used.

The orifice was altered per fluid to prevent swinging during the experiment. The tests were

simulated running in accordance with the specifications of the evaporator. The mass flow rate was

held constant at a specific value while both inlet and outlet temperatures were monitored to

determine the exchanged thermal power. The experiment was conducted after achieving steady

operating conditions.

The replacement of HCFC, specifically R22 in a functioning system is a complicated and

costly problem because it requires retrofitting which includes replacing the devices and

accessories, as well as the lubricating oil. In this study, the refrigeration system utilized DREAM

to observe the behavior of the alternative refrigerants for R22. Based on the results on table 2.5,
 32

R22 was more efficient compared to the other refrigerants, R417a, R422a, and R422d,

energetically. It would be better if these refrigerants were used without having to use equipment

and accessories designed for R22 in a refrigeration plant. Unfortunately, the results show that the

COP of the alternative refrigerants are significantly low compared to that of R22 because of their

thermophysical properties. Based on the results on table 2.5, R22 was more efficient compared to

the other refrigerants, R417a, R422a, and R422d, energetically. It would be better if these

refrigerants were used without having to use equipment and accessories designed for R22 in a

refrigeration plant. Unfortunately, the results show that the COP of the alternative refrigerants are

significantly low compared to that of R22 because of their thermophysical properties, which are

shown in Table 2.9.

Table 2.9 TEWI Trend in function of Glycol Water Load

Refrigerant TEWI
R22 64,589
R417 87,891
R422a 106,967
R422d 99,870

2.6 Techno-economic and Environmental Analysis of Low-GWP Alternative Refrigerants

in Cold Storage Unit under Year-round Working Conditions (Deng et al., 2021)

In this paper, the performance of a cold storage unit operating with alternative refrigerants

R407a and R407f were assessed under the year-round working conditions (ambient temperature

of 32ºC, 25 ºC, 15 ºC, and 5 ºC). In addition to that, the year-round performance of the cold storage

in terms of saving energy and safety when subjected to three super-heating degrees are also

assessed. Summarized in Table 2.10 are the experimental variables in terms of temperature for the

refrigerants. For every working condition, the performance of the cold room unit using R404a,
 33

R407a, and R407f were compared in terms of their cooling capacity, energy efficiency ratio, sub-

cooling degree, and temperatures.

Table 2.10 Experimental Variables

Experimental Variables Values

Refrigerants R404a, R407a, R407f
Ambient Temperature ºC 32, 25, 15, 5
SH ºC 25, 5, 2
Te ºC -7

Figure 2.19 Cold Storage Testing System Schematic Diagram

Figure 2.19 presents the schematic diagram of the cold storage system which consists of a

3-HP compressor condensing unit on the outdoor section, an air cooler on the indoor section, and

a thermal expansion valve linked to copper tubes. The experimental system consists of separate

indoor and outdoor test rooms, air samplers, air handling units, and a system for recording data.

The components in the refrigeration system allows the refrigeration cycle to be complete, in which

high-pressure liquid reservoir is utilized to keep redundant refrigerant amount when the working

conditions change. Since the three refrigerants vary in terms of their thermal characteristics, the
 34

control strategies of temperature glide and the super-heating degree are employed differently. It

must be considered that the experimental rig was originally designed for R404a, therefore, a

mechanical TEV was used for R407 to parallel the original refrigerant in the procedure. It must be

considered that the experimental rig was originally designed for R404a, therefore, a mechanical

TEV was used for R407 to parallel the original refrigerant in the procedure.

The results showed that there were prominent changes in the condensing temperature when

the ambient temperature varies. Based on the second law of thermodynamics, the high temperature

and pressure refrigerant gas flow into the condenser to exchange heat with the ambient

environment. Having said that, when the ambient temperature decreases from 32ºC to 5ºC, the

condensing temperature decreased from 47ºC to 20ºC. Because of that, the condensation pressure

decreases as well, allowing an increase in heat exchange in the condenser.

On the other hand, the subcooling degree of R407a is greater than that of R404a and R407f.

This is especially prominent at high ambient temperatures. The difference in subcooling degree

between R407f and R404a is negligible. The low-temperature and pressure refrigerant liquid is

evaporated in the evaporator. In this case, the refrigerant exchanges heat with the indoor ambient.

Thus, the evaporating temperature is affected by the ambient temperature. Comparing the cooling

capacity of the three refrigerants, R407f has a significantly higher cooling capacity.

During the evaluation of the annual energy effect ratio, it has been discovered that the

annual performance is improved by increasing the super-heating degree. R407f has the best

environmental performance because it has a high energy efficiency ratio and less amount of

refrigerant charge. Shown in Table 2.11 is the annual energy effect ratio for every refrigerant at

different superheat temperatures.

 35

Table 2.11 AEER under Different Super-Heating Degrees

SH ºC R404a R407a R407f

AEER AEER AEER
25 3.29 3.3 3.32
5 3.08 3.17 3.23
2 2.91 3.01 3.11

2.7 Thermo-economic and environmental analysis of an inverter cold storage unit charged
R448A (Deng et al., 2021)

This paper conducted a comparative analysis of the performance of an inverter cold storage

charged with R404a and R448a. The performance of the cold storage was assessed under four

different ambient temperatures. To evaluate and compare their performance, parameters such as

cooling capacity, EER, evaporating and condensing temperatures, super heating degree, and

subcooling degree. In a reference study, it has been discussed that the refrigerant charge of a non-

inverter cold storage unit operating with R404a has an annual optimal charge range from 5.31 to

5.67 kg. The optimal refrigerant charge of a cold room is obtained when the cooling capacity and

EER are both significantly high. Taking into consideration the operating time at varying

frequencies, the optimal refrigerant charge of the inverter unit was obtained through a series of

equations. The optimal range obtained has a range of 5.72 to 5.89 kg for R404a and 5.65 to 5.82

kg for R448a, both at a temperature of 32ºC. For the inverter unit, one round of operation lasts for

15 minutes at 90 Hz, 60 Hz, and 40 Hz. The non-inverter unit operates for 20 minutes at 50 Hz.
 36

Figure 2.20 Inverter Cold Storage Testing System Schematic Diagram

Presented in Figure 2.20 is the experimental rig which is composed of a compressor

condensing unit and an air cooler. The testing system is separated into indoor and outdoor test

rooms, which have air samplers and air handling units. The non-inverter sample is composed of

an air cooler with an evaporator, a compressor condensing unit, and a thermal expansion valve.

On the other hand, the inverter sample is composed of an air cooler, compressor condensing unit,

two thermal expansion valves, and other accessories. The operating temperatures in the experiment

were 32ºC, 25 ºC, 15 ºC, and 5 ºC.

The results show that the frequency is directly proportional to the cooling capacity. The

data also show that increasing the ambient temperature decreases the cooling capacity of the three

samples. It has been observed that decreasing the ambient temperature allows the EER of the unit

to improve. This is because the change from high to low temperature allows the cooling capacity

to increase while the consumption of power diminishes. It was discovered that the year-round EER

of the inverter unit is greater than that of the non-inverter unit. In this study, the units were assumed
 37

to operate for 24 hours. Table 2.12 shows that the power consumption of both the non-inverter and

inverter unit decreases as the ambient temperature decreases. This is true for the refrigerant R404a.

It has been discovered that the leakage rate of R404a is significantly lower than that of R448a.

Furthermore, the inverter unit operating with R448a emits less greenhouse effect compared to the

other setups. The

Table 2.12 Power Consumption of Cold Storage Unit

Ambient R404a R448a Power saving rate

Temperature ºC 24-hour power 24-hour power
consumption kW h consumption kW h
32 7.91 7.51 5.06%
25 7.12 6.93 2.67%
15 5.83 5.73 1.72%
5 5.03 4.98 1%

2.8 Non azeotropic refrigerant charge optimization for cold storage unit based on year-
round performance evaluation (Hu et al., 2018)

This is an investigative paper which has the goal of estimating an accurate range of non-

azeotropic refrigerant charge for medium temperature cooling application, in this case a cold

storage unit, through a test of performance. A cold storage facility which was originally designed

to operate with R404a was modified to accommodate R407a and R407f. This was done without

having to replace the unit structure and components and integrating a parallel thermal expansion

valve specifically for the two alternative refrigerants. The charging tests were operated on the cold

storage unit under four work conditions which ranges from high to low ambient temperatures. This

was done to simulate the annual performance evaluation while considering the unit performance

and operation safety.

 38

Figure 2.21 Cold Storage Unit Experimental Setup

Presented in Figure 2.21 is the cold storage unit setup. The cold storage unit consists of a

compressor condensing unit, air cooler, thermal expansion valve, and copper tubes. In addition to

that, there are two glove valves which were placed both in front and behind each thermal expansion

valve to control the charge of refrigerant.

The performance experiments were performed with ambient temperatures 32ºC, 25 ºC, 15

ºC, and 5 ºC. The three refrigerants R404a, R407a, and R407f were charged with a small amount

of deficiency and a gradual increase from 0 kg. This is summarized in Table 2.13.

Table 2.13 Optimal Refrigerant Charge Ranges of Cold Storage Unit

Ambient R404a R407a R407f

Temperature ºC Charge amount (kg) Charge amount (kg) Charge amount (kg)
32 5.00-5.35 5.00-5.25 4.70-4.95
25 5.17-5.52 5.16-5.42 4.85-5.11
15 5.30-5.67 5.38-5.65 5.07-5.33
5 5.34-5.71 5.61-5.89 5.28-5.56
 39

For R404a, it has been discovered that as the charge increases, the power input remains

constant after a slight increase. On the other hand, the cooling capacity and energy efficiency ratio

increase steadily and then decline afterwards. When 5 kg of R404a is charged, the cooling capacity

and EER both increase rapidly because of the increase of condensing pressure. Thus, the

performance of the cold storage significantly improves during this process. On the other hand,

when the refrigerant charge used is greater than 5 kg, the EER reaches maximum but drops after

some time. The cooling capacity continues to increase and reaches its maximum when the

refrigerant charge is at 5.5 kg. For the best performance, the refrigeration charge which allows a

maximum cooling capacity and energy efficiency ratio must be considered as the basis for the

charge range. In this case, the basis charge range is 5 to 5.5 kg. For R407a, the basis for the

refrigerant charge range is the same as for R404a. For R407f, the range is 4.7 to 5 kg.

The refrigerant charge allows the super-heating degree and sub-cooling degree to be

modify the range of the refrigerant charge. Increasing the charges of the three refrigerants allows

the super-heating degrees to diminish and the sub-cooling degrees to increase. When the

refrigerant charge is increased, the discharge temperature of the cold storage decreases. Based on

the results, when R404a, R407a, and R407f are operated with charges of 5 kg, 5 kg, and 4.7 kg

respectively, their energy efficiency ratio reaches maximum, but their cooling capacity does not.

Having all these considered, the proposed method is feasible and successful in terms of optimizing

the refrigerant charge and mass ranges based on the performance of the cooling capacity, energy

efficiency ratio, sub-cooling degree, super-heating degree, and discharge temperature.

 40

2.9 Performance of R407C as an Alternate to R22: A Review (Bhadburi & Kasera, 2017)

The authors evaluated the performance of R407c as a drop-in replacement for R22. The

Montreal Protocol orders the phase-out of R22 because of its harmful effects to the environment,

such as its ozone depletion potential and global warming potential. Because of that, several

alternatives to R22 were suggested, which include R134a, R290, R407c, and R410a. The

refrigerant R134a was discovered to be poisonous when decomposed by the sunlight in the

troposphere. The refrigerant R290 is flammable, which makes it a disadvantage. Thus, R407c

seems to be the best candidate for a drop-in alternative for R22. To perform the performance test

of R407c in the refrigeration system, the process of retrofitting was done. First, the compressor

was detached from the unit to recover the R22 and mineral oil. Afterward, fresh polyol ester oil

was injected into the compressor to run dry. Then, the oil was drained several times. After these

processes, the compressor is reattached to the unit, and R407c is charged into the system. n

experiment utilizing a 1.5 TR window air conditioner was down. The results showed that the COP

of R22 was 2.57 and 1.84 in the case of low outdoor and high outdoor conditions, respectively. On

the other hand, the values for R407c were 2.36 and 1.59, respectively. In terms of cooling capacity,

R22 provided 5.466 kW for low outdoor conditions and 4.211 kW for high outdoor conditions.

For R407c, the cooling capacity was 2.1% lower for low outdoor conditions and 7.93%

lower for the high outdoor condition in accordance with that of R22. In terms of energy

consumption, the energy consumed by the unit operating with R407c was higher than that of R22.

It was reported that R407c has drawn out higher discharge pressures but had lower discharge

temperatures, as compared to R22. When it comes to exergy analysis, the vapor compression plant

which operated with R22 had a better exergy performance with a maximum of 45% to a minimum
 41

of 7%. This means that there is more exergy destroyed in the system which operates with R407c.

Having said all this, it was concluded that the performance of R407c is poor in comparison to R22.

Summarized in Table 2.14 are the effects of R407c as compared to R22 to the studied parameters.

Table 2.14 Parameter Comparison of Refrigerants

Parameter Effect of R407c Compared to R22

COP Lower
Cooling Capacity Lower
Energy Consumption Higher
Discharge Pressure Higher
Pressure Ratio Higher
Discharge Temperature Lower
Specific Compressor Displacement Same
TEWI Lower
Exergy Analysis Lower

2.10 Computational energy and exergy analysis of R134a, R1234yf, R1234ze and their
mixtures in vapor compression system (Gaurav & Kumar, 2018)

This study involves a simulation analysis of a vapor compression system operating with

drop-in-replacements for R134a. In total, there are 31 refrigerants tested which made use of R134a

as the baseline. The parameters to be compared include pressure ratio, mass flow rate, cooling

capacity, coefficient of performance, exergy efficiency, destruction, and defect. Exergy is known

as the maximum reversible work possible which can be obtained by allowing the state of the system

to achieve equilibrium with the environment. A computational model which was designed for the

energy and exergy analysis of the vapor compression system was created for an engineering

equation solver. On the other hand, the thermophysical properties of the refrigerants will be

analyzed in a software called Refrop. The exergy efficiency presents how much fuel exergy is

found in the product exergy. Among the refrigerants, R3 shows maximum exergy efficiency.

