KP GATE CLASSES, NEW DELHI - INDIA’S No. 1 Architecture COACHIN Contents CHAPTER 1, ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES ..ecsnnonsnoninn anidonsantisorael LL ECOSYSTEMS. ns enn 2 1.1.1 COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM... 1.1.2 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS . 1.1.3 TERMINOLOGY OF ECOSYSTEMS .. 1.14 BIOSPHERE RESERVES IN INDIA.... 7 a 12 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION y 12.1 GLOBAL WARMING ee &... fhm 122 OZONE DEPLETION 1.2.3 WATER POLLUTION. 124 AIR POLLUTION.... 125 LIGHT POLLUTION... 126 NOISE POLLUTION 12.7 URBAN HEAT ISLAND. \ 13 13 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT, 13.1 WHATISE.LA? 13.2 ELAININDIA. 14 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT... oo vse 14.1 TERMINOLOGY RELATED 10 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT .scssossssoe 17 142 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS. 15 NATURAL RESOURCES. cone 15.1 CLASSIFICATIONBASED ON ORIGIN 15.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT....... 15.3. CLASSIFIGATION BASED ON RENEWABILITY/EXHAUSTIBILITY...... 154 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON OWNERSHIP... 1.6 _ DISASTER MANAGEMENT. 1.6.1) DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA 1.6.2 \STAGES IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT. 3 1.6.3" EARTHQUAKE ZONES IN INDIA 164 EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT BUILDINGS..... 1.7 CLIMATE RESPONSIVE DESIGN...... 1.7.1 CLIMATIC ZONES OF INDIA .. en ssemenennnnnnnnnn 17.2 CLIMATIC RESPONSIVE DESIGN 30 L8 BUILDING RATING SYSTEMS. 18.1 CONCEPT OF GREEN BUILDIN 18.2 GREEN BUILDING STRATEGIES ... KP GATE Classes, New Delhi | Coaching for GATE & Other Recruitment Tests in Architecture & Planning.KP GATE CLASSES, NEW DELHI - INDIA’S No. 1 Architecture COACHING 183 184 185 18.6 19 CHAPTER 2, — SURVEYING & LEVELLING... 2d 211 212 213 2.14 2.1.5 2.1.6 27 218 22 2.2.1 2.2.2 23 23.1 23.2 233 234 23.5 24 VARIOUS BUILDING RATING SYSTEMS ... GRIHA LEED ECBC..... PRACTICE QUESTIONS (CHAPTER 1)... SURVEYING... INTRODUCTION .... BASIC PRINCIPLI LASSIFICATION CHAIN SURVEYING COMPASS TRAVERSING... ERRORS IN CHAIN SURVEYING. CORRECTIONS IN CHAIN SURVEYING... PLANE TABLE SURVEYING ...c.c000 RADIATION, INTERSECTION, & TRAVERSING.. LEVELLING DESCRIPTION OF LEVEL INSTRUMENTS,. SIMPLE LEVELLING AND FLY LEVELLING METHODS CONTOURS... INTRODUCTION STUDY OF LANDFORMS, COMPUTATION OF AREA & VOLUME. ‘THEODOLITE — DESCRIPTION & TRAVERSING...... INTRODUCTION TO.SETTING OF CURVES .. PRACTICBQUESTIONS (CHAPTER 2).. 38 38 41 44 46 102 110 19) 12S ii KP.GATE Classes, New Delhi | Coaching for GATE & Other Recruitment Tests in Architecture & PlanningKP GATE CLASSES, NEW DELHI - INDL No. 1 Architecture COACHING CHAPTER1. . ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES CHAPTER 1: ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES.KP GATE CLASSES, NEW DELHI DIA’S No. 1 Architecture COACHING 1.1, ECOSYSTEMS Ecology is a branch of biology concerning the spatial and temporal patterns of the distribution and abundance of organisms, including the causes and consequences. Topics of interest include the biodiversity, distribution, biomass, and populations of organisms, as well as cooperation and competition within and between species ‘An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the non-living components of their environment, interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the system through photosynthesis"tind is incorporated into plant tissue. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an importantrole in the movement of matter and energy through the system. Ecosystems are controlled by external and internal factors. External factors such “as, climate, parent material which forms the soil and topography, control the overall structure of anveeosystem bufare not themselves influenced by the ecosystem. Unlike external factors, internal factors are conffolled, for example, decomposition, root competition, shading, disturbance, succession, aiid the types of species present. 1.1.1 COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation™@f both biotic and abiotic components. This includes the distribution of energy injour environment. It also includes the climatic conditions prevailing in that environment. ‘The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely: (i) Biotic Components and (ii) Abiotic Components The biotic and abiotic components are jfterrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system where the energy and components can flow throtighouttthe boundaries. 