Chapter – 2

Scalars and vectors

Scalars:
The physical quantities which are represented by a number and units are called “Scalars”.
Those physical quantities which are expressed by a magnitude and proper unit are known
as Scalar or Scalar Quantity. There is no need of direction in Scalar Quantity. With the
help of simple algebra we can add, substract, multiply and divide the Scalar Quantities.
Examples:
Distance
Mass
Time
Volume
Energy
Density
Charge
Work
Calorie
Heat
Speed
Kinetic Energy
Frequency
Entropy
Power

Vectors:
The physical quantities which are represented by a number (magnitude), proper unit and
direction are called vectors.
Those physical quantities which are expressed by a magnitude and proper unit and
direction is also needed to mention is known as Vector or Vector Quantity.
For vector addition multiplication, substraction and division we used graphical method.
Examples:
Force
Displacement
Weight
Velocity
Acceleration
Momentum
Torque

A vector is represented graphically by a directed line segment or an arrow head line

segment AB. The tail end A is regarded as initial point of the vector and the head B is
regarded as terminal point of the vector.
Vectors are denoted by bold faced letters ABC and magnitudes are denoted by |A| , |B| ,
| C|.
Graphically a vector is represented by an arrow OP. the length of vector indicated the
magnitude and direction of arrow represents the direction of vector. The tail end O is the
origin or initial point and the head P is called the terminal or ending point.

Addition of vectors:
Consider two vectors A and B starting from a point O which we called origin, then if we
wants to add them we simply draw them from point O and as their resultant vector we get
a vector R, which is diagonal to the vector A and B.
Considering the vectors A and B as the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, if we complete
the parallelogram then the diagonal OC is called the resultant R of vectors A and B.
OA + OB = OC
A+B=R
OA + AC = OC
This is called Triangle law of vector addition only when we are considering the triangle
OAC.
But if we are considering the whole parallelogram, then we called it “Parallelogram Law
of Vector Addition”. In which we can say that:
OA + OB = OC
A+B=R
This method is also known as head to tail rule.

Analytical method of vector addition:

Two vectors can also be added analytically:
For example:
Using law of cosine to the triangle OAC, the magnitude of resultant is given as:
R = A2 + B2 – 2 (A) (B) Cos θ

Multiplication and division of a vector by a number:

Multiplication:
When a vector is multiplied by a number , the length of the line (magnitude) is multiplied
by the number. The direction remains same if the number is positive and direction
becomes opposited if the number is negative.

Divison of vectors:
When a vector is divided by a number , the length of the line (magnitude) is divided by
the number. The direction remains same if the number is positive and it becomes opposite
if the number is negative.

Different types of vectors:

There are four main types of vectors. They are:
Unit vector
Free vector
Position vector
Null vector.
 1. unit vector:
a unit vector is a vector, whose magnitude is 1. it is obtained by dividing a vector with its
own magnitude. To show a unit vector we place a cap or hat (^) over it. Like A^. to find
out a unit vector we just simply divide vector with magnitude of the vector.
For example:
A^ = A/ |A|
The magnitude of unit vector A is one and its direction is same as that of vector A.
In three dimensional co-ordinate system:
Unit vector in the positive x direction is denoted by i
Unit vector in the positive y direction is denoted by j
Unit vector in the positive z direction is denoted by k

2. free vector:
a vector which can be displaced parallel to itself is called a Free Vector.
For example: the velocity of a body undergoing uniform motion can be displaced parallel
to itself.

3. position vector:
The position of point P with respect to origin O is given by vector OP or vector R
(Resultant vector). The vector OP or vector R is called position vector.
If the co-ordinates of point P are (x, y, z) then:
R = xi + yj + zk
The magnitude of position vector r is given as:

|r| = x2 + y2 + z2

4. Null vector:
If two vectors having same magnitude but opposite direction are added then their
resultant vector is called Null vector or Zero vector. A Null vector has zero magnitude.

Properties of vector addition:

Vector addition obeys two laws. They are:
Commutative law.
Associative law

1. Commutative law:
Consider two vectors A and B as shown in figure. We have:
OA + AC = OC
A + B = R --------(i)
Again:
OB + BC = OC
B + A = R ---------(ii)
Right hand side of both eq (i) and (ii) are equal, therefore their left hand side must also be
equal. Hence:
A+B=B+A
This is called Commutative law of vector addition.

2. associative law:
consider three vectors A, B and C as shown in figure. We have:
OA + AC = OC
A + (B + C) = R ------------------(i)
Again:
OB + BC = OC
(A+B) + C = R --------------------(ii)
Right hand side of eq (i) and (ii) are equal, therefore their left hand side must also be
equal. Hence:
A +( B+C) = (A +B) +C
This is called Associative law).

The dot product:

If two vectors are multiplied and the answer (Result) is a Scalar, then the product is
called Scalar Product. In this product a dot ( · ) is placed between two vectors. This
product is also called Scalar product due to the resultant product and called Dot product
due to a placement of dot between them.
The unit vectors i, j and k are perpendicular to each other. Therefore:
i · i = 1 x 1 x Cos 0 = 1 x 1 x 1 = 1
j · j = 1 x 1 x Cos 0 = 1 x 1 x 1 = 1
k · k = 1 x 1 x Cos 0 = 1 x 1 x 1 = 1
i · j = 1 x 1 x Cos 90 = 1 x 1 x 0 = 0
j · k = 1 x 1 x Cos 90 = 1 x 1 x 0 = 0
k · i = 1 x 1 x Cos 90 = 1 x 1 x 0 = 0

the cross product:

if two vectors are multiplied and the answer (result) is also a vector, then the product is
called a Vector Product or Cross Product. In this product, a cross (x) is placed between
two vectors. Therefore this product is also called a Cross product.
Characteristics of Dot Product :
i x i = 1 x 1 x Sin 0 = 1 x 1 x 0 = 0
j x j = 1 x 1 x Sin 0 = 1 x 1 x 0 = 0
k x k = 1 x 1 x Sin 0 = 1 x 1 x 0 = 0
i x j = 1 x 1 x Sin 90 = 1 x 1 x 1 = k
j x k = 1 x 1 x Sin 90 = 1 x 1 x 1 = i
k x i = 1 x 1 x Sin 90 = 1 x 1 x 1 = j