Exergy destruction is the exergy which is lost to the environment. In this case, R4 has the lowest

exergy destruction while R3 has the highest.

 42

Figure 2.22 Exergy Efficiency of every Refrigerant

Figure 2.23 Exergy Destruction for every Refrigerant

After conducting the analysis, it has been discovered that the refrigerant R290 has the

highest value of the coefficient of performance. This refrigerant also has the highest exergy

efficiency and the lowest efficiency defect, as seen in Figures 2.22 and 2.23. However, R290

cannot be considered as an alternative for R134a because its volumetric cooling capacity and

flammability is too high. Another conclusion drawn from the analysis is that the mixture

R134a/R1234yf/R1234ze has a similar volumetric capacity and cooling capacity to the baseline

R134a. In addition to that, this mixture is not flammable. Moreover, increasing the mass

percentage of R1234yf in mixtures R134a/R1234yf and R134a/R1234yf/R1234ze allows the

 43

volumetric cooling capacity and exergy destruction to increase as well. In line with this, the

pressure ratio and COP decrease. Lastly, the results show that the mixture

HFC134a/HFO1234yf/HFO1234e is the best candidate for an alternative for HFC134a.

2.11 Experimental Study of R1234yf as a Drop-In Replacement for R134a in a Domestic

Refrigerator (Belman-Flores et al., 2017)

This study involves the study of three domestic refrigerators with the same configuration

and setup which integrates R1234yf as a drop-in replacement for R134A. An alternative procedure

was proposed in this study to be able to estimate the optimal mass charge for R1234yf. This

procedure was of help in gathering new evidence regarding the thermal behavior of the refrigerator

compartments and its components such as the heat exchangers. In addition to that, energy analysis

was done to measure the performance of both refrigerants. Furthermore, a TEWI analysis was

conducted as well. In this study, the use of R1234yf is emphasized and the replacement of the

refrigerant without modifying the vapor compression system is the priority.

The setup used for the experiment is a domestic refrigerator which was specifically

designed to work with the refrigerant R134A. Unlike previous works, this study made use of three

identical domestic refrigerators to present results with a higher percentage of reliability and

precision. The domestic refrigerator has a volumetric capacity of 0.3 m3. The refrigerator has two

main components: the freezer and the fresh food compartment. The unit is a no-frost type which

means that defrosting occurs automatically, and the air flow distribution occurs through forced

convection.

In the study, the determination of the optimal charge serves as the basis of the performance

assessment of the alternative refrigerant R1234yf. Aside from that, the performance of the

refrigerant is affected as well by the thermal and energy performance of the refrigeration system.

Because of that, the proper mass of the refrigerant for a domestic refrigerator was established with
 44

the basis of the minimum energy consumption, without disregarding the cooling capacity of the

refrigerator. The refrigerator originally accommodates 100 g of R134A. For the drop-in

replacement, the refrigerant charge was first set to 70 g, which is 30% below the baseline. Mass

increments were conducted using a small volumetric capacity cylinder which was previously

charged with R1234yf.

Figure 2.24 Refrigerant Charge vs. Temperatures and Pressures

Figure 2.24 reports on the effects of the refrigerant charge of R1234yf on some of the

important vapor compression parameters. It can be noticed that as the refrigerant charge increases,

more refrigerant was collected in the heat exchangers. Thus, the work pressure increased within

the cycle. Moreover, the increase in pressure allowed the reduction in superheating degree. With
 45

the increased amount of refrigerant charge, overflow occurred in the evaporator and formed a cold

line suction compressor inlet.

Figure 2.25 Refrigerant Charge vs. Cooling Capacity and Temperatures

Figure 2.25 reports on the effect of refrigerant charge on some important vapor

compression parameters, in this case the evaporator and condenser temperatures and cooling

capacity. It is clearly presented that the refrigerant charge has a direct proportional relationship

with the cooling capacity. This means that the cooling capacity increases as the refrigerant charge

increases because the evaporator is equipped with more refrigerant. However, when the refrigerant

charges are small, the cooling capacity appears to be low which causes the evaporation temperature
 46

to decrease. To explain, the reduction of refrigerant charge is also the starvation of the evaporator,

which causes the superheating temperature to increase. Furthermore, the increase in refrigerant

charge also raises the condensation temperature.

2.12 A New Correlation for Performance Prediction of Small and Large Capacity Single-
Effect Vapor Absorption Refrigeration Systems (Hassan et al., 2022)

The vapor absorption refrigeration system (VAR) provides cooling which is cleaner

through utilizing waste or renewable heat. Thus, this system avoids the use of fossil-based

electricity which is applied in conventional chillers. A recent correlation was developed to predict

the coefficient of performance (COP) of a single-stage VAR system under various operating

conditions, having considered 27 different refrigerants. The newly developed correlation combines

the fluid parameters such as boiling points, latent heat of vaporization, and specific heat together

with temperatures at the different components of the system. This is further utilized in both small-

and large-scale vapor absorption refrigeration systems, having former data validated from previous

works and ASPEN Plus simulation data.

Figure 2.26 Single-Stage Absorption Cycle with Solution and Cold Heat Exchangers
 47

In this study, the effect of the vapor absorption refrigeration system is addressed as seen in

Figure 2.26. The system is composed of evaporator, absorber, solution pump, generator,

condenser, and pressure reduction valve. The coefficient of performance of a single-effect VAR is

considered the ratio of the refrigeration capacity attained by the evaporator to the summation of

energy given to the generator and solution pump. The correlation involves terms that refer to the

four major operating temperatures of the VAR cycle as well as some essential refrigerant

properties. The coefficient of performance is based on the VAR cycle temperatures.

Figure 2.27 Single Effect VAR using NH3-Water Mixture as Working Fluid in ASPEN Plus
Presented in Figure 2.27 is the diagram of a single effect VAR cycle configuration for NH-

3-water mixture. The valve block is the expansion valves, which are used to compute for the

pressure drop. The pump is represented by the pump block. This is used to compute for the power

requirements for a predefined pressure elevation magnitude. Next, the heat exchanger units which
 48

include the evaporator, absorber, condenser, and heat exchanger, are defined by the Heat X block.

This model was utilized because it can compute for the required duty and surface areas, as well as

heat transfer coefficients. Lastly, the generator is defined by the Rad Frac column block. This was

selected because it makes use of an equilibrium model to perform distillation computations for

multistage, two-phase vapor-liquid distillation operation.

Figure 2.28 Single Effect VAR using Water-LiBr Mixture as Working Fluid in ASPEN Plus
Presented in Figure 2.28 is the single effect VAR cycle configuration for the water-LiBr

mixture. The models for the equipment are similar as the models used for the NH-3-water setup

except for the refrigerant generation operational unit. In this setup, the generation process is

defined as the Flash 2 block instead of a column block. This was chosen because this setup does
 49

not require additional rectification steps. In addition to that, this block can compute for two-phase

and three-phase equilibrium values

2.13 The Effect of Stage Number on The Performance of a Vapor Compression Refrigeration
Cycle Using Refrigerant R32 (Ambarita et al., 2020)

The commonly used cycle in air-conditioning is the vapor compression cycle (VCR). The

performance of the refrigerant, also known as the coefficient of performance, is usually analyzed

to improve the entire system through modifications. One of the solutions to this is by utilizing

multi-stage systems. In this study, the effects of modification by utilizing multiple stages are

analyzed. A simple vapor compression cycle refrigeration system running on R32 is subjected to

the study. Three setups will be tested, namely: single stage, two-stage, and three-stage systems.

The experiment will be conducted using a simulation software called Aspen One. In this study, the

coefficient of performance (COP), mass flow rate of the working fluid, and compressor power will

be analyzed.

Figure 2.29 Single-Stage VCR in ASPEN Plus

 50

Figure 2.29 presents the schematic diagram of a single stage vapor compression cycle

modeled in Aspen Plus. To conduct the simulation, the software named Aspen Plus is utilized. As

mentioned earlier, the refrigerant applied to the system is R32. Its thermophysical properties at

different conditions were obtained using an application called REFROP, which is part of Aspen.

For the three setups, the evaporation temperature and condensation temperature are set constantly

at -10ºC and 40ºC respectively. The cooling load of the cycle is assumed to be 1000 Ton of

refrigeration. The single stage vapor compression cycle is composed of an evaporator, compressor,

condenser, and expansion valve.

Figure 2.30 Two-Stage VCR in ASPEN Plus

Figure 2.30 presents the schematic diagram of a two-stage vapor compression refrigeration

cycle. This cycle is consisted of the main components which include two compressors, two

expansion valves, one evaporator, and one condenser. There are additional components in the

cycle, which include the flash cooler and mixing chamber. The flash cooler is needed to divide the
 51

refrigerant coming from the condenser into liquid and vapor. After that, the liquid will have to pass

through the evaporator. This will then be compressed in the first stage compressor. This will then

go to the flash cooler in the mixing chamber. On the other hand, the vapor refrigerant will proceed

to the mixing chamber. All of the refrigerant gathered in the mixing chamber will be further

compressed in the second stage compressor.

Figure 2.31 Three-Stage VCR in ASPEN Plus

 52

Figure 2.31 presents a schematic diagram of a three-stage vapor compression cycle. This

is composed of three compressors, two expansion valves, one evaporator, and one condenser. Since

it is a three-stage system, there are additional components such as two mixing chambers and two

flash chambers.

Shown in Table 2.15 are the results from the simulation. Under suction pressure, similar

results were drawn out for all lowest compressor of multi stages. For the discharge pressure of the

upper compressor, all results were similar as well. It can be noticed that the parameter which varies

depending on the number of stages is the intermediate pressure.

Table 2.15 ASPEN Plus Simulation Results

Variable Single Two Stages Three Stages

Stage First Stage Second First Stage Second Third
Stage Stage Stage
Suction Pressure 6 6 12 6 9 15
(bar)
Discharge 25 12 25 9 15 25
Pressure (bar)
Compressor 1048 403.6 552.1 239 319 392
power (kW)
Refrigerant 100% Difluoromethane
Composition
(Mass Fraction)
Heat Duty 839224 839456 839782
(Cal/sec)
Total Mass 14.8 12.11 11
Flowrate (kg/s)
Temperature 25 40 13 40 21 5
before expansion
valve (K)

Shown in Table 2.16 is the performance of the cycle in terms of the coefficient of

performance. For the single-stage system, the COP obtained was 3.35. The two-stage system

obtained 3.67. Finally, the three-stage system has drawn out a COP of 3.69. It can be noticed that
 53

the COP increases as the number of stages increase. However, there is no significant difference

between the coefficients of performance of the two-stage system and the three-stage system. From

all results it can also be concluded that the compressor power decreases as the number of stages

increase. In addition to that, the mass flow rate of the refrigerant is indirectly proportional to the

number of stages.

Table 2.16 Simulation Results of Refrigerant R32

Refrigerant Coefficient of Performance

Single Stage Two Stage Three Stage
R32 3.35 3.67 3.69

2.14 The Optimum Intermediate Pressure of Two-Stages Vapor Compression Refrigeration

Cycle for Air-Conditioning Unit (Ambarita & Sihombing, 2018)

The vapor compression cycle is a common refrigeration cycle which is applied in air-

conditioning and refrigeration. To save energy, one of the parameters to be enhanced is the

coefficient of performance. One solution to enhancing the COP is by modifying the system into a

multi-stage compression refrigeration system. This paper focuses on appropriating the multi-stage

strategy into the vapor compression cycle. In past works, researchers have studied on the optimum

number of stages in the refrigeration system. Most of the studies discovered that the multi-stage

application was able to optimize the cycle in terms of its COP.

Shown in the figure below is the schematic diagram of a multi-stage compression cycle,

specifically a two-stage cycle. On the right is the pressure-enthalpy diagram of the cycle. In this

setup, there are two compressors, two expansion valves, condenser, evaporator, and a flash cooler.

One of the design problems of multi-stage compression cycles is seeking for the optimum

intermediate pressure, which is found in between the high-pressure and low-pressure sides of the

cycle.
 54

Figure 2.32 Schematic and P-h diagram of the Two-Stage Compression Cycle

Figure 2.33 Compressor Power vs. Intermediate Pressure

Figure 2.33 presents the diagrams of compressor power for all cases. From the author’s

calculated power of the system, it was demonstrated unequivocally that there is a minimum for

ideal intermediate pressure, compressor power. The intermediate pressure must not be lower than

it is. When the intermediate pressure is at its maximum, the overall compressor power will
 55

decrease. But, if more than the ideal pressure, increasing intermediate pressure will raise the

compressor strength. This fact indicates that the system will operate at its peak efficiency.

According to the diagram, the power of the first compressor increases as the intermediate

increases pressure. It was because the pressure difference between the inlet and outlet will increase

as the intermediate compressor, the compressor's exit increases. The greater the pressure

difference, the more powerful the compressor. In contrast to the second compressor, if it decreases,

the intermediate pressure rises. The current system's peak and low pressures are fixed, according

to the author. This is because of the predetermined evaporation and condensation temperatures. As

a result, increasing the intermediate pressure increases the pressure differential between the first

and second compressors. Since the top and low pressures have been set, the pressure differential

in the second compressor will decrease.

Figure 2.34 Coefficient of Performance vs. Pressure

Figure 2.34 displays the system's performance across all scenarios. The author showed that

a system's coefficient of performance rises as its pressure differential decreases. As expected, the

maximum COP has an optimal intermediate pressure. If the system is operated at its optimal

intermediate pressure, changes in intermediate pressure will lower the system's COP.
 56

The study's approach led to the conclusion that the intermediate pressure had no impact on

the mass flow rate from the evaporator. However, the flow rate from the flash cooler increases as

intermediate pressure rises. As a result, the system's flow rates increase as intermediate pressure

increases. Additionally, the theoretical value one is not fulfilled by the existing optimum

intermediate pressure. The range of the deviation is 7.19 to 11.3 percent. The author also advises

that future scholars conduct additional research to propose a correction factor for the optimum

intermediate pressure.

2.15 Evaluation on Expressions for Optimum Intermediate Condition of Two-Stage Vapor

Compression Refrigeration Cycle (Ambarita, 2018)

In this study, the consumption of energy rises along with the various nations' efforts to

advance their economies. However, many nations continue to have a projected goal of reducing

greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to a desirable level. To be able to estimate the optimum

intermediate condition of two-stage vapor compression refrigeration, mathematical expressions

should be done. The research focuses on enhancing VC effectiveness: a multi-stage method is used

to complete the refrigeration cycle.

This research concentrates on providing mathematical expressions for calculating the

optimum intermediate pressure, with the aim of evaluating the expressions for the optimal

intermediate state (temperature or pressure) to get the maximum performance coefficient. The two-

stage vapor compression refrigeration cycle is governed by a set of equations that the author

devised and numerically solved. R12, R22, and R134a, three regularly used refrigerants for air

conditioning, are utilized to analyze the two-stage cycle. The examination led to the discovery of

six expressions for ideal intermediate circumstances, which are divided into two groups:

expressions for ideal pressure and expressions for optimum temperature. The development model
 57

provided was used to make it. The technique supports the conclusions reached by the author using

the governing equations.

In finding the optimum intermediate pressure several literatures were reviewed. The first

equation is one of the commonly used for optimum intermediate pressure. This takes the geometric

mean of the pressures from the condenser and evaporator.

𝑃𝑖 = √𝑃𝑒 𝑃𝑐 (2.1)

Where: 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑃𝑒 = 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑃𝑐 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

Another equation used for computing the optimum intermediate pressure involves temperatures.

(2.2)
𝑇𝑐
𝑃𝑖 = √𝑃𝑒 𝑃𝑐 ×
𝑇𝑒

Where: 𝑇𝑒 = 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑇𝑐 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

Another study proposed an equation where a correction factor was added.

𝑃𝑖 = √𝑃𝑒 𝑃𝑐 + 0.35 (2.3)

 58

2.16 Effect of Inter-stage Pressure on the Performance of a Two Stage Refrigeration Cycle
Using Inter Cooler (Dasgupta et al., 2016)

In this study, the author claims that one option for reducing the volumes and the discharge

is to use intercooling with an external fluid between compression stages. Temperature, which

reduces the work the compressor needs to do as a result. The inter-stage pressure needs to be

carefully selected to enhance the performance of such systems. There are a few general rules to

follow when choosing the subcritical systems' approximative optimum inter-stage pressure. This

study demonstrates that the effect of inter-stage pressure on the effectiveness of a two-stage

refrigeration cycle is investigated for a small number of refrigerants that operate in sub- and trans-

critical cycles. The evaporator's performance is evaluated between -50 °C and -30 °C, while the

condensing/gas cooler's performance is evaluated between 40 °C and 60 °C. The author used these

synthetic gasses R134a, R22, and R143a which are natural refrigerants including propane, carbon

dioxide, and nitrous oxide.

Figure 2.35 P-h Diagrams for a Two-Stage VCR (a) subcritical cycle (b) supercritical cycle
The study demonstrates the energy balance across individual cycle components is used to

model the refrigeration cycle. For the investigated cycles, a representative P-h diagram is shown

in the figure above. Process 1-2 is first stage compression in both the subcritical and trans-critical
 59

cycles, Process 2-3 is constant pressure inter cooling, Process 3-4 is second stage compression,

Process 4-5 is heat rejection at constant pressure, Process 5-6 is isenthalpic expansion, and Process

1-6 is evaporation.

Figure 2.36 Variation of COP with Condenser Exit Temperatures

Figure 2.36 shows the coefficient of performance variation for the same conditions. These

charts show that for both subcritical and trans-critical cycles, the inter-stage pressure estimated

using classical relations deviates significantly from the optimum value at all evaporator

temperatures. As the evaporator temperature rises, the deviation of the ideal inter-stage pressure

from the classical laws decreases for both subcritical and trans critical cycles. For subcritical

cycles, the COP estimated using traditional relations and optimization techniques differs very little.

It shows that the COP overlap for all inter-stage pressure settings tested. As a result, classical

relations are justified under subcritical conditions. Furthermore, when trans-critical cycles are

compared to sub-critical cycles, there is a noticeable difference in COP with respect to different
 60

inter-stage pressure regimes. This implies that the conventional relationships for evaluating inter-

stage pressure are insufficient for trans-critical cycles.

Figure 2.37 Single Stage vs. Two Stage Performance for CO2-Based Refrigeration System
Figure 2.36 shows how a two-stage cycle compares to a single-stage cycle for three

evaporation temperatures. For a two-stage cycle, this set of figures employs optimized interstage

pressure. The system's COP, optimum gas cooler pressure, and compressor discharge temperature

are all plotted separately. Design of experiments is used at the end of the study to limit the number

of simulated experiments for this statistical analysis. Both correlations have an R2 (correlation

coefficient) value of 0.99 and are valid across the entire scope of study. Furthermore, for sub-

critical cycles, the existing classical relations for predicting inter-stage pressure are sufficient and

provide close to the ideal COP. When the inter-stage pressure is estimated using classical relations,

the best COP for trans-critical cycles is not produced. Heat rejection must be optimized in tandem

with interstage pressure (gas cooler). The gas cooler pressure influences system performance in a
 61

trans-critical cycle, but so does the inter-stage pressure. Furthermore, when a CO2 based two-stage

inter cooler and a single stage cycle are compared, the former performs better. The ideal gas cooler

pressure for a two-stage cycle is higher, but the lower compressor discharge temperature improves

practical performance as well.

2.17 Optimization of Energy Systems (Ahmadi et al., 2017)

The necessity to deliver more efficient and less costly energy system has become more

important today. For the last ten years, the engineering industry has shown interest in developing

and manufacturing products and equipment at minimal cost. This is done while still considering

their safety, environmental impact, and other factors. Typically, optimization is done by

maximizing or minimizing an objective function. For instance, the product quality may be

maximized while the cost is minimized.

According to the authors, the process of optimization is an important tool used to determine

the optimal performance and decision variable of a system. The first approach in optimizing a

system is defining the boundaries which the system governs. Every factor that may affect the

performance of the system must be considered. If the system is a complex one, it is better to divide

it into subsystems. In this way, optimization can be applied on each subsystem.

The second step in optimizing an energy system is defining the system criteria. This

variable is also known as objective function. This function has the basis of the desire of the decision

maker. These criteria may be used in any aspect such as economic aims, costs, efficiency aims,

environmental impact objectives, and others. Along with this are the decision variables. These are
 62

variables which may affect design outcome of the system to be optimized. The decision variables

are those which change in values during optimization.

Just like any other process, there are constraints to be considered in optimization. There

are several limitations and ranges on variables which must be taken note of. There are many factors

which may cause restrictions on variables, such as limited space, time, equipment, and materials.

In addition to that, some parameters of a system may be counted, such as pressure, temperature,

flow rate, and others.

Refrigeration contributes a lot in the daily life of people. This technology is used in several

applications. This industry is usually associated with mechanical engineering; however, a lot of

disciplines are included in this subject. Thermodynamics is the core of refrigeration, while

optimization is the tool which helps in finding the most efficient refrigeration system. Currently,

the HVACR industry is in search of improved procedures for energy and exergy analyses of

refrigeration systems along with design and optimization procedures. Optimizing refrigeration

systems allow the reduction of electricity consumption and costs significantly since the system

allows electricity to transfer heat from low to high temperatures. One of the major issues that the

industry wants to address is climate change and global warming. Thus, optimizing systems to make

them more efficient and cost-effective is necessary.

The vapor compression refrigeration (VCR) cycle is the basic refrigeration cycle. This

cycle consists of a compressor, condenser, expansion valve, and evaporator. When modelling a

VCR, steady-state condition is assumed. An important step in optimizing refrigeration systems is

conducting exergy analysis. This is a tool to determine where exergy destructions occur and their

magnitude in the components of the system. In this analysis, the maximum COP can be obtained

by considering the low and high temperatures in the system.

 63

As mentioned, the high and low temperatures are to be considered when optimizing a

refrigeration system. The difference between the condenser and evaporator temperature is known

as the temperature lift. When the temperature lift is high, there is a huge pressure range in the

cycle, leading to deficient compressor performance. One way to solve this issue through

optimization is by incorporating stages into the cycle, known as cascade refrigeration systems. In

this system, two refrigeration cycles are connected with either a heat exchanger or a flash

intercooling tank.

2.18 Summary of Refrigerants

The first refrigerants to be completely phased out in the year 1996 were R11 and R12.

Thus, these were replaced with an HFC refrigerant known as R134A. This refrigerant does not

contain any chlorine percentage, which means that it has zero ozone depletion potential. However,

this refrigerant has a significantly high amount of global warming potential. Therefore, the

production of R134A may be completely prohibited in the future because it was given a warning

in both Tokyo and Montreal Protocols (Bassuoni et al., 2016).

The commonly used HCFC type of refrigerant in air-conditioning plants is R22. Both

Montreal and Tokyo Protocols aim to completely ban this refrigerant because of its harmful effect

to the environment. Its ban compels to the idea of searching for an alternative solution (Panno &

Rocca, 2011).

The refrigerant R404A is usually applied in low to medium temperature refrigeration

systems. This is most especially used in the cold storage and refrigerated transport industry. The

said refrigerant has good thermophysical properties and has no ozone depletion potential.

However, since R404A is under the HFCs family, it has been considered as greenhouse gas

(Elgendy et al., 2021).

 64

International treaties such as Montreal Protocol deals with solving two major

environmental issues, which are global warming and ozone depletion. Alternatives for R22 include

R134A, R290, R407C, and many more. Among these, R407C seems to be the best candidate for

drop-in substitute for R22. This refrigerant has zero ODP and a lower GWP. In addition to that, it

is non-flammable unlike propane (Bhadburi & Kasera, 2017).

In replacement of R134A, a HFO type of refrigerant has been developed. R1234yf is a

synthetic refrigerant emerging as an alternative to R134A. One big advantage of this refrigerant

over others is its good thermodynamic properties. In addition to that, R1234yf has low toxicity.

Regarding environmental concerns, its ODP is zero, while its GWP is 4 (Belman-Flores et al.,

2017).

In this section, the refrigerants subjected to experiment in the study are summarized in

Table 2.17. Listed in the table are the thermophysical properties of the five refrigerants, including

their effects on the environment. The following data were acquired from some of the literature

above.

Table 2.17 Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerants

Refrigerant Molar Critical Critical Boiling Ozone Global

Mass Point Point Point (ºC) Depletion Warming
(g/mol) Temperature Pressure Potential Potential
(ºC) (kPa)
R134A 102 101.06 4059.28 -26.3 0 1430
R22 86.4 96.145 4990 -40.8 0.05 1810
R404A 97.6 72.12 3734.8 -46 0 3920
R407C 86.2 86.2 4631.7 -43.6 0 1770
R1234yf 114 94.7 3382.2 -30 0 4
 Chapter 3

THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

This section supports the claim of this paper through upholding various principles and

considerations. Included in this chapter is the general operation of a vapor compression cycle and

its important parameters.

3.1 Vapor Compression Cycle

The challenge in refrigeration is the removal of heat from a source having a lower

temperature and transfer it at a sink with a higher temperature. To do so, a highly compressed fluid,

which gets colder as they expand, is utilized. On the other hand, if the change in pressure is too

great, then the compressed fluid will have a higher temperature than the source of cooling. In

addition to that, the gas which expanded will have a lower temperature than the desired cold

temperature. The figure bellow follows the standard vapor compression refrigeration cycle. As

seen in the figure, the cycle is composed of four stages, wherein the refrigerant circulates (Dheeraj,

et al., 2018)

Figure 3.1 Vapor Compression Cycle (Dheeraj et al., 2018)

65
 66

In the condensation process, the heat of the refrigerant is dissipated to the surrounding

environment by the coiled tubes with aluminum fins at this stage. This device is like an evaporator

but may vary in terms of size The outside air absorbs energy as the hot vapor flows through the

condenser, and the refrigerant is converted to a saturated liquid. At this point, even a slight drop

in pressure will cause evaporation, which serves as the foundation for the third stage of the

process.

The expansion process is critical to the whole cycle because this is the main problem to be

solved. Through an expansion valve, the condensed vapor is throttled. This leads to a sudden

pressure drop, which allows the temperature to drop as well. This is accomplished using the auto

refrigeration effect. The cold liquid-vapor mixture has now reached the end of the cycle.

In the evaporation process, the refrigerant passes through an evaporator. This device

usually has a large surface area and is composed of coiled tubes with aluminum fins. In this

process, the cold fluid is a mixture of liquid and vapor. As the refrigerant flows through the

evaporator, it absorbs heat from the low-temperature region. The absorbed energy is utilized to

convert the state of the refrigerant from liquid to vapor. At this stage, the refrigerant is at saturated

vapor. Afterward, it goes back to the compressor to repeat the cycle (Dheeraj, et al., 2018).