0 tes ey ee} De ey ed Gouin) Seated (Sec. Carnivores) Eee (Pri, Carnivores) Biotic Components Biotic components refer to all life in an ecosystem, Based on nuttition, biotic components can be categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or dccomposers). 2 CHAPTER 1: ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES.KP GATE CLASSES, NEW DELHI DIA’S No. 1 Architecture COACHIN' Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food. Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food. Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers. Primary consumers are always herbivores that they rely on producers for food. Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can cither be a carnivore or an omnivore. Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food. ‘Tertiary c6tSimers can also be an omnivore. Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey.on,tertidry consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food chain as they hayé no natural predators. Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria, They direetly thrive on the dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem asethey"help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants. Abiotic Components Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water, soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc. 1.1.2 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis ima desert, Ghas’big as an ocean, spanning thousands of miles, There are two types of ecosystem: - Terrestrial Ecosystem = Aquatic Ecosystem Terrestrial Ecosystems Terrestrial ecosystesfif"are exélusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed afbund various geological zones. They are as follows - Forest Ecodystems = (Grassland Ecosystems = “Tindra Ecosystems SeeDesert Ecosystem Forest Ecosystem ‘A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink. Grassland Ecosystem In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate grasslands, savannah grasslands are some of the examples of grassland ecosystems 3 CHAPTER 1: ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES.KP GATE CLASSES, NEW DELHI DIA’S No. 1 Architecture COACH ‘Tundra Ecosystem ‘Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is searce. These are covered with snow for most of the year. The ecosystem in the Aretie or mountain tops is tundra type Desert Ecosystem Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with very little rainfall. The da the nights are cold, Aquatic Ecosystem Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided int6'two) types, namely ~ Freshwater Ecosystem = Marine Ecosystem Freshwater Ecosystem The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes#Ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine/ecosystem, Marine Ecosystem ‘The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These haye a more Substantial salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosyst@A 11.3 TERMINOLOGY OF ECOSYSTEMS Ecosystem Services: This is the technigal term for the benefits that humans and other living things get from ecosystems. These services aré.in four groups: Supporting Services, Provisioning Services, Regulating Services, and Cultural’Services, Adaptation: An adaptation is how aimanimal’s body helps it survive, or live, in its environment. A good example is a polar bear. Its White fur helps it to camouflage, so its prey cannot sec it. Its Thick fur also provides the warmth to help)it suf¥ive in its frozen environment. ‘Symbiosis: Relationship in which two species live closely together, usually benefiting from each other. There are three types of symbiotic relationship: 1. Parasitism: parastt'6Gnefits, but the host is hurt. 2, Commensalism: one species benefit, the other is neither hurt nor helped, 3. Mutualism: both species benefit Habitat!*The place where a particular population (¢.g., human, animal, plant, microorganism) lives and its Surroundings, For example, the anaconda snake lives in water and thrives very well there. Abiotic: Physical, or non-living, factors that shape an ecosystem, Examples include rocks, climate, pressure, soils, precipitation, sunlight, winds, and humidity. These abiotic have a direct influence on living things. Biotic: Living factors sueh as plants, animals, fungi, protists, and bacteria are all biotic or living factors Biotic factors depend on abiotic factors to survive. The kind of biotic factors (living organisms) in each area is often as a result of abiotic conditions of that area. 4 CHAPTER 1: ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES.KP GATE CLASSES, NEW DELHI - INDIA’S No. 1 Architecture COACHING Biotic Factors Abiotic Ciiiztas = ©) w Ec) 5 Food Web: The complex feeding network occurring within and between food chains in an ecosystem, whereby members of one food chain may belong to one otmore other food chains. bacteria) Plankton: Microscopic plants and animals that live in water. MicroEcosystem: It is a small scale ecosystem such as a pond, puddle, tree trunk, under a rock, ete. ‘Mésso Ecosystem: It is a medium seale ecosystem such as a forest or a large lake. Biome-Ecosystem: It is a large ecosystem or collection of ecosystems with similar biotic and abiotic faetors such as an entire rainforest with millions of animals and trees, with many different water bodies running through them. Ecotone: Ecosystem boundaries are not marked (separated) by rigid lines. They are often separated by geographical barriers such as deserts, mountains, oceans, lakes, and rivers. As these borders are never rigid, ecosystems tend to blend into each other. That is why a lake can have many small ecosystems with their own unique characteristics. Scientists call this blending “ecotone” Biosphere: When we consider all the different biomes, each blending into the other, with all humans living in many different geographie areas, we form a huge community of humans, animals and plants, 5 CHAPTER 1: ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES.KP GATE CLASSES, NEW DELHI - INDIA’S No. 1 Architecture COACHING and micro-organisms in their defined habitats. A biosphere is the sum of all the ecosystems established on planet Earth. It is the living (and decaying) component of the earth system, Detrivores: When an organism dies, detrivores (like vultures, worms, and crabs) eat them up, The rest is broken down by decomposers Resistance is the ability for an ecosystem to remain unchanged when being subjected to a disturbance or disturbances. Some ecosystems are better at resisting change than others, and therefore have high resistance, Resilience is the ability and rate of an ecosystem to recover from a disturbance and return 19H pre- disturbed state, Some ecosystems can shift greatly from their previous state and still retumm toypfe disturbance conditions. The measure for how far an ecosystem can be shifted from itsiprevious stale and still return to normal is called its amplitude, Both resistance and resilience are components of determining ecosystem stabili at the community, population, and individual level. An ecosystem can faves, reSistance to disturbance, but low resilience, and vice versa, Low resistance can sometimes be advantageous, such as in ecosystems that rely on natural disturbances to temporarily chaiige theis, cOWditions in order to remain stable over the long term, Ecosystem homeostasis is equilibrium, or a balance of the organistfisinan €osystem. This means the populations of species in the ecosystem are relatively stable. Overtime, these populations will change, but in the short term, they should move up and down ineycles around an average value. 1.1.4 BIOSPHERE RESERVES IN INDIA Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal or utarine ecosystems or its amalgamation, The biosphere reserve network was launched 1971 by UNESCO, two years after the initiation of MAB- Man and the biosphere program. TheGovemment of India established 18 biospheres in the country (categories generally relating to IUEN Gatévory W Protected areas). The first biosphere reserve ofithe World waW"established in 1979. According to UNESCO, as of July 2021, there are 714 Biosphere resefyes across 129 countries in the world which also include 21 transboundary sites Each biosphere resérve isisupposed to fulfil three harmonizing functions: 1. Conservation function; fo conserve genetic resources, species, ecosystems, and landscapes Development fuéti6h: to promote sustainable human and economic development. 3. Lidgistic Support function: to provide support for research and analysing the issues of conservation ‘and sustainable development. Biosphere, serves have three unified zones that aim to fulfil three harmonizing and mutually reinforcing functions: 1, The core area: It involves an entirely secured and protected ecosystem that contributes to the preservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species, and genetic variation. 2. The buffer zone: It encompasses or adjoins the core areas. It is utilized for activities compatible with sound ecological practices that can fortify scientific research, monitoring, training, and education. 