The refrigeration system is composed of different elements which are made up of

condenser, evaporator, compressor, and expansion. From the evaporator the liquid refrigerant

vaporizes it by absorbing latent heat from the material being cooled, and the resulting low-pressure

vapor refrigerant flows through the evaporator to the compressor. The compressor is the one who

is responsible for the whole refrigeration system. It circulates and pumps in the refrigerant inside

the system to work the system to maintain the operation. Also, a compressor makes refrigerant

increase pressure and temperature with that it helps a heat rejection at higher temperature to the
 67

main condenser. It is often an object where air removes or reduces heat from the system into a

medium which also decreases temperature compared to the refrigerant to the condenser. The high-

pressure refrigerant from the condenser is responsible for passing the transfer to the evaporator to

an expansion device or restricting the reducing pressure to make the evaporator lessen the existing

to the evaporator.

3.2 Multi-Stage Vapor Compression Cycle

In a simple vapor compression refrigeration system, there is a low-pressure side and a high-

pressure side, which occurs at the evaporator and condenser respectively. Simple vapor

compression systems work efficiently if the temperature lift between the evaporator and condenser

is small. Unfortunately, there are several cases in which the temperature lift becomes high. In such

cases, the simple vapor compression system will not be efficient enough to be practical. In

replacement of this, multi-stage systems are used. Multi-stage systems are mainly used for

applications where the temperature lift is high, but it may also be used when the application needs

cooling at different temperatures.

Figure 3.2 Schematic Diagram and T-s Diagram of a Two-Stage Compression Refrigeration
Cycle (Kharagpur, 2008)
 68

In multi-stage compression systems, the refrigerant exiting the first stage of compression

is cooled through a certain process before it enters the second stage of compression. The cooling

method which occurs in between the stages of compression is called intercooling. The advantage

of using this type of system is that it enhances volumetric efficiency for the given pressure ratio.

Moreover, it reduces the compressor work and cost. In theory, it can increase the coefficient of

performance of the entire system (Kharagpur, 2008).

Compression cycles consisted of multiple stages are usually combined with multiple stages

of liquid expansion and intercooling. The stage of compression is considered the number of steps

essential to increase the pressure of the refrigerant from the suction side of the compressor to the

condensing process. Liquid expansion is the number of time the refrigerant decreased in terms of

pressure from the condenser until it reaches the lowest pressure level in the refrigeration process.

Liquid expansion can be extended into two stages when applied on a two-stage compression

system. The most evident factor which affects the efficiency of the system is the low temperature

in the suction pressure. Since two-stage compression systems allow lower temperatures, this means

that the system efficiency is higher. In two-stage compression systems, the optimum inter stage

pressure is an important factor when considering the power consumption of the entire system. This

is often denoted by the equation below.

(3.1)
𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑡,𝑖𝑛𝑡 = √𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑠𝑎𝑡 × 𝑃𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒,𝑠𝑎𝑡

The optimum intermediate pressure divides the compression ratio into two, resulting into a low-

stage compression and a high-stage compression. The actual optimum inter-stage pressure is

dependent on the efficiencies of both compressors (Jekel & Reindl, 2008).

 69

3.3 Energy and Exergy Balance

According to Seyam (2019), in the refrigeration system, both the first and second laws of

Thermodynamics for steady-state flow are applied for every component. This includes the energy

and exergy balance equations. The energy balance equation takes heat transfer and work produced

or done into consideration. On the other hand, the exergy balance equation considers the

irreversibility of the process, which are further explained in the exergy destruction. In this case,

the effects of kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible for every component and for the

whole system.

3.3.1 First Law Analysis

As stated in a study by Kabul, Kizilkan, and Ozgur (2014), the first law of

thermodynamics deals with energy conservation. Exergy, unlike energy, is not subject to a

conservation law in real systems. Exergy analysis is a powerful tool for the design,

optimization, and performance evaluation of energy systems that is based on the second

law of thermodynamics. The first law of thermodynamic analysis specifies how the

coefficient of performance (COP) varies with evaporator temperature, condenser

temperature, compressor isentropic efficiency, and superheating temperature. As a result,

each system component was subjected to first law analysis.

As stated by Kanoglu, Kunduz, and Yumrutas (2002), refrigerators are cyclic

devices which are used to conduct heat transfer from a low-temperature medium to a high-

temperature medium. As mentioned previously, the vapor-compression cycle is the most

common type of refrigeration cycle. In this cycle, the refrigeration system is consisted of a

condenser, evaporator, compressor, and capillary tube. In the perspective of the First Law

of Thermodynamics, the measure of the performance of the refrigeration cycle is called the
 70

coefficient of performance (COP). This is referred to as the amount of cooling produced

per unit of work.

𝑄̇𝐿 𝑇𝑒𝑣 (3.2)

𝐶𝑂𝑃 = =
𝑊̇𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑒𝑣

A refrigeration cycle will achieve the highest COP when the reversible refrigeration

cycle is at a given refrigeration and ambient temperature. However, it is difficult to assess

the performance of a refrigeration system while only having the COP value as the basis. It

is necessary to compare the performance of the refrigeration system by comparing the

actual refrigeration with the reversible ones at the same ambient temperatures. The work

consumed by the reversible cycle is less than that in the corresponding actual one. These

two differ in terms of lost work, also known as exergy loss, exergy destruction, or

irreversibility.

3.3.2 Second Law Analysis

A thermodynamic process which can be reversed without leaving any trace on the

surroundings is considered a reversible process. In this case, the system and the

surroundings go back to their initial state at the end of the process. This is true only when

both the net heat and work exchange between the system and surroundings is zero. There

are no actual or real processes which are reversible. The factors that cause irreversibility in

the refrigeration cycle includes friction and heat transfer.

According to Seyam (2019), the concept of exergy underpins the second law

analysis. Exergy is a measure of the work potential or quality of various forms of energy

in relation to environmental conditions. Exergy analysis applied to a system describes all

losses in system components as well as the entire system. The potentials of these losses or

irreversibility, as well as their order of importance, can be understood with the help of this
 71

improvement. It is more helpful in determining the optimum operating conditions when

using irreversibility, which is a measure of process imperfection. The exergy method is a

relatively new analysis technique in which thermodynamic losses are evaluated using the

second law rather than the first law of thermodynamics. As a result, it falls under the

category of second law analyses.

The ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle does not apply to an actual vapor

compression cycle. The reason behind this is that irreversibility occurs in the components,

such as fluid friction and heat transfer. The goal of exergy analysis is to determine the

exergy destruction and exergy efficiency of every component and the whole system

respectively. Based on the schematic diagram of an ideal vapor compression cycle, the

specific exergy of a state is defined as:

𝑒𝑥1 = (ℎ𝑖 − ℎ0 ) − 𝑇0 (𝑠𝑖 − 𝑠0 ) (3.3)

The exergy analysis shows critical information about the plant's total irreversibility

distribution among the components, determining which component has the greatest impact

on overall plant inefficiency. The overall plant exergy efficiency has been calculated as the

ratio of exergy output to exergy input and can be expressed as follows:

∑ 𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠 (3.4)

𝜂𝑒𝑥 = = 1−
∑ 𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑖𝑛 ∑ 𝐸𝑥𝑖𝑛

An accurate analysis can be achieved by calculating the exergy destroyed for each

individual component of the plant. The exergy flow destroyed in the condenser and

evaporator are expressed as:

 72

𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑐𝑜 = 𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑛,𝑐𝑜 − 𝑒𝑥𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑐𝑜 ) − 𝑄̇𝑐𝑜 𝜏𝑐𝑜 (3.5)

𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑒𝑣 = 𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑛,𝑒𝑣 − 𝑒𝑥𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑒𝑣 ) − 𝑄̇𝑒𝑣 |𝜏𝑒𝑣 | (3.6)

On the other hand, the dimensionless exergy temperature can be equated as:

𝑇0 (3.7)
𝜏 =1−
𝑇𝑚𝑡,𝑎𝑖𝑟

In this equation, 𝑇0 is the environmental state that represents the dead state. On the other

hand, 𝑇𝑚𝑡,𝑎𝑖𝑟 is properly evaluated for both the evaporator and condenser. In this case of

experiment, the value of 𝜏𝑐𝑜 is zero.

The exergies destroyed in the compressor and expansion valve, disregarding heat transfer

with the environment are computed with:

𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑐𝑝 = 𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑛,𝑐𝑝 − 𝑒𝑥𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑐𝑝 ) − 𝐿̇𝑐𝑝 (3.8)

𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑣𝑎 = 𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑛,𝑣𝑎 − 𝑒𝑥𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑣𝑎 ) (3.9)

The efficiency defect has been assessed for each plant device, considering the ratio of

exergy flow destroyed in each component and the exergy flow required to sustain the

process.

𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑖 (3.10)
𝛿𝑖 =
𝐿̇𝑐𝑝

The following relationship connects the efficiency defects of the components to the overall

plant's exergy efficiency:

 73

𝜂𝑒𝑥 = 1 − ∑ 𝛿𝑖 (3.11)
𝑖

The ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle does not apply to an actual vapor

compression cycle. The reason behind this is that irreversibility occurs in the components,

such as fluid friction and heat transfer. The goal of exergy analysis is to determine the

exergy destruction and exergy efficiency of every component and the whole system

respectively.

The ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle does not apply to an actual vapor

compression cycle. The reason behind this is that irreversibility occurs in the components,

such as fluid friction and heat transfer. The goal of exergy analysis is to determine the

exergy destruction and exergy efficiency of every component and the whole system

respectively.

3.4 Refrigerant Flow

The component of the refrigerator which determines the refrigerant mass flow rate is the

compressor. This parameter is important because it affects the refrigeration capacity of the whole

system. The flow rate of the compressor is not in a steady state, which is why it is difficult to

directly measure the instantaneous flow rate.

This parameter could be measured using two methods. For actual measurement, a mass

flow meter can be applied to the system. Another way of measuring this is through a mathematical

model consisting of empirical coefficients. In previous research, a theoretical model of adiabatic

capillary tubes was developed. This allowed the prediction of the refrigerant mass flow rate for a

domestic refrigerator. Another technique to measure the mass flow rate of the refrigerant is by

quick-closing valves and a tank (He, Li, Ji, Wang, & Wang, 2020).
 74

3.5 Cooling Load

According to Evans (2017), a cold storage unit is built for the purpose of storing perishable

products such as meat and vegetables. The function of the unit is to minimize the deterioration

time of the products and preserve them as fresh as possible. Since heat is a major factor in the

deterioration of goods, the removal of heat in the storage is the main goal. To do so, a refrigeration

system is integrated into the cold storage unit. To extract the heat inside the room, the cooling load

must be obtained. The cooling load is dependent on the surrounding temperatures. Thus, the

average cooling load is usually computed for the duration of a whole day. To respond to this, the

refrigeration capacity is also computed to suit this.

Transmission load makes up 5 to 15% of the total load in a cold storage. This heat load is

defined as the thermal energy which transfers through the walls, roof, and floor of the cold room.

Heat has the tendency to flow from a hot source to cold. It is known that the interior of the cold

room is colder than the surroundings, which is why heat tries to enter the area because of the

temperature difference. Sunlight is a big factor of heat transfer, so when the cold room is exposed

to it, a great amount of heat transfer will be applied. To compute for this, Equation 3.12 is provided.

𝑄𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 𝑈 × 𝐴 × (𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 − 𝑇𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚 ) × 24/1000 (3.12)

Another load to be considered in the cold room is the product load which takes 55 to 75%

of the total load. Product load accounts for the heat which is introduced inside the storage when

new goods come inside. It is also defined as the required energy to cool, freeze, and preserve the

goods. If the product does not require freezing, then sensible heat load is only considered.

However, if the product requires freezing, latent heat needs to be considered because of the process

of changing phase. For products such as fruit and vegetables, they generate heat because they came
 75

from plants. The heat generated must be considered as well. To compute for the product exchange

and product respiration, Equations 3.12 and 3.13 are provided.

𝑄𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡,𝑒𝑥 = 𝑚 × 𝑐𝑝 × (𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝑇𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚 )/3600 (3.13)

𝑄𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡,𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝 = 𝑚 × 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝/3600 (3.14)

Internal load amounts to 10 to 20% of the total cooling load in a cold storage. This load is

known to be the heat released by people entering the cold storage and light bulbs. Equation 3.13

presents the calculation for the internal heat load of people. The next equation is for the

computation of the internal load of the lighting inside the cold storage room.

𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡,𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 = 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡/1000 (3.15)

𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡,𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 × 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔/1000 (3.16)

Next, the equipment load account to 1 to 10% of the total. This includes the fan motors and the

heat transferred during defrosting.

𝑄𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑓𝑎𝑛𝑠 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 × 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔/1000 (3.17)

The last load to be considered is the infiltration load which also takes 1 to 10% of the total.

This load happens when the door of the room opens. Because of this situation, heat is transferred

into the space through air. To obtain this value, Equation 3.18 is to be used.

𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑓 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 × 𝑉 × 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 × (𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 − 𝑇𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚 )/3600 (3.18)

3.6 Compressor Power

According to Compressor Unlimited (2019), the compressor is the core part of a

refrigerator, and it is the acting pump that would move the refrigerant the refrigerator is using

throughout the system. It is what would pump the refrigerant for it to reach the other components

that are installed in the continuous cycle of a refrigeration system. The compressor’s function is
 76

that it increases the temperature and the pressure of the refrigerant that is vaporized. In

coordination with a temperature sensor, the sensor would be the one to signal the compressor to

pump the refrigerant into the system whenever the inner temperature of the refrigerator rises above

a certain point (Dellinger, n.d.). The formula for calculating the power of the compressor is stated

as the mass of the refrigerant would be multiplied to the subtracted value between the enthalpy of

the refrigerant at point 2 to the 1st point of the vapor compression cycle.

3.7 Refrigerating Effect

Refrigeration systems move heat primarily through latent heat transfer. As the refrigerant

passes through the coil and more air meets it, more of the liquid refrigerant boils off, leaving only

a gas. The heat required to convert this refrigerant from a liquid to a gas is extracted from the air

as it passes through the coil, cooling it. This boiling process is known as evaporation, and the coil

in which it occurs is referred to as the evaporator. This is where the heat to be removed is collected.

Because of the nature and properties of the refrigerant, as well as the low pressure in this part of

the refrigeration system, the latent heat process occurs at a low temperature. The refrigerating

effect is the amount of heat absorbed in the evaporator per refrigerant. This is determined by the

difference in enthalpy between the refrigerant vapor leaving the evaporator and the liquid just

upstream (ahead) of the evaporator's expansion valve (Hieryonymus, 2014).

3.8 Coefficient of Performance

As mentioned previously, the ratio of useful energy, also known as the rate of heat removal

by the evaporator, to the energy required, which is the required power for the compressor, is

defined as the coefficient of performance (COP). Given the compressor power and the refrigerating

effect, the COP can be computed.

 77

𝑄̇𝐿 (3.19)
𝐶𝑂𝑃 =
𝑊̇𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝

The coefficient of performance, also often known as COP, of a refrigerator is explained in

a way the when the heat is taken out of the cold reservoir or in this situation, the inside of a

refrigerator, is divided with the work done to remove the heat which is the work done by the

compressor. In addition to this, the coefficient of performance would also be strongly dependent

on what the outside temperature and the required temperature would be and with a higher

coefficient of performance, this would mean that there would be more cooling performance per

unit of electricity which would mean that it would be better and efficient. A short definition of

what the coefficient of performance is, it is a number that would define how effective the

refrigerator is by comparing the heat that is taken out of it. It is also considered remotely identical

to how the thermal efficiency of heat engines work (Energy Education, 2018).

3.9 Superheating Temperature

Superheat is one of the most talked in refrigeration but other misunderstood the real

meaning of superheat especially technicians. Superheat is the measurement of difference of two

temperature. It is considered as a measuring value that compares two substances. In a technical

meaning of superheat, it is the difference of two said temperature of refrigerant vapor and

saturation temperature of refrigerant with same place where the event happened using those

temperature. Superheat considered with two types which are evaporator superheat and total

superheat.

Evaporator superheats are always starting at point where in evaporator and it is at 100-

percent saturated vapor point, and it lasts to ending or at the outlet of the evaporator. Those 100-

percent saturated vapor is where all liquids turbs to vapor. It means that there is already a process
 78

when it transfers to inlet to outlet. The temperature at evaporator superheat can be acquire to

pressure-temperature chart.

There is always a required application in the amount of evaporator superheat can supply.

Icemakers uses around to 3 to 5 degrees of evaporator superheat to sustain their needs to produce

ice sheets. Suction line helps to collect already joined to the system for protection. This will ensure

the refrigerants while having a process is free of liquid in every part such as in the compressor.

Low temperature applications are flexible in lower evaporator superheat. Total superheats play its

role when a evaporator has a light load and there is a possibility of a TXV may lose its control to

evaporator superheat due to limitations that cannot control.

Total superheat is all of heat in the low part of refrigeration system. As said earlier that it

all starting to 100-percent saturated vapor point starting to evaporator and ending to compression

inlet. Total superheat citing to compressor superheat, total superheat which is made up of

evaporator superheat adding is the suction line superheat (Delahunt, 2021).

3.10 Subcooling Temperature

An air-conditioning system uses different refrigerant depending on what is needed to fulfill

its cooling. Cooling processes are happened to evaporator coil. Because of high-pressure liquid

refrigerant flow to evaporator coil causing to sudden pressure drop. Reason that there is a

refrigerant temperature changes that are always dropping. Factors on knowing the heat refrigerant

capability of absorbing is because of subcooling. Subcooling is where the process where the event

happens in condenser coil before the refrigerant takes to another place to evaporator coil.

At this point of refrigerant already absorbed heat that are changing to liquid to gas. Low-

pressure gas going back to condensing unit and going inside to compressor. A compressor gives
 79

more pressure to refrigerant which is quick travel inside the system. Then, condensers make the

temperature deep which is converting back to liquid form. This process called the saturation

temperature. When it is already cooled down to saturation temperature it begins the changes to q

liquid. Before that the condenser is going back to evaporator coil which the temperature of the

refrigerant drops to saturation temperature.

The lowest temperature a condenser can get is better because the low temperature the

refrigerant is it has already path to evaporator coil which means that more heat will be able to get

in. Subcooling acts as a prediction where it can measure its overall efficiency. The temperature

difference and saturation temperature can say the amount of subcooling. For a working system, it

goes to under around to 6 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit. One more factor of source of air conditioning

inefficient is because of not well supported of subcooling. The amount of added refrigerant can

get inside of system. With that of insufficient of subcooling can convert to gaseous form before

reaching to evaporator coil. Most problem of insufficient subcooling is a low refrigerant charge. It

has a problem of leak inside the system reason it is not having a low temperature (Haskins, 2018).

3.11 Departure Functions

Departure Function is the comparison of difference of thermodynamic properties like

enthalpy, entropy, internal energy, specific heat, and other properties containing to thermodynamic

property for a real gas and ideal gas at the same state of temperature and pressure. An equation of

state can be utilized to calculate a departure function. Using steam table, it can help to calculate

water’s departure function. Table of properties or graph for component can help in calculating the

departure function of each component. In calculating the departure function it needs property data

by knowing the worth of the state at low pressure but because of behavior of ideal gas is observed
 80

with identical temperature as the state of interest. With those properties the ideal gas value with

big pressure is calculated. (Baumann, et al., 2015)

3.12 DWSIM

DWSIM, the software to be used is an open-source software which it allows engineering

students to run experiments (model process plants) and analyze data utilizing advanced models,

precise thermodynamic, and unit operations. The thermodynamic calculations form the foundation

of simulations in the DWSIM simulation software. A process simulator must be able to simulate a

wide range of systems, from simple water handling processes to more complicated, more

developed situations, such as simulations of industrial processes. With thermodynamics models

and unit operations, this software may simulate several phases such as steady-state, liquid–vapor,

and solid–liquid. For steady-state mass and energy balances, DWSIM is the ready software. It is

also the most widely used open-source simulation program for Mac OS, Linux, and Windows. To

create a simulation model, the DWSIM simulation requires the compounds, property packages,

unit operations, materials, and energy streams to the flowsheet. Furthermore, the Flash algorithms

in the software are responsible for identifying a specific set of phases at thermodynamic

equilibrium under certain variables, such as pressure, total enthalpy and entropy, and temperature.

If the data was significant, the resulting data is useful for better accessibility. This software will

be used to simulate the vapor compression cycle for a cold storage unit. It will help obtain the

refrigerating effect of the system, as well as parameters such as temperature, pressure, enthalpy,

entropy, and others (Klamrassamee, et al., 2020)

3.13 Peng-Robinson Property Package

The DWSIM simulation uses the thermodynamic calculations as basis for its computations.

For a process simulation software to accommodate a variety of systems, such as simulations in the
 81

refrigeration industry, the program must have several property packages. Fugacity coefficient

calculations models, such as the Peng-Robinson Equation of state, are one of the calculation

methods employed in DWSIM and in this study. Temperature, pressure, and molar volume of a

pure component or a mixture of components at equilibrium circumstances are all included in this

equation. This Peng - Robinson equation is also known as a cubic equation of state, which is the

simplest equation capable of acquiring the behavior of both liquid and vapor phases at the same

time. The calculation methods used in DWSIM for the physical description of the elements in a

simulation are described in the Peng-Robinson property package. The Peng-Robinson model is

best for VLE calculations and liquid densities for hydrocarbon systems. The Peng-Robinson

property package meticulously computes for single, two, or three-phase systems with a high

percentage of precision (Medeiros, 2016).

 Chapter 4

METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the processes to be conducted to perform the experiment and meet

the objectives. The methodology primarily focuses on three main phases: modeling and validation,

simulation and energy analysis, and exergy analysis.

4.1 Research Design

Figure 4.1 Methodological Framework

82
 83

Presented in Figure 4.1 is the methodological framework of the study. The framework starts

with Phase 1, which involves the creation of a VCR system model in DWSIM and a test for

validation of the software. Phase 2 is where the energy analysis on the refrigerants is conducted

through simulation. Phase 3 focuses on the exergy analysis of the refrigeration system and each of

its components. It also deals with the optimization of the selected model and data analysis.

4.2 Refrigeration Selection

In the selection of the refrigerants to be used in the study, the following requirements were

considered: environmental impact, availability, safety, and thermophysical properties. As

mentioned previously, conventional refrigerant R22 is an HCFC substance that affects the ozone

layer. Among all refrigerants that can replace HCFCs, the most common types are the HFCs.

However, HFCs, such as R134A, contribute to global warming. Because of this, conventional

refrigerants may be phased out soon. When comparing different refrigerants, the GWP is a helpful

parameter to utilize. However, because it does not account for many other influencing factors, it

may exceed the benefits of low GWP refrigerants to the environment. The two refrigerants will be

studied as the base point. Alternative refrigerants have been developed to replace conventional

ones. Some of which include R404A, R407C, and R1234yf, which have less impact on the

environment and are available in the market. Another factor to consider is their safety

classification. All refrigerants selected are under the safety classification A1, which means that

they have low flammability to no flame propagation at all and have low toxicity. Furthermore,

ideally, a refrigerant must have a low boiling point to be able to change to vapor easily as it absorbs

heat. Looking at the properties of the refrigerants, the selected ones have considerable values. The

decision matrix of the refrigerants is presented in the table below. The refrigerants must meet at

least three of the requirements.

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Table 4.1 Decision Matrix

Refrigerant Low Low Safety Availability Good

ODP GWP Classification Properties
R134A ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
R22 ✓ ✓ ✓
R404A ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
R407C ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
R1234yf ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

4.3 Cold Storage Unit Operating Conditions and Parameters

The cold storage unit for garlic will be tested under the working conditions based on the

study of Alves et al. (2014). The cold storage unit have the dimensions of 8.98 m x 5.09 m x 4.33

m in length, width, and height. The panels of the cold storage unit are made of polyurethane. The

unit model will be tested inside a building with surrounding conditions 21.75ºC and 40% relative

humidity. The unit will be accommodating 1000 kg of garlic which requires a storage temperature

of 0ºC with relative humidity ranging from 65-80%. For additional thermal loads, the light bulbs

produce 400 W and the fans 316 W. The total experiment time will run for 13.75 hours. Table 4.1

shows the description of the accommodated product inside the chamber. Table 4.2 presents the

parameters and conditions used for the simulation.

Table 4.2 Parameters of the Accommodated Product (Alves et al., 2014)

Product Description Values

Accommodated Product Garlic
Mass of Product in Chamber 1,000 kg
Storage Life 6-7 Months
Storage Temperature 0ºC / 64-70% RH
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Table 4.3 Parameters for the Cold Storage Experiment (Alves et al., 2014)

Input Parameter Values

Chamber Dimensions, (m) 8.98 x 5.09 x 4.33
Total Experiment Time (s) 49,500
Panels Insulation 100 mm
Average External Temperature 21.75
(ºC)
Relative Humidity of Air Outside 40
Chamber (%)
Average number of people inside 1
chamber per access
Electric Power of Light Bulb (W) 400
Total Thermal Power of Air 316
Circulating Fans (W)

4.4 Cooling Load Calculation

The cold storage unit is built for the purpose of storing garlic, a perishable product. The

role of the cold storage unit is to lessen the deterioration time of garlic and preserve them. It is

known that one of the main contributors in the deterioration of goods is heat. Thus, it is important

to remove heat from the room. To do so, the cooling load must be computed for. Cooling load is

the amount of sensible and latent heat, which is to be removed from a space, in this case the cold

room, to sustain a constant air temperature and humidity. In this study, the cooling load is obtained

by using Microsoft Excel for ease of calculation. The equations applied in the spreadsheet are

found in Chapter 3 of the study.

The cooling load consists of five main heat loads. The first one is the transmission load

which is the thermal energy that transfers through the surfaces of the room. The transmission load

of the floor was calculated separately since the temperature below the cold room is different from

the temperature at the walls. Adding the transmission for the four walls, roof, and floor sums to

the total transmission load. The next load to be considered is the product load. Included in this
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load is the heat of the goods which is introduced inside the space when they enter. It is also known

as the energy required to preserve the product, in this case garlic. Since the chosen product falls

under fruits and vegetables, garlic has a respiration heat.

Internal load includes the heat given off by people entering the cold storage unit and light

bulbs. It was noted in the reference study that the lights were only in use when people enter the

cold storage unit. Thus, the running time of the lights is equal to the time a person is inside the

cold room. The equipment load is mainly about the heat generated by the fan motors in the

evaporator. In the reference study, there are two fan motors for the evaporator which runs for 6

hours per day. Lastly, the infiltration load happens when the door of the cold storage unit is opened.

Heat is transferred into the room through the air.

The total cooling load is the sum of all loads above. By adding all these heat loads, the total

cooling load will be obtained in kilowatt-hour per day. It is important to apply a safety factor to

this calculation for errors. The standard safety factor applied into the calculation is 10 to 30 percent.

Having the total cooling load, it is possible to obtain the cooling capacity. This can be attained by

dividing the total cooling load by the run time of the cold storage unit per day.
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4.5 Modeling the VCR in DWSIM

Figure 4.2 DWSIM Application Process Flow Chart

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The simulation software to be used in the study is called DWSIM which is an open-source

software which allows engineering student to run experiments through model process plant and

analyze different data utilizing models, precise thermodynamics, and unit operations. In creating

a simulation model, the software would require different compounds, property packages, unit

operation materials, and energy streams in the flowsheet which would then in turn calculate the

required data or the desired data. Presented in Figure 4.2 is the process flow chart of using the

software DWSIM. It shows the steps from starting the program to creating a vapor compression

refrigeration model and to running the simulation to obtain certain data.

Figure 4.3 DWSIM Home

Shown in Figure 4.3 is the home page of the software. To start creating a model, under the

file tab, click the button which says, “New Chemical Process Model”. This will allow the user to

create a model which involves any chemical process accommodated by the software. In this case,
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the researchers will be creating a simple vapor compression cycle for a refrigeration system of a

cold storage unit.

Figure 4.4 DWSIM Compounds Selection

After clicking the previous button, a new window will appear, as seen in Figure 4.4. This

window has four tabs. First, the introduction tab, which provides a little background about the

software and its capabilities. The next tab is the compounds tab which lets the user select one or

more compounds which will be integrated into the system to be built. In this case, refrigerants R22,

R134A, R404A, R407C, and R1234yf are chosen for the study.
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Figure 4.5 DWSIM Property Packages

After selecting the compounds/refrigerants to be integrated into the system (refrigeration

system), the software will require the user to select a property package, as seen in Figure 4.5. There

are several property packages to choose from depending on the system to be created. The DWSIM

simulation uses the thermodynamic calculations as basis for its computations. For a process

simulation software to accommodate a variety of systems, such as simulations in the refrigeration

industry, the program must have several property packages. DWSIM can create models of phase

equilibria in between solids, vapor, and two liquid phases if possible. The calculation methods

used in DWSIM for the physical description of the elements in a simulation are described in the

Peng-Robinson property package.

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Figure 4.6 DWSIM Blank Flowsheet

Following the selection of the compounds, property packages, and system units, the

simulation configuration wizard window will close and allow the user to navigate through the main

window of the software as seen in Figure 4.6. By default, the display shows a flowsheet wherein

the user can create a process model by connecting components through lines and arrows. To create

the refrigeration system, four major components are required: compressor, condenser, expansion

valve, and evaporator.

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Figure 4.7 DWSIM Compressor Block

The first step in creating the vapor compression refrigeration (VCR) system model is to

add the compressor block which is found in the pressure changers section. Afterwards, set the

calculation type into outlet pressure. Then, state the desired outlet pressure and adiabatic efficiency

or the isentropic efficiency of the compressor as shown in the figure above.

Figure 4.8 DWSIM Condenser Block

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The next step in creating the VCR model is to add a cooler block that would act as the

condenser of the cycle. Renaming the cooler into the condenser would help easily identify the

component. After adding the condenser block, the inlet stream is to be connected to the compressor

outlet and then the calculation type would be set to outlet vapor mole fraction and setting the outlet

vapor fraction to zero with the option to adjust the efficiency of the condenser as shown in the

figure above.

Figure 4.9 DWSIM Expansion Valve Block

Proceeding with the creation of the VCR model, the next block to be added is the expansion

valve, which is also found on the pressure changers tab. This is shown in Figure 4.9. Renaming

the valve into expansion valve would help the user identify the component. After that, the inlet

stream for the expansion valve would be connected to the condenser outlet and the calculation type

would be set to outlet pressure. The outlet pressure would then be changed into the desired

pressure.
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Figure 4.10 DWSIM Evaporator Block

The next step is to add a heater block which would serve as the evaporator, found in the

exchangers tab. The heat block is shown in Figure 4.10. Renaming the heater block to evaporator

would be of help to the user on identifying the components easily. After adding the evaporator

block, the inlet stream would be connected to the expansion valve outlet, while the energy stream

would be connected to the cooling capacity, which is automatically chosen for the user by the

simulation software. Lastly on this step, the calculation type would be set to outlet vapor mole

fraction and the outlet vapor fraction would be set to “1” while the efficiency would be up to the

desired efficiency of the user.

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Figure 4.11 DWSIM Recycle Block

The next step would be the addition of the recycle block which is found in the logical

blocks. This block signifies the end and the start of the simulation. All other data stated in the

recycle block would retain as is by the software while the inlet stream would be connected to the

evaporator outlet and the outlet stream would be connected to the compressor inlet as presented in

the figure above.

Figure 4.12 DWSIM Compressor Inlet Input

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Upon adding all the components of the simulation, the user is to click the compressor inlet

wherein the flash spec is to be changed to pressure and enthalpy and state the data to be input to

the simulation as seen in the figure above. The only data to be changed in the model are the pressure

and the mass flow while the others are calculated by the software with the property package set as

its basis.

Figure 4.13 DWSIM Compound Amount

In addition to the stream conditions of the compressor inlet, the compound amounts are

also to be changed to the desired refrigerant that the researcher wants to use by changing the

amount to ‘1’ and setting the others to ‘0’ as shown in the figure above.
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Figure 4.14 DWSIM VCR Model

The final setup for the simulation is shown in the figure above. Once all the data are

inputted by the user, the next step is to press F6 to activate all the components, and finally press

F5 to run the simulation. After running the simulation, the heat absorbed, heat rejected, and

compressor power will be computed for. In addition to that, other data such as inlet/outlet pressures

and temperatures and enthalpies are provided as well. These data are to be gathered and used in

the exergy analysis calculations. Once done, the simulation may be paused to change some

parameters and eventually repeat the process.

4.6 Energy Analysis and Validation

To prove the validity of the DWSIM simulation software, an experiment was conducted

using the parameters and conditions given in a study by Alves et al. (2014). This study focused on

developing a methodology for simulation and optimization of energy consumption in cold

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chambers. This was done through constructive and operating parameters which are factors in the

infiltration of heat energy. The actual experiment was done in a small horticultural company which

conserves fruits and vegetables in a cold storage. The existing chamber accommodates exclusively

to a single product, which is garlic. The environmental conditions of the cold storage were

monitored and controlled using a switchboard. The equipment can measure the temperature and

humidity using sensors. The entrance of the chamber is closed by a door. Take note, there are no

additional thermal protection equipment when the door is opened. The analysis was conducted to

simulate the energy consumption through a variety of programmed parameters.

Having these data, the total cooling load was first computed. Considering the transmission,

infiltration, product, and miscellaneous loads, the total load inside the cold room storage will be

obtained. Furthermore, considering the evaporator temperature and condenser temperature, the

remaining parameters for the other points were computed for. From there, the cooling capacity

was found to be 3 kW. Table 4.3 presents the parameters for each point in the refrigeration cycle

of the reference refrigeration system.

Table 4.4 Parameters at each State Point

State Point Temperature Pressure Enthalpy

(ºC) (kPa) (kJ/kg)
1 -2.4 4.504 -23.76
2 112.442 21.635 56.39
3 61.28 21.635 -145.76
4 -2.4 4.504 -145.76
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Figure 4.15 DWSIM VCR Model for Validation

Provided with these values, the vapor compression cycle model can be built in DWSIM,

which is presented in the figure above. The main output of the model in the simulation is the heat

rejected by the condenser. To obtain this, the material stream in the compressor inlet requires

pressure and mass flow. The compressor block requires the outlet pressure and adiabatic

efficiency. Next, in the condenser block, the outlet vapor fraction is set to zero to make sure that

the fluid is a hundred percent liquid. The expansion valve block needs the outlet pressure. In the

evaporator block, the outlet vapor fraction is set to 1 to ensure that the fluid is in vapor form at this

point. After providing the input in the respected blocks, the main output upon running the

simulation and their respected values from the study are listed in the table below.
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Table 4.5 Energy Analysis Results

Experimental Data Heat Absorbed Heat Rejected Power Consumption

(kw) (kw) (kw)
Alves et al., (2014) 3.00 4.589 1.66
Validity Test 3.05 4.76 1.60
Percent Error 1.67% 3.73% 3.61%

4.7 Exergy Analysis

Energy and exergy analyses are methods utilized to assess the performance of the

refrigeration system. However, it must be considered that there are some deviations from the ideal

condition, which cannot be assessed precisely with the conditions from the energy analysis.

Fortunately, the exergy analysis can make up for the shortcomings of the energy analysis. From

the obtained data, such as the pressures, temperatures, and enthalpy, the exergy analysis will be

conducted through a series of calculations using the exergy balance equations. This involves

solving for the exergy destructions and efficiency.

As mentioned in the previous chapter, the concept of exergy reinforces the second law

analysis. Exergy is a description of the losses in the components of the system. Having the specific

exergy equation of a state, the general equation for the exergy balance is obtained. When the

general equation is rearranged and applied to each component of the vapor compression

refrigeration system, the irreversibility rates of every component can be obtained. After that, the

exergy efficiency of the entire vapor compression will be obtained. The exergy efficiency, also

known as the second law efficiency, is known as the ratio of the minimum work input to useful

work input.
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Figure 4.16 Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet for Exergy Calculations

Provided in Chapter 3 are the equations involving the exergy balance. These equations will

be used to obtain the exergy destroyed in each component and exergy efficiencies. To conduct the

calculations, Microsoft Excel is used as a computation tool. As seen in Figure 4.16, the needed

data to conduct exergy analysis include the temperature, enthalpy, and entropy on the four main

points of the refrigeration cycle. In addition to that, the mass flow of the refrigerant, compressor

power, cooling capacity, and heat rejected are also factors in the computations. Integrating the

equations into the excel formula allows the computation for the exergy destruction and efficiency

defect. The results will automatically be shown in a bar graph.

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Exergy Destroyed in Components with R22

700

Exergy Destroyed (W)

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Compressor Condenser Expansion Valve Evaporator

Compressor Condenser Expansion Valve Evaporator

Figure 4.17 Exergy Destroyed in Components Using R22

Figure 4.17 reports on the exergy destroyed in the refrigeration system components when

running on R22. This data was obtained from the validation of the DWSIM software with the data

from Alves et al., (2014). The exergy destroyed is presented in Watts. The four main components

are distinguished according to their color. Based on the results it can be noticed that the compressor

obtained the highest amount of exergy destroyed, while the expansion valve had the lowest.

Efficiency Defects and Exergetic Efficiency when

R22 is used as Working Fluid
120

100
Efficiency Defect (%)

80

60

40

20

Compressor Condenser Expansion Valve Evaporator Exergetic Efficiency

Figure 4.18 Efficiency Defects and Exergetic Efficiency when R22 is used as Working Fluid
 103

The figure above reports on the efficiency defects and exergy efficiency of the refrigeration

system of a cold storage unit when R22 is used as the working fluid. The data used for this analysis

was still based on the validity test in reference to Alves et al., (2014). As seen in the chart, the

compressor has the highest amount of efficiency defect, followed by the condenser, then the

evaporator, and finally the expansion valve.

4.8 Optimization

Optimization involves searching for the best configuration for a problem within appropriate

limitations. The initial procedure in optimization is defining the system boundaries. In this case,

the system subjected to optimization is the simple vapor compression refrigeration system for a

cold storage unit. The VCR is composed of a compressor, condenser, expansion valve, and

evaporator. This system makes use of R407C as its refrigerant. The next step in optimization is to

define the system criteria. In this case, the optimization criteria are based on efficiency aims. After

selecting the setup based on the energy and exergy analyses, it is important to identify which

factors affected the performance of the system. In that way, it will be easier to approach the

problem (Ahmadi, Dincer, & Rosen, 2017).

As mentioned, the current refrigeration system used in the study adapts a simple vapor

compression refrigeration cycle, which is the basic cycle for air-conditioning and refrigeration. A

VCR operates between a low temperature medium and a high temperature medium. In between

these limits, the maximum coefficient of performance of the system, or the actual COP can be

drawn out. Compared to the regular coefficient of performance, the maximum COP is not as

efficient because of losses. Analyzing the relationships, a smaller temperature lift, or the

temperature difference between the condenser and evaporator, allows more efficiency. This also

affects the performance of the compressor.

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One solution to this issue is to incorporate stages into the refrigeration system. Two or

more refrigeration cycles can be applied and operated into a series. This type of system is known

as cascade refrigeration system. In this case, once there is a selected refrigerant to be used for the

vapor compression refrigeration system, based on its efficiency, the setup will be subjected to

optimization. In the optimization process, two stages of compression will be applied to the system,

with the goal of minimizing the temperature lift to achieve higher coefficient of performance and

exergy efficiency. The process will still be done through simulation in DWSIM. For accuracy, a

specific compressor model will be used as basis for the second unit.
 Chapter 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter tackles on the findings of the study after creating a vapor compression

refrigeration system simulation model and subjecting it to energy and exergy analyses. This section

of the paper includes tables and charts which present the relationships of significant parameters.

5.1 Cooling Load Calculation

In this study, a cold storage unit is subjected to energy and exergy analysis. The purpose

of the cold storage unit is to preserve goods, in this case garlic, and keep them from deteriorating

due to heat. Having said that, the cooling load of the unit must be obtained to determine the

recommended cooling capacity. Considering the transmission, product, internal, equipment, and

infiltration loads, the total cooling load of the cold storage unit can be obtained. For easier and

more accurate computation, a series of formula was added into an Excel spreadsheet.

Figure 5.1 Cooling Load Calculation Excel Spread Sheet

In this spreadsheet, shown above, each individual load can be attained when provided with

the cold storage unit specifications. Having input all the information, the total cooling load of the

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cold storage unit was computed to be 41.27 kilowatt-hour per day. The next step is to compute for

the cooling capacity, also known as the refrigerating effect, to handle the load. To get this, the total

cooling load per day is divided by the total run time of the refrigeration unit. Having the

refrigeration unit run for 13.75 hours per day, the recommended cooling capacity must be at least

3 kW.

5.2 Vapor Compression Refrigeration System DWSIM Model

The cold storage unit with vapor compression refrigeration system model is based on the

study of Alves et al. (2014). In the reference study, the cold storage unit was provided with its

inside dimensions and panel material. In addition to that, it was mentioned that the product to be

accommodated is garlic. The specifications can be found in the previous chapter. Since the cold

storage unit makes use of a vapor compression refrigeration system, the researchers recreated a

simple VCR in a simulation software named DWSIM.

Figure 5.2 Vapor Compression Refrigeration System Model

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The VCR consists of four main components: compressor, condenser, expansion valve, and

evaporator. In DWSIM, each component has its respective block. In addition to the four

components, a recycle block is added before the compressor. This block signifies the start and end

of the loop. Shown in the figure above is the simple VCR model based on the cold storage unit of

Alves et al. (2014).

5.3 Energy Analysis of the VCR Cold Storage System Model and Refrigerant Charge Test

Energy Analysis was performed on the VCR cold storage system model. Energy analysis

falls under the first law analysis which deals with the conservation of energy in a system. In

addition to that, the first law analysis studies how the coefficient of performance is affected by

temperature, efficiency, and other factors. In the simulation software, the calculation parameters

and calculation type can be adjusted according to the user’s preference. In this case, since the goal

of the simulation is to determine the most efficient setup, the output includes the heat absorbed,

heat rejected, and compressor work. These parameters are necessary to compute for the coefficient

of performance of the system. Energy analysis was first tested on the actual model of Alves et al.

(2014) to validate its results. The values that were input in the model include the component

pressures, mass flow rate, and vapor mole fraction. The table below presents the results of the

validity test alongside the actual values of the reference study.

After the validity test, energy analysis was conducted on other setups as well. As mentioned

previously, there are five refrigerants to be tested on the vapor compression refrigeration model:

R22, R404A, R407C, R134A, and R1234yf. In DWSIM, five VCR models were created to

accommodate each refrigerant. To find the optimum performance of the refrigerant in the system,

a refrigerant charge test was conducted on the five models. The refrigerant mass flow was varied
 108

for each setup from 0.01 kg/s to 0.05 kg/s with an increment of 0.01. For every trial, energy

analysis was conducted to determine the coefficient of performance of the system.

COP vs. Mass Flow of R22

1.9028
Coefficient of Performance

1.9026
1.9024
1.9022
1.902
1.9018
1.9016
1.9014
1.9012
1.901
1.9008
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Mass Flow (kg/s)

Figure 5.3 Relationship of COP and Mass Flow of R22

Shown above is the line chart for the refrigerant charge test of refrigerant R22. The chart

shows the relationship of the coefficient of performance of the system and the refrigerant mass

flow. At 0.01 kg/s mass flow, the COP of the refrigeration system reached 1.9015. Increasing the

mass flow to 0.02 kg/s also allowed the COP to increase. However, when the mass flow was further

increased, its COP dropped from 1.9027 to 1.9022. At 0.04 kg/s the COP attained is equal to that

of the COP at 0.02 kg/s. Further increasing the mass flow to 0.05 kg/s dropped the COP again to

1.9024. Thus, the optimum performance of the refrigerant occurs when the mass flow is 0.02 kg/s

or 0.04 kg/s.
 109

COP vs. Mass Flow of R134A

1.64

Coefficient of Performance
1.62
1.6
1.58
1.56
1.54
1.52
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Mass Flow (kg/s)

Figure 5.4 Relationship of COP and Mass Flow of R134A

The figure above shows the relationship of the coefficient of performance of the system

with the refrigerant mass flow of R134A. As seen in the chart, the system is at its most efficient

when operating at 0.01 kg/s. The coefficient of performance of the refrigeration system during this

condition is 1.6282. As the mass flow increases, the coefficient of performance decreases. This is

true for mass flows up to 0.04 kg/s. When the mass flow of the system is at 0.05 kg/s, there is a

slight increase in coefficient of performance. The optimum performance of the refrigerant occurs

when the mass flow is at 0.01 kg/s.

COP vs. Mass Flow of R404A

1.4705
Coefficient of Performance

1.47

1.4695

1.469

1.4685
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Mass Flow (kg/s)

Figure 5.5 Relationship of COP and Mass Flow of R404A

 110

The line chart above shows how the mass flow of the refrigeration system affects its

coefficient of performance, in this case, for refrigerant R404A. At 0.01 kg/s the coefficient of

performance of the system is 1.4696. At 0.02 kg/s there is a spike in the coefficient of performance,

which was 1.4704. It is clearly seen that this is the optimum performance of the refrigerant since

the coefficient of performance decreased as the mass flow increased.

COP vs. Mass Flow of R407C

2.17
2.1698
Coefficient of Performance

2.1696
2.1694
2.1692
2.169
2.1688
2.1686
2.1684
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Mass Flow (kg/s)

Figure 5.6 Relationship of COP and Mass Flow of R407C

The chart reports on the relationship of mass flow with the coefficient of performance of

the system running on refrigerant R407C. From 0.01 kg/s to 0.02 kg/s there was neither an increase

or decrease in coefficient of performance. However, when the mass flow was set to 0.03 kg/s, the

coefficient of performance peaked at 2.1698. From there, the coefficient of performance decreased

as the mass flow increased. Therefore, the optimum performance of the refrigerant is evident at

mass flow 0.03 kg/s.

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COP vs. Mass Flow of R1234yf

1.13

Coefficient of Performance
1.12
1.11
1.1
1.09
1.08
1.07
1.06
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Mass Flow (kg/s)

Figure 5.7 Relationship of COP and Mass Flow of R1234yf

The chart above shows the refrigerant R1234yf charged into the refrigeration system to

determine its optimum performance. It is evident that the coefficient of performance of the system

peaked at 0.01 kg/s. The coefficient of performance of the system at this point was 1.1248. The

coefficient of performance dropped as the mass flow increased.

5.4 Exergy Analysis of the VCR Cold Storage System Model

There are some deviations that energy analysis cannot assess precisely because it considers

the ideal condition. On the other hand, exergy analysis can make up for the shortcomings of energy

analysis by considering the reversible process. To conduct exergy analysis, the necessary values

include the enthalpy and entropy at each state point. In addition to that, the parameters obtained

from the energy analysis, such as the heat absorbed, heat rejected, and compressor work are needed

as well.

In the simulation software, DWSIM, the enthalpy and entropy at each state point is

provided. From there, a series of equations can solve for the exergy destruction at each component.

Furthermore, the efficiency defect of each component can be computed for as well. Lastly, the
 112

exergy efficiency of the entire system was calculated as well. In this section, the relationship of

the mass flow and the exergy efficiency of the entire system is analyzed.

Exergetic Efficiency vs. Mass Flow of R22

0.8076
Coefficient of Performance

0.8074
0.8072
0.807
0.8068
0.8066
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Mass Flow (kg/s)

Figure 5.8 Relationship of Exergy Efficiency and Mass Flow of R22

The line chart above reports on the relationship of the mass flow and the exergy efficiency

of the entire system running on R22. It is evident that the exergy efficiency is at its peak when the

mass flow is at 0.02 kg/s. This is also true when the mass flow is at 0.04 kg/s/. Thus, the optimal

condition of the system in accordance with its exergy efficiency occurs when the mass flow is at

0.02 kg/s or 0.04 kg/s.

Exergetic Efficiency vs. Mass Flow of R134A

0.475
Coefficient of Performance

0.47
0.465
0.46
0.455
0.45
0.445
0.44
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Mass Flow (kg/s)

Figure 5.9 Relationship of Exergy Efficiency and Mass Flow of R134A

 113

The figure above shows how the mass flow affects the exergy efficiency of a system

running on R134A. Just at 0.01 kg/s, the exergy efficiency peaked with a value of 0.4709. When

the mass flow was increased, the exergy efficiency decreased. This goes to show that there is an

indirect proportional relationship between the mass flow and exergy efficiency just for this specific

refrigerant.

Exergetic Efficiency vs. Mass Flow of R404A

0.4975

0.4974
Exergetic Efficiency

0.4973

0.4972

0.4971

0.497

0.4969

0.4968
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Mass Flow (kg/s)

Figure 5.10 Relationship of Exergy Efficiency and Mass Flow of R404A

For the setup which makes use of R404A as the working fluid, the chart above illustrates

the relationship of mass flow and exergy efficiency. At 0.01 kg/s, the exergy efficiency is 0.4971.

Increasing the mass flow to an increment allowed the exergy efficiency to peak at 0.4974. Thus,

this is the optimum condition wherein the system performs at its best.
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Exergetic Efficiency vs. Mass Flow of R407C

0.8531

Exergetic Efficiency
0.853
0.8529
0.8528
0.8527
0.8526
0.8525
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Mass Flow (kg/s)

Figure 5.11 Relationship of Exergy Efficiency and Mass Flow of R407C

The figure above presents the behavior of exergy efficiency when the mass flow is varied

for a system running on R407C. It can be noticed that the exergy efficiency does not change when

the mass flow is at 0.01 kg/s to 0.02 kg/s. However, the exergy efficiency spikes up to 0.8531

when the mass flow was changed to 0.03 kg/s. Then, the trend seems to go down after the mass

flow was increased.

Exergetic Efficiency vs. Mass Flow of R1234yf

0.315
Exergetic Efficiency

0.31

0.305

0.3

0.295
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Mass Flow (kg/s)

Figure 5.12 Relationship of Exergy Efficiency and Mass Flow of R1234yf

The line chart above illustrates the relationship of mass flow and exergy efficiency of the

system running on R1234yf. The system achieved optimal condition when the refrigerant mass
 115

flow was 0.01 kg/s The exergy efficiency attained at this condition was 0.3127. The exergy

efficiency values drop at the mass flow was increased.

5.5 Energy and Exergy Analyses Interpretation and Model Selection

Now that the optimal performance of the refrigeration system for each model setup was

obtained through refrigerant charge test, the model setups can be analyzed side-by-side. To recall,

refrigerants R22, R134A, R404A, R407C, and R1234yf, attained optimal condition in accordance

with their coefficient of performances at refrigerant mass flow 0.02 kg/s (or 0.04 kg/s), 0.01 kg/s,

0.02 kg/s, 0.03 kg/s, and 0.01 kg/s respectively.

COP at Optimal Refrigerant Charges

2.5
2.17
2 1.90
1.63
1.47
1.5
1.12
1

0.5

R22 R134A R404A R407C R1234yf

Figure 5.13 COP of the VCR at Optimal Refrigerant Charge

The chart above summarizes the attained coefficient of performances of each setup at their

optimal conditions. As seen in the figure, R1234yf has the lowest value of coefficient of

performance, which is 1.12. This is followed by R404A which has a value of 1.47. Next, R134A

obtained a coefficient of performance of 1.63. Then, R22 has a value of 1.90. Finally, it was

observed that R407C achieved the best coefficient of performance, with a value of 2.1698. This

means that the system running on R407C has the best performance considering its evaporator
 116

capacity and compressor work. Based on this, R407C is already a candidate for the selection of

the most efficient system.

Exergy Efficiency at Optimal Refrigerant

Charges
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

R22 R134A R404A R407C R1234yf

Figure 5.14 Exergy Efficiency of the VCR at Optimal Refrigerant Charge

Looking at the results of the energy analysis and the exergy analysis, it is evident that their

trends when mass flow is varied are similar. This is probably because the exergy efficiency is

somehow dependent on the coefficient of performance of the system. Shown in the graph above is

the exergy efficiency of each setup at their optimal refrigerant mass flow. Similar to the results

from the energy analysis, R1234yf obtained the lowest value for exergy efficiency which is 0.3127.

This is then followed by R134A which has an exergy efficiency of 0.4709. Next, R404A is ahead

with a value of 0.4974. In this case, the setup with the highest exergy efficiency is the one which

runs on R407C. The setup which runs on R22 is second. Thus, the setup of R407C was chosen

because of its efficient performance both from energy and exergy analyses.
 117

Exergy Destroyed in Components with R407C

1000

Exergy Destroyed (W)

800

600

400

200

0
Compressor Condenser Expansion Valve Evaporator

Compressor Condenser Expansion Valve Evaporator

Figure 5.15 Exergy Destruction in R407C VCR Components

The next parameter to be analyzed in the exergy analysis is the exergy destruction in every

component of the system. This parameter refers to the exergy destroyed in the system caused by

irreversibility. The figure above reports on the exergy destruction in every component at the

optimum R407C setup. It is evident that there is least exergy destroyed in the expansion valve.

Next, the evaporator has a value of 333.69 W for its exergy destroyed. The condenser, on the other

hand, has 669.16 W if exergy destroyed. The compressor of the refrigeration system achieved the

highest exergy destroyed. This means that this component also has the greatest amount of

efficiency defects.

5.6 VCR Cold Storage Optimization

After the energy analysis was conducted, it was discovered that the R407C system had a

greater value of COP and exergy efficiency than that of the other systems. However, its exergy

efficiency does not fall far from that of R22. There is only a 4.8 percent difference between the

two values. Because of that, optimization of the R407C system is beneficial to raise its

performance to prove its spot for replacing R22.

 118

As mentioned, the exergy analysis was the basis of the optimization process, since the

system focused on, lacks in exergy efficiency. The approach made in deciding the optimization

process is by analysing the exergy destruction in each component. Based on the results, the

compressor had the greatest exergy destruction and efficiency defects. This means that the greatest

amount of resource degradation occurs in the compressor. Thus, the researchers incorporated two-

stage compression to maximize the evaporating capacity while maintaining the compressor work.

When these parameters achieve this condition, the coefficient of performance will increase,

therefore increasing the exergy efficiency as well. Take note that the exergy efficiency is

dependent on the coefficient of performance.