3. The transition area: It is the part of the reserve where the greatest activity is permitted to promote economic and human development that is sustainable 6 CHAPTER 1: ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES.KP GATE CLASSES, NEW DELHI - INDIA’S No. 1 Architecture COACHING © Core area © Butter zone (© Transition area ‘Human settlements © Research station @ Monitoring 1B Education 1 oy oere LIST OF BIOSPHERE RESERVES IN INDIA Biosphere reserves are announced by the state or central governments by can nominate them under the UNESCO's Man and Biospher establishment as a biosphere reserve. There are 18 biosphere reserves i No. | Name of Biosphere | Year of Reserve Notification 1 | Nilo 1986, 2 | Nanda Devi 1988 (Uttarakhand). 3_| Nokrek Part of Garo Hills (Meghalaya) 4 | Great Nicobar (989 luthernmost islands of Andaman And Nicobar (A&N Islands). 5 | Gulf of Mannar 1 ‘The Indian part of the Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka (Tamil Nadu). 6 | Manas’ 1989 | Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamprup, and Darang districts (Assam). 7 | Sunderban 1989 | Part of the delta of Ganges and Brahmaputra river system (West Bengal). 8 ql 1994 _| Part of the Mayurbhanj district (Orissa). -Saikhowa 1997 __| Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Districts (Assam), ehafig-Dibang 1998 _| Part of Siang and Dibang Valley in Arunachal Pradesh, Pachmarhi 1999 | Parts of Betul, Hoshangabad, and Chindwara districts of Madhya Pradesh. 12_| Khangchendzonga 2000 _| Parts of Khangchendzonga hills and Sikkim. 13 | Agasthyamalai 2001 ‘| Neyyar, Peppara, and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries and their adjoining areas in Kerala. 14 | Achanakamar 2005 | Covers parts of Anupur and Dindori districts of M.P. and ‘Amarkantak parts of Bilaspur districts of Chhattishgarh State, 18 | Kachehh 2008 | Part of Kachchh, Rajkot, Surendra Nagar, and Patan Civil Districts of Gujarat Stat. 7 CHAPTER 1: ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES.KP GATE CLASSES, NEW DELHI - INDIA’S No. 1 Architecture COACHING 16 | Cold Desert 2009 | Pin Valley National Park and surroundings; Chandratal and Sarchu & Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh, 17_| Seshachalam Hills 2010 _| Seshachalam Hill Ranges covering parts of Chittoor and Kadapa districts of Andhra Pradesh. 18_| Panna 2011 | Partof Panna and Chhattarpur districts in Madhya Pradesh, UNESCO PROTECTED BIOSPHERE RESERVES — INTERNATIONAL STATUS Panna Biosphere Reserve was also given the intemational status of UNESCO Protected Biosphere Reserve in the year 2020, and prior to that, the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve from IWafa was also included in this list in 2018. With the addition of the two Biosphere Reserves, 12 of the 18 biosphere reseryosin thg{countt have become part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves which is based on thé UNESCO'Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme list. ‘The UNESCO Protected Biosphere Reserves list in India are given belOw: YEAR NAME STATES: 2000 | Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Temi Nadu 2001 | Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Tamil Nadu 2001 | Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve West Bengal 2004 | Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve Uttarakhand 2009 | Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve) Madhya Pradesh 2009 | Nokrek Biosphere Reserve Meghalaya 2009 | Simlipal Biosphere Reserve ‘Odisha 2012 | Achanakmar-Amarkantakipiosphere Reserve Chhattisgarh 2013 | Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve Great Nicobar 2016 | Agastfivamala Biosphere Reserve Kerala and Tamil Nadu 2018 _ | Kanchéhjunga Biosphere Reserve Part of North and , West Sikkim districts 2020, 4) Panna Biosphere Reserve ‘Madhya Pradesh 8 CHAPTER 1: ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES.KP GATE CLASSES, NEW DELHI - INDIA’S No. 1 Architecture COACHING 1.2. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environment that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or that damage the environment, which can come in the form of chemical substances, or energy such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants can be naturally occurring substances or energies but are considered contaminants when in excess of natural levels, Environmental pollution takes place when the environment cannot process and neutralize harmful by- products of human activities (poisonous gas emissions) in due course without any structural or functional damage to its system. Pollution occurs, on the one hand, becaus the natural environment does not know how to deeorfipose) the unnaturally generated elements (i.e. anthropogenic pollutants), and, on the other, there is a lack,of knowledge on the part of humans on how to