Figure 5.16 Two-Stage Vapor Compression Refrigeration System DWSIM Model

 119

The principle of a two-stage vapor compression cycle is similar as having two separate

simple VCRs combined. However, in this cycle, there is only one evaporator and one condenser

but two compressors. The first compressor is considered the low-pressure side, while the second

one is the high-pressure side. With the existing experimental model, a high-pressure side

compressor was added into the system, along with a flash tank and mixing chamber. The two-stage

vapor compression cycle was modelled once again in DWSIM. Each component has its own

respective block. This can be seen in the figure above.

Figure 5.17 Danfoss High-Pressure Side Compressor

The compressor specifications are based on a compressor model manufactured by Danfoss.

This specific model, seen in the figure above, was chosen because it fits the pressure requirements

considering the primary compressor. MTZ100-4VI is a reciprocating compressor which can

accommodate refrigerants such as R134A, R404A, R407C, and many more. Listed on the table

below are some of its specifications.

 120

Table 5.1 Compressor Unit Specifications

Product Details Values

Brand Technique Reciprocating Compressor
Refrigerant Charge (Max) 10 kg
High Side Max Pressure 29.4 bar
High Side TS Max 150ºC
Low Side Max Pressure 22.6 bar
Low Side TS Max 50ºC
Compressor Efficiency 80.8%

COP and Exergy Efficiencies of VCR Setups

2.5 2.17
1.9 1.85
2

1.5

1 0.81 0.85 0.77

0.5

0
R22 Simple VCR Setup R407C Simple VCR Setup R407C Two-Stage VCR
Setup

COP Exergy Efficiency

Figure 5.18 COP and Exergy Efficiencies of VCR Setups

As mentioned, the selected compressor model was incorporated into the R407C system.

The Danfoss compressor is now known as Compressor 2 or the High-Side Compressor. The

original system components were not modified nor replaced. In this optimization, a second

compressor is only inserted into the cycle. The maximum discharge pressure was considered when

incorporated into the system. The suction pressure was based on the discharge pressure of the

original compressor. As seen in the chart above, the initial optimization through incorporating two-

stage was not successful. It is evident that the coefficient of performance of the R407C Two-Stage

Setup underperformed below the other two setups.

 121

Since the initial optimization was not successful, further adjustments were made. It was

discovered that the temperature lift (difference between condensing and evaporating temperature)

significantly became higher. As mentioned, the goal of applying two-stage compression into a

vapor compression refrigeration system is to minimize the temperature lift. To minimize this, the

optimal intermediate pressure is to be computed. Given the equation below, the optimal

intermediate pressure was determined and incorporated into the system.

𝑃𝑖 = √𝑃𝑒 𝑃𝑐 (5.1)

Provided with the values of each parameter, the optimal intermediate pressure was 11.43 bar.

COP and Exergy Efficiencies of VCR Setups

2.5 2.33
2.17
1.9
2

1.5
0.81 0.85 0.88
1

0.5

0
R22 Simple VCR Setup R407C Simple VCR Setup R407C Two-Stage VCR
Setup w/ Optimum
Intermediate Pressure

COP Exergy Efficiency

Figure 5.19 COP and Exergy Efficiencies of VCR Setups Including Optimized Setup

The chart above presents the comparison of the VCR setups in terms of their coefficient of

performance and exergy efficiency. Now that the Two-Stage VCR Setup incorporated its optimal

intermediate pressure, the results have significantly changed. It is evident that the coefficient of

performance increased and exceeded the R407C Simple VCR Setup. The same goes for its exergy

efficiency. This case occurred so because the temperature lift decreased.

 Chapter 6

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This chapter provides a response to the objectives of the study. In addition to that, this

section provides other ideas and concepts that may be undertaken by future researchers interested

in the topic.

6.1 Conclusion

The main objective of this study is to assess the performance of five refrigerants through

their application in a cold storage unit vapor compression refrigeration system. The purpose of this

is to find the best performing alternative refrigerant to replace the conventional ones. The

researchers met the objectives after executing the methodology and interpreting the data.

The researchers modelled a simple vapor compression refrigeration system for a cold

storage unit in the simulation software, DWSIM. The VCR model consists of four main

components, namely the compressor, condenser, expansion valve, and evaporator. In the software,

each component had its respective block. The model was based on a study by Alves et al. (2014).

The researchers recreated the actual model into the software and achieved similar results in terms

of performance.

Energy analysis was conducted on refrigerants R22, R134A, R404A, R407C, and R1234yf.

In the analysis, the temperature, pressure, and other parameters were measured by the software. In

addition to that, the heat absorbed, heat rejected, and compressor work were obtained as output.

These parameters were necessary for the computation of the coefficient of performance, which is

the basis of the system performance. From the results, it was discovered that R407C performed

best among the other refrigerants, at their optimal condition.

122
 123

Afterwards, exergy analysis was conducted to evaluate the exergy efficiency of the

refrigeration system. In terms of exergy efficiency, it was observed that R407C, again, performed

best when it comes to this aspect. Thus, R407C was the selected refrigerant to replace R22 in the

refrigeration system. Aside from its exemplary system performance, this refrigerant is also one of

the frontrunners when it comes to environmental impact. R407C has 0 ODP and a GWP of 1770.

Another aspect which exergy analysis covered was the exergy destroyed in each component of the

refrigeration system. From the results, it was discovered that the compressor had the most exergy

destruction in the system.

Since the performance of R407C in the refrigeration system is not significantly higher than

that of R22, the system was further improved. In the optimization process, the simple vapor

compression refrigeration cycle was modified to a two-stage vapor compression refrigeration

cycle. By adding a second compressor, along with a flash intercooler and mixing chamber, to the

cycle, the temperature lift was minimized. The optimal intermediate pressure was calculated to

achieve the optimal system performance. Therefore, both the coefficient of performance and

exergy efficiency of the system improved after optimization. This proves that R407C is fit to be

the replacement of the conventional refrigerant because of its good performance and efficiency.

6.1 Recommendation

In this study, the experimental procedure was conducted through a simulation software

called DWSIM. There are some factors and parameters which may affect the performance of the

refrigeration system, that cannot be taken into consideration in the simulation software. Although

the simulation software used is reliable, the researchers recommend utilizing an actual refrigeration

system for the study. This is to gather more precise data by considering outside factors and obtain
 124

tangible results. Otherwise, the experiment may be conducted by dynamic simulation to allow

process control strategies. This is to observe the refrigeration system with respect to time.

In the optimization process, the pressure charge of the selected compressor model was

assumed as its maximum pressure. The researchers suggest conducting several trials for the setup

at various discharge pressures in which the model is capable of. This is to find the optimum

condition of the two-stage vapor compression refrigeration system. The optimization process in

this study only adapted two stages of compression. It is suggested that future researchers explore

adding more stages into the refrigeration system.

The optimization process focused on adding another stage into the compression process.

In this matter, the other components were not changed nor configured differently. The researchers

recommend component optimization. This is to bring out the full potential of the refrigerant’s

performance in a refrigeration system. This will also reduce the total amount of exergy destruction

in the system.
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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A
GANTT CHART

128
 129

APPENDIX B
BUDGET PROPOSAL

Table B-1 Proposed Budget for Research

Quantity Equipment Parameters Price

1 Laptop For simulation PHP 42,996
Specs:
OS: Windows 10
Processor: Ryzen 5 2500 U
Memory: 8 GB
Hard drive 1: 931.51 GB, Toshiba
Hard drive 2: 119.24 GB (SSD)
Graphics device 1: Radeon RX 560X Series
Graphics device 2: AMD Radeon (TM) Vega 8
 130

APPENDIX C
NOMENCLATURE

𝐴 Surface area
𝐶𝑂𝑃 Coefficient of performance
𝐸̇ 𝑥 Exergy flow
𝑒𝑥𝑖 Specific exergy of a state point
ℎ𝑖 Enthalpy values of a state point
𝐿̇𝑐𝑝 Compressor power input
𝑚̇ Mass flow rate
𝑄 Thermal power exchanged
𝑠𝑖 Entropy values of a state point
𝑇 Temperature
𝑇0 Environmental temperature
𝑈 U value of insulation
𝑉 Volume
𝑣 Specific volume
Greek Symbols
𝛿𝑖 Efficiency defect
𝜂 Efficiency
𝜏 Dimensionless exergy temperature
Subscripts
𝑎𝑚𝑏 Ambient
𝑐𝑜 Condenser
𝑐𝑝 Compressor
𝑑𝑒𝑠 Destroyed
𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 Entering product
𝑒𝑣 Evaporator
𝑒𝑥 Exergetic
𝑖𝑛 Inlet
𝑜𝑢𝑡 Outlet
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡, 𝑒𝑥 Product exchange
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡, 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝 Product respiration
𝑟𝑒𝑓 Refrigerant fluid
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝 Respiration heat
𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚 Room/Cold Storage
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 Transmission load
𝑣𝑎 Valve
 131

APPENDIX D
COOLING LOAD CALCULATIONS
Transmission Load
𝑊
𝑄𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 0.23 × (157.0901) 𝑚2 × (21.75 − −3) × 24/1000 = 21.46165 𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚2−𝐾
𝑊
𝑄𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 0.23 × (45.2501) 𝑚2 × (12 − −3) × 24/1000 = 3.746708 𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚2 −𝐾
Total:
𝑄𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 21.46165 + 3.746708 = 25.20836 𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Product Load
𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡,𝑒𝑥 = 200 𝑘𝑔 × 3.17 × (−0.8 − −3)°𝐶/3600 = 0.387444 𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑘𝑔 − º𝐶
𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡,𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝 = 200 𝑘𝑔 × 0.000206 /3600 = 1.14𝐸 − 05 𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑘𝑔
𝑄𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 0.387444 + 1.14𝐸 − 05 = 0.387456 𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦

Internal Load
𝑊
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡,𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 = 1 × 0.4 ℎ𝑟 × 50 /1000 = 0.02 𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦
ℎ𝑟
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡,𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 4 × 0.4 ℎ𝑟 × 400 𝑊/1000 = 0.64 𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0.02 + 0.64 = 0.66 𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦

Equipment Load
𝑄𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝 = 2 × 6 ℎ𝑟 × 316 𝑊/1000 = 3.792 𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦

Air Infiltration Load

𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑓 = 3 × 181.004 𝑚3 × 2 × (21.75 − −3)°𝐶/3600 = 7.466267 𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚3 − °𝐶
Total Cooling Load
𝑘𝑊ℎ
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 25.21 + 0.39 + 0.66 + 3.79 + 7.47 = 37.51 × 1.1 = 41.26549 𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑎𝑦
Refrigeration Cooling Capacity
𝑘𝑊ℎ
𝑄𝐸 = 41.26549 × 13.75 ℎ𝑟 = 3.001126 𝑘𝑊
𝑑𝑎𝑦
 132

APPENDIX E
EXERGY CALCULATIONS
Exergy Flow in each point:
𝑒𝑥 = ℎ𝑖 − ℎ0 − 𝑇0 (𝑠𝑖 − 𝑠0 )
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑒𝑥1 = 705.9 − 226.05 − 294.75 𝐾 (1.762 − 1.0911 ) = 282.12
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑒𝑥2 = 779 − 226.05 − 294.75 𝐾 (1.85 − 1.0911 ) = 329.28
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑒𝑥3 = 568.4 − 226.05 − 294.75 𝐾 (1.223 − 1.0911 ) = 303.49
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑒𝑥4 = 568.4 − 226.05 − 294.75 𝐾 (1.223 − 1.0911 ) = 294.65
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾 𝑘𝑔

Exergy Destruction in Compressor:

𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑐𝑝 = 𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑛,𝑐𝑝 − 𝑒𝑥𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑐𝑝 ) + 𝐿̇𝑐𝑝
𝑘𝑔 J J
𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑐𝑝 = 0.024 (282118 − 329280 ) + 1810 𝑊 = 678.112 𝑊
𝑠 kg kg

Exergy Destruction in Condenser:

𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑐𝑜 = 𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑛,𝑐𝑜 − 𝑒𝑥𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑐𝑜 ) − 𝑄̇𝑐𝑜 𝜏𝑐𝑜

𝑘𝑔 J J
𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑐𝑜 = 0.024 (329280 − 303489 ) − 4740 𝑊 (0) = 619.002 𝑊
𝑠 kg kg

Exergy Destruction in Expansion Valve:

𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑣𝑎 = 𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑛,𝑣𝑎 − 𝑒𝑥𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑣𝑎 )

𝑘𝑔 J J
𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑣𝑎 = 0.024 (303489 − 294646 ) = 212.22 𝑊
𝑠 kg kg

Exergy Destruction in Evaporator:

 133

𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑒𝑣 = 𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑛,𝑒𝑣 − 𝑒𝑥𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑒𝑣 ) − 𝑄̇𝑒𝑣 |𝜏𝑒𝑣 |

𝑘𝑔 J J
𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑒𝑣 = 0.024 (294646 − 282118 ) − 2930 𝑊|0| = 300.666 𝑊
𝑠 kg kg

Efficiency Defect:

𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑖
𝛿𝑖 =
𝐿̇𝑐𝑝

Compressor:

𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑖 678.112 𝑊
𝛿𝑖 = = = 0.374648 = 37.46%
𝐿̇𝑐𝑝 1810 𝑊

Condenser:

𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑖 619.002 𝑊
𝛿𝑖 = = = 0.34199 = 34.2%
𝐿̇𝑐𝑝 1810 𝑊

Expansion Valve:

𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑖 212.22 𝑊
𝛿𝑖 = = = 0.117249 = 11.72%
𝐿̇𝑐𝑝 1810 𝑊

Evaporator:

𝐸̇ 𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠,𝑖 300.666 𝑊
𝛿𝑖 = = 0.166114 = 16.61%
𝐿̇𝑐𝑝 1810 𝑊
 134

APPENDIX F
COMPRESSOR UNIT