decompose these pollutants arti 1.2.1 GLOBAL WARMING sally Global warming is a term used for the observed century-scale rise in th€"average texfperature of the Earth's climate system and its related effects. Within the earth's atmosphereyaeumula enhouse gases like water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and OZone are the gases within the atmospher r déeréasing affolints of greenhouse gases within the atmosphere act to either hold in or release more of the heat frofirthe sun, ¢ that absorb and emit heat radiation. Incr Our atmosphere is getting hotter, more turbulent, and rire unpredigtable because of the “boiling and churning” effect caused by the heat-trapping greehhouse, gases within the upper layers of our atmosphere. With each inerease of earbon, methane, or other gféenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere, our local weather and global climate is further agitated, heated, and “boiled. + Greenhouse effect + Natural calamities + Slow tilting of Earth's axis + Respiration Pare mln Ui + Rapid industrialization eel me The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted and opened for signatures in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, at the UN Conference on Environment and Development, also known as the Earth Summit. 154 signatories to the UNFCCC agreed to stabilize "greenhouse concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous interference with the climate system. On December 11, the Kyoto Protocol was adopted by consensus with more than 150 signatories. The Protocol included legally binding emissions targets for developed country Parties for the six major GHGs, which are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulphur hexafluoride. 9 CHAPTER 1: ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES.KP GATE CLASSES, NEW DELHI - INDIA’S No. 1 Architecture COACHING Paris Agreement, in full Paris Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, also called Paris Climate Agreement or COP2I, international treaty, named for the city of Paris, France, in which it was adopted in December 2015, which aimed to reduce the emission of gases that contribute to global warming. The Paris Agreement set out to improve upon and replace the Kyoto Protocol, an earlier international treaty designed to curb the release of greenhouse gases. It entered into foree on November 4, 2016, and has been signed by 194 countries and ratified by 188 as of November 2020. 1.2.2 OZONE DEPLETION Ozone depletion consists of two related events observed since the late 1970s: a steady lowering” 6f, about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth's atmosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's Polar Regions. The latter phenoriéfion is referred to as the ozone hole, There are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events in addition to these stratospheric events. The main cause of ozone depletion and the ozone hole is manufactured” themicals, especially manufactured halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and _.foaim-blowing agents (chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HCFCs, halons), and referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS). ‘These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by turbulentnixingafter being emitted from the surface, mixing much faster than the molecules ean settle. Once in the stfatosphere, they release halogen ‘atoms through photo-dissociation, which catalyse the breakdown offzone (Os) into oxygen (02). Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as eftissions of ialocarbons increased, Ozone depletion and the ozone hole have generated worldwide eéncern over increased cancer risks and other negative effects. The ozone layer prevents most hafinful wavelengths of ultraviolet (UV) light from passing through the Earth's atmosphere. Thesé wavelengths cause skin cancer, sunburn, permanent blindness, and cataracts, which were projected to increase dramatically as a result of thinning ozone, as well as harming plants and animals. qThese,¢oncerns led to the adoption of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, which bans the production of CF@s, halons and other ozone-depleting chemicals, ‘The ban came into effect in 1989, Ozone levels stabilized by the mid-1990s and began to recover in the 2000s, as the shifting of the,jet streamin the southern hemisphere towards the south pole has stopped and might even be reversing. Recovery is projected to continue over the next century, and the ozone hole is expected to reach pre=1980 levels by around 2075, 10 CHAPTER 1: